Mirad Version 2

Introduction

Glojo, ha mir gonbeo yansauna gabyuxea dalyen. (Soon, the world will share a common auxiliary language.) Mirad, formerly known as Unilingua, is an artificially-constructed auxiliary language (conlang) developed and published by Paris-based author Noubar Agopoff as a serious medium for easy and logical international communication. Mirad, which means world speech, and is pronounced mee-RAHD, is categorized by constructed language experts as taxonomic, because its vocabulary is mapped letter-by-letter to a semantic ontology or thesaurus. Also, the wordstock of Mirad is considered a priori, meaning that there is no deliberate association with words or roots in existing natural languages. The vocabulary is from scratch, yet based on internal lexical and semantic rules that help the learner to construct and deconstruct derivations logically, mnemonically, and consistently. The author claims in his book Unilingua -- Langue universelle auxiliaire that this language is well-suited for universal, logical communication because it is based on principles already exploited globally by sciences like mathematics and chemistry, where symbolic formulas are constructed in accordance with strict rules and a limited sequence of symbols understood by all practitioners. Mirad is constructed on the following principles: Every vowel has numeric, vectorial, scalar, semantic, or grammatical value. Every consonant is meaningful either lexically or grammatically. Word derivation is systematic, consistent, analogical, and mnemonic. Words are as ontologically unambiguous as possible. Words are as short and as easy to pronounce as possible. Inflection and derivation of words is regular and predictable. Word opposites differ only in the stem vowel (iva = happy; uva = sad). This book contains Version 2 of the language with additions and modifications to the original. The principal changes are: The letter w was added to indicate the passive voice of verbs and to disambiguate numbers. The letter s was changed to sound like the s in English sun. The letter x was changed to sound like the sh in English show. The letter c was changed to sound like the ch in English chair. The letter h was added, mainly to create a systematic set of determiners like this, that, every. Grammatical cases were eliminated and replaced by prepositions. Some prepositions and conjunctions were changed or added. The definite article ha (the) was introduced. Much new vocabulary was added and some words were altered. The writing system now consists only of letters of the Roman alphabet, with no diacritics.

Phonology and Orthography

There is a direct, one-to-one correlation between Mirad sounds (phonology) and the way these sounds are written (orthography).

Alphabet

Mirad uses the Roman alphabet as English does, except that the letters Q and C are only used in foreign borrowings or attempts to spell foreign words or names. There is an upper case (majuscules or capital letters) and a lower case (miniscules or small letters). The upper case letters are used for capitalization exactly as in English. Mirad, at least for non-foreign words, uses no diacritic marks such as the breve, the grave accent, or the diairesis. The order of the alphabet is the same as in English.

UPPERCASE	A	B	C*	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N	O	P	Q*	R	S	T	U	V	W	X	Y	Z
LOWERCASE	a	b	c*	d	e	f	g	h	i	j	k	l	m	n	o	p	q*	r	s	t	u	v	w	x	y	z
NAME	a	ba	ca	da	e	fe	ge	he	i	ji	ki	li	mi	ni	o	po	ko	ro	so	to	u	vu	wu	xu	yu	zu

* Not used in "native" Mirad words.

Spelling a word means uttering the names in succession of the letters in the word. For example:

• Mirad → mi i ro a da
• anxwa → a ni xu wu a

The letters w and h have only limited, functional (non-semantic) values in Mirad.

The letters c (pronounced as ch in English chair) and q (pronounced variably, depending on the context) are used only to represent foreign words and names. For example, Ce is used to represent Che in Che Guevara.

The Mirad phonological system consists of 20 consonant phonemes (minimal significant sounds) and 5 vowel phonemes.

Consonants

There are 20 consonant phonemes.

Spoken

The following IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) chart shows the articulation of the consonant phonemes in Mirad:

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		/m/	/n/
Plosive	voiced	/b/	/d/		/g/
	unvoiced	/p/	/t/		/k/
Affricate	voiced
	unvoiced			(/t͡ʃ/)*
Fricative	voiced	/v/	/z/	/ʒ/
	unvoiced	/f/	/s/	/ʃ/		/h/
Approximate			/l/	/j/	/w/
Flap			/ɽ/

Note: /j/ and /w/ are glides. The plosives are unaspirated as in French and Spanish.

*  Used only in foreign words.

Written

The consonant graphemes (letters) in Mirad used to represent the above consonant phonemes are as follows:

PHONEME	/b/	/t͡ʃ/	/d/	/f/	/g/	/h/	/ʒ/	/k/	/l/	/m/	/n/	/p/	/ɽ/	/s/	/t/	/v/	/w/	/ʃ/	/j/	/z/
GRAPHEME	b	c	d	f	g	h	j	k	l	m	n	p	r	s	t	v	w	x	y	z

Pronunciation

• The letter x is pronounced like an sh in English.
• The letter h is never silent. It is used to form the determiners in Mirad and is also used to simulate foreign sounds like the ch in Yiddish lachayim (to life!), or German Bach.
• The letter j is pronounced like the Zh in Russian Zhivago.
• The letter s is always unvoiced as English ss and never sounds like a z.
• The letter g is always a hard sound as in English gap, not as in English wage.
• The letter c is used only in foreign words and represents the unvoiced affricate sound t͡ʃ like the ch in English church. For example, the Mirad name for China is Cinam.
• The letters in Mirad correspond one-to-one with phonemes. There are no cases of sounds being represented by paired consonant as in English ph, sh, ch, or th.
• The letter y is the consonant phoneme /j/ and is pronounced [j] like the y in English yes when it begins a syllable, but when it ends a syllable it is a phonetically the glide /ɪ/ as in the word bay = /bay/ = [baɪ], as in English bye.
• The unvoiced plosives p, t, and k are pronounced without the puff of breath that sometimes follows them in their English counterparts.
• The consonant w was not used before Version 2 of Mirad. It is now used to form the passive voice of verbs and certain numerical expressions. It is pronounced as English w or the ou in French oui. German speakers are cautioned not to confuse it with the German letter w, which is pronounced in a manner closer to an English v.

Here is a table showing the pronunciation of Mirad consonants:

CONSONANT	IPA	ARTICULATION	NEAREST EQUIVALENTS
b	b	unaspirated voiced bilabial plosive	French bon, English boy
c	tʃ	unvoiced palato-alveolar affricate	English child, Spanish chico (only used in foreign words)
d	d	unaspirated voiced alveolar plosive	French de, English dog
f	f	unvoiced bilabial fricative	English fog
g	g	unaspirated voiced velar plosive	French gare, English good (always hard, even before e and i)
h	h	glottal fricative	English house (or a glottal stop or other similar sounds like German Bach
j	ʒ	voiced palatal fricative	French je or English mirage
k	k	unaspirated unvoiced velar fricative	French carte, English kite (without aspiration) or French comment
l	l	voiced post-alveolar lateral approximant	English love or French bel (never a dark l as in English bell.
m	m	voiced bilabial nasal	English mother
n	n	voiced alveolar nasal	English nobody
p	p	unvoiced bilabial plosive	French pain, English pan (without aspiration)
q	-	-	(Only used in foreign words, where it has various guttural pronunciations)
r	r	alveolar flap	Spanish mira or Italian Roma
s	s	unvoiced alveolar fricative	Always hard as in English safe (never a z sound as in rose)
t	t	unaspirated unvoiced alveolar plosive	French tous, English top (without aspiration)
v	v	voiced bilabial fricative	English very
w	w	voiced labio-velar approximant	English water, French oui
x	ʃ	unvoiced post-alveolar fricative	English shape or French cher
y	j	voiced palatal approximant	English yard (except when post-iotating a vowel to create a vowel diphthong like oy)
z	z	voiced alveolar fricative	English zone. German speakers, beware. Mirad z is pronounced like a German s, as in Sohn, not like z as in zehn, which sounds more like ts.

Note: If you see a blank here instead of an IPA symbol, it probably means that the font you are using to display characters in your browser does not support these characters.

Vowels

There are 5 vowel phonemes, each of which can be followed by a y-sound, producing post-iotated vowels or diphthongs.

Spoken

This IPA chart shows the articulation of Mirad vowel phonemes:

	Front	Central	Back
High	/i/		/u/
Mid	/e/		/o/
Low		/a/

Written

The vowel graphemes (letters) in Mirad used to represent the above vowel phonemes (sounds) are as follows:

PHONEME	/a/	/e/	/i/	/o/	/u/
GRAPHEME	a	e	i	o	u

Pronunciation

• Simple Vowels

The vowels are pronounced as they are in many European Latin-based languages. The table below gives their phonetic values and some examples.

VOWEL	IPA*	SPANISH	FRENCH	ENGLISH
a	a	mano	la	ah!
e	e	hecho	été	day (without the y-glide)
i	i	si	oui	see (without the y-glide)
o	o	no	eau	so (without the w-glide)
u	u	tu	vous	too (without the w-glide)

* IPA = International Phonetic Alphabet

• Iotated Vowels (Diphthongs)

Vowels in Mirad can be post-iotated ( = post-palatized, y-glided) with the consonant y to produce five vowel diphthongs. These diphthongs are pronounced as such only at the end of a syllable. For example, igay and eyna contain post-iotated vowel diphthongs, but maraya (ma-RA-ya) does not, since the y begins a syllable.

POST-IOTATED VOWELS	IPA /PHONEMIC/ [PHONETIC]	ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION	SPANISH/FRENCH PRONUNCIATION
ay	/aj/ [aɪ]	bye	hay ( Sp. there is)
ey	/ej/ [eɪ]	day (with y-glide)	rey ( Sp. king)
iy	/ij/ [iɪ]	see (with y-glide)	abeille (Fr. bee)
oy	/oj/ [oɪ]	boy	hoy (Sp. today)
uy	/uj/ [uɪ]	gooey	muy (Sp. very)

Syllables starting with a y (ya, ye, etc.) form a set of what are known as pre-iotated vowels. Vowels, pre-iotated vowels, post-iotated vowels, and circum-iotated vowels (that is, those beginning and ending with a vowel like yay, yoy, etc.) are sometimes treated as a class of vowels in the grammar of Mirad for the sake of word-building.

Syllabification

Every syllable in Mirad contains one and only one vowel. A y when final or followed by a consonant is used to post-iotate or diphthongize the previous vowel and is therefore considered part of the syllable in which that vowel is the nucleus (see case 2, below). Similarly, the glides r, l, and w, when final or followed by a consonant are considered to be a part of the syllable where the preceding vowel is the nucleus (see case 4, below). Two vowels in a row form two syllabic nuclei (see cases 3, 6, and 7, below). Two non-glide or non-y consonants, are split between them (see case 8). How syllables are divided is important for determining where the stress accent goes in a word (see Stress, below).

CASE	EXAMPLE	SYLLABIFIED
1	ama hot	a-ma
2	ayma warm	ay-ma
3	aymsea warming up	aym-se-a
4	pyerxwa exploded	pyer-xwa
5	upayo will have come	u-pa-yo
6	vyaa true	vya-a
7	vyaay truly	vya-ay
8	vyay (not a word)	vyay
9	tambwa settled	tam-bwa

Phonotactics

Syllables in Mirad are shaped according to the following Consonant-Vowel patterns:

PATTERN	EXAMPLES
V[y]	o, ay
C[lrwy]V	va, xwa, gyo, gla, gre
V[y]C	iyt, ad, ant, aynt
C[lrwy]V[y]C	dud, glas, glays, dren, toyb, xwer
V[lrn]C	alx, arx, yalp, yarp, yank

Two non-glide consonants cannot appear together in the same syllable, except in foreign-imported words.

Stress

Stress in Mirad is not marked and is not phonemic, i.e. not semantically distinctive. However, in all words of more than one syllable, the stress is applied to the last, non-final vowel. In this case, final y is treated like a consonant, and so a word ending in ay is stressed on that syllable (since the a is non-final). The following chart gives some examples:

Mirad Word	With Stress and Syllabification Marked
teja vital	te-ja
igay quickly	i-gay
Mirad Mirad	Mi-rad
booka tired	bo-o-ka
bookan fatigue	bo-o-kan
tejea alive	te-je-a
oyse lacks	oy-se

Capitalization

Words in Mirad are capitalized as in English. That is:

• The first word of a sentence is capitalized.
• Proper nouns, including names of places and persons, inhabitants of those places, and the languages spoken there, are capitalized. (This contasts with usage in most European languages.)
• All the letters of an acronym are upper case.

The following chart illustrates this:

Mirad	English
Amerikam	America
Amerikama	American
Amerikat	an American
Amerikad	American English
Ivan	Ivan
Dropek ay Poos	War and Peace
At Mirade.	I speak Mirad.
Hyat be ha mir Mirado glojo.	Everyone in the world will speak Mirad soon.
Yat tameya Boston.	We were living in Boston.
His se Fransa vafil.	This is a French wine.
Ha Anxwa Doobi gey dyunwe ha AD.	The United Nations is also called the UN.

Punctuation

Punctuation and the rules governing it are the same as in English. The most common punctuation marks are:

PUNCTUATION MARK	NAME
.	period
,	comma
;	semi-colon
:	colon
'	single quote
"	double quote
(	left parens
)	right parens
--	dash
!	exclamation point
?	question mark
*	asterisk

Nouns

Types of Nouns

Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in these various ways:

• common vs. proper

COMMON	PROPER
tam...house	Emer...Venus
yagsim...bench	Fransam...France
dyes...book	Notre Dame...Notre Dame
tej...life	Tot...God

• concrete vs. abstract

CONCRETE	ABSTRACT
tab...body	ifon...love
mil...water	oyman...coolness
deuz...song	deuzen...singing

• countable vs. mass

COUNTABLE	MASS
pat...bird	pattel...bird food
patayeb...feather	patayebyan...plumage
meg...rock	mil...water

• gender-neutral vs. female-oriented

MALE-ORIENTED	FEMALE-ORIENTED
twob...man	toyb...woman
edweb...king	edeyb...queen
twed...father	teyd...mother

• singular or plural

SINGULAR	PLURAL
dom...city	domi...cities
gon...part	goni...parts
jub...day	jubi...days

• inanimate (things) or animate (humans and animals)

INANIMATE	ANIMATE
mam...sky	pot...animal
tom...building	aut...person
job...time	tobot...child

Nouns also include gerunds, i.e. abstract nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like deuzen singing < deuzer to sing or osexen destruction < osexer to destroy.

In Mirad, all common nouns in their singular dictionary lookup form end in a CONSONANT. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as Roma Rome. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel i (pat bird ⇒ pati birds).

The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar.

Pluralization of Common Nouns

A singular countable common noun always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the plural marker vowel i. So, the plural of pur car is puri cars. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages (la belle fleur →les belles fleurs).

SINGULAR	PLURAL
tam...house	tami...houses
toyb...woman	toybi...women
tej...life	teji...lives
ha via dom...the beautiful city	ha via domi...the beautiful cities

Articles

In Mirad, there is only a definite article, ha the; There is no indefinite article like English a / an. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article ha (which in reality is a definite deictic determiner, discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on Deictic Determiners). The definite article ha is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart:

MIRAD	ENGLISH	SPECIFICITY
tam	a house	indefinite, no article
ha tam	the house	definite
ha tami	the houses	definite, plural
tej	life	general, no article
fitejawa tej	a life well-lived	indefinite, no article
ha tej (...at bayse)	the life (...I have)	specific
Fransad	French	general, no article
Ivan	Ivan	person's name, no article
Iflu yivan!	Cherish freedom	abstraction, no article
Ha yivani hu yat ifie.	The freedoms we enjoy.	abstraction specified
Yata yivani...	Our freedoms...	abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article

Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like love, life, freedom do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases the love that dare not speak its name or the life well-lived or the freedoms we possess. The names of languages and countries are also considered general, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew."

Proper Nouns

Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages will be discussed in a later section. It can be said here, though, that country names for the most part end in -am; the inhabitants of those places end in -at or pl. -ati; and the languages they speak end in -ad. Country names take a definite article only in a few cases like ha Anxwa Doebi the United States, which is really composed of common nouns. Otherwise, a country name like Fransam does not take a definite article, just as it does not in English.

Modifiers: Placement and Agreement

Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as ewa two naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number.

Mirad	English
ha ewa aga tami	the two big houses
gla ifxea taxi	many pleasant memories
hya fia tob	every good man
ha yaga via mepi	the long, beautiful roads
gra vua sexen	too much ugly construction
ata aja teji	My past lives

Noun Linkage

Nouns can be

1. linked with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or
2. juxtaposed, where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or
3. compounded, where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or
4. hyphenated, where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen.

Examples:

LINKAGE EXAMPLE	CONSTRUCTION
Ivan ay Maria....Ivan and Maria	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction ay (and)
ha tam ey ha par....the house or the car	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction ey (or)
hyati oy ha toybi....all but the women	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction or (but)
dunnyan boy eta dyun....a list without your name	nouns linked associatively by the preposition boy (without)
tej bi nasuk....a life of poverty	nouns linked associatively by the preposition bi of
ha tam bi Maria ....Mary's house (the house of Mary	nouns linked possessively by the preposition bi (of)
job bi aga ivan....a time of great joy	nouns linked associatively by the preposition bi (of)
dyen ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek....a book about the Second World War	nouns linked associatively by the preposition ayv (about)
dropek jaxeni....war preparations	modifier noun dropek (war) juxtaposed with the head noun jaxeni (preparations)
dom yautpur....a city bus	modifier noun dom (city) juxtaposed with the head noun yautpur (bus)
tojvaf....a death wish	modifier noun toj (death) compounded with the head noun vaf (wish)
jogatanyaf....youth league	modifier noun jogat (youth) compounded with the head noun anyaf (league)
maj-moj...a day-and-night	two or more equal nouns hyphenated

The X bi Y prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a named person, eg. ha tam bi Sam (Sam's house = the house of Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as his car is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition bi of is used in partitive expressions like tilzyeb bi vafil a glass of wine (but: vafil tilzeb wine glass, where wine modifies the glass associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on Prepositions or Conjunctions.

Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on Word Formation.

Noun Derivational Suffixes

Nouns can be divided into:

• simple nouns such as pur vehicle
• compound nouns such as naadpur train < naad rail + pur vehicle
• derived nouns such as fabyan forest < fab tree + -yan, a suffix meaning collection

Derived nouns are formed by attaching nominal suffixes (and sometimes prefixes)to other words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building.

SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE ONTO WHICH SUFFIX IS ADDED	EXAMPLES
-yan	collection, grouping, -ary	noun	tob man → tobyan mankind mar star → maryan constellation fab tree → fabyan forest dyen book → dyenyan library
-ut, -uyt (f.)	agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant	verb stem	beker treat → bekuyt nurse poper travel → poput traveler aker win → akut winner
-en	present gerund, -ing, -tion, -ment	verb stem	ifier enjoy → ifien enjoyment deuzer sing → deuzen singing axer act → axen action, acting
-ob, -oyb (f.)	offspring, baby of	noun	tob human being → toboyb baby girl apet horse → apetob foal yopet goat → yopetob kid
-an	abstact quality, -ness, -hood, -ity	adjective stem	via beautiful → via beauty yeva fair → yevan fairness, equity toba human → toban humanity, humanness, manhood
-(s)(u)n	object, thing	various stems	vyua dirty → vyun spot tamber settle → tambun settlement gorfer shred → gorfun scrap, shred yod not a single → yodsun not a single thing
-(s)on	abstract thing, issue	various stems	ifer to love → ifon love ov against → ovon obstacle aza strong → azon force yika difficult → yikson problem
-in	doctrine, dogma, -ism	various stems	tot god → totin religion, theism otofa nude → otofin nudism yulf terror → yulfin terrorism
-tun	science of, -ology	noun	tot god → tottun theology tob man → tobtun anthropology vob plant → vobtun botany
-es	small item, part	noun	tom building → tomes apartment saun kind → saunes sample dreuz poem → deuzes stanza mek dust, powder → mekes speck, gain
-et	sub-level version of (persons only)	noun	tad father → tadet son tuyd aunt → tuydet niece tyud tutor → tyudet pupil
-s	thing, something, object, the X one	adjective	aa first → aas first one, first thing otwa unknown → otwas mystery tejea living → tejeas living thing
-t	person	adjective	ea second → eat second one, second person faa holy → faat holy one, saint ujna last → ujat last one, last person Amerika American → Amerikat an American
-d	language, speech, sound	adjective and other stems	Angla English → Anglad English (language) Mira of the world → Mirad Mirad (world speech) apet horse → aped neigh, whinny
-(e)m	place	various stems	ho-? what-? → hom? where? yex work → yexem worksite ab on, above → abem top, surface kua lateral → kum side
-(a)m	place, house, building	various stems	nun merchanise → nunam store til drink → tilam bar, tavern fyadiler to pray → fyadilam church
-im	room, chamber	various stems	fadiler to pray → fadilim chapel mageler to cook → magelim kitchen tofer to dress → tofim dressing room
-[aou]r	instrument, device, machine	usu. verb stem	per to go → pur car drer to write → drar pencil gorber to cut → gorbar knife yalber to lift → yalbur elevator, lift dop military → dopur machine gun
-ag	big	noun	tam house → tamag mansion tyal meal → tyalag banquet tilar spoon → tilarag ladle
-ayg	big and cute	noun	tam house → tamayg cozy mansion epet dog → epetayg wolfie
-yag	big and ugly	noun	tud uncle → tudyag dirty old uncle toyb woman → toybyag hag
-og	little	noun	tab body → tabog corpuscle apet horse → apetog pony tyal meal → tyalog snack gorbun cut → gorbunog cutlet
-oyg	little and cute	noun	tam house → tamoyg cottage apayt chicken → apaytoyg chickadee mimpar boat → mirparoyg dingy
-yog	little and ugly	noun	tam house → tamyog shack epat duck → epatyog ugly duckling kod secret → kodyog little dirty secret
-ig	sudden	noun and verb stem	man light → manig flash pyex stroke → pyexig swat yopaper dive, fly down → yopapig swoop
-if	love of, -philia	noun	tel food → telif gourmandise doab homeland → doabif patriotism dyes book → dyesif bibliophilia, love of books
-ef	need of	noun	tel food → telef hunger iga fast → igef emergency til drink → tilef thirst
-uf	hate of, -phobia	noun	mil water → miluf hydrophobia totin religion → totinuf hatred of religion toyb woman → toybuf misogyny
-yuf	fear of, -phobia	noun	lopyet snake → lopyetyuf fear of snakes mil water → milyuf hyrophobia
-yaf	ability to, power, -ability	verb stem	teater to see → teatyaf ability to see texer to think → texyaf cognition tester to understand → testyaf comprehension noser to spend → nosyaf spending power
-yof	inability to, disability	verb stem	teater to see → teatyof blindness teeter to hear → teetyof deafness paser to move → pasyof paralysis tujer to sleep → tujyof insomnia
-yef	compulsion to, mania	verb stem	vyoder to lie → vyodyef compulsion to lie kobier to steal → kobiyef kleptomania, compulsion to steal

Gender

Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing, are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically-significant syllable with the letter w. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically-significant syllable with y. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix -ut, that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending -ut is changed to -uyt for the female form, but the male form stays the same. The reason for this is that the addition of a w to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker w (see the chapter on Verbs. The chart below shows how this works:

NEUTRAL	MALE/MALE-ORIENTED	FEMALE/FEMALE-ORIENTED
tob....human being, person	twob....man	toyb....woman
tobet....child	twobet....boy	toybet....girl
tad....spouse	twad....husband	tayd....wife
ejtad....step spouse	ejtwad....step-husband	ejtayd....step-wife
ajtad....ex-spouse	ajtwad....ex-husband	ajtayd....ex-wife
ted....parent	twed....father	teyd....mother
datif....sweetheart	dwatif....boyfriend	daytif....girlfriend
yapet....pig	yapwet....boar	yapeyt....sow
ideb....monarch	idweb....king	ideyb....queen
apat....fowl	apwat....rooster	apayt....hen
tiuv....underwear	tiwuv....briefs	tiuyv....panties
vapet....antelope	vapwet....deer	vapeyt....doe
deuzut....singer	deuzut....singer	deuzuyt....songstress
toos....gender	twoob....male	tooyb....female

For gender specification in pronouns, see Pronouns, below).

Adjectives

Adjectives can be of the following types:

• descriptive

• qualitative, like iva (happy), fia (good), oga (small)
• denominal (noun-derived), like doma (urban) < dom (city) or teaba (ocular) < teab (eye)
• deverbal (verb-derived), (participles) like tejea (living) < tejer (to live) or twa (known) < ter (to know)
• preposition-derived, like aba (upper) < ab on top of or zoa (posterior) < zo (behind)

• determinative

• deictic, like hia (this), huyena (such), haewa (both)
• numeric, like awa (one), ea (second), iona (triple)
• quantitative, like ga (more), glo (few), gra (to much)
• pronominal, like ata (my), hota? (whose), hyeta (anyone's)

Descriptive adjectives are the main focus of this section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under Determiners. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as participles, are treated in the section on Verbs, since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal adjectives (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on Determiners and the section on Pronouns.

All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel a.

• fi- (root qualitative morpheme) ⇒ fia good
• pur (noun meaning vehicle) ⇒ pura vehicular
• dalw- (passive stem of the verb speak) ⇒ dalwa spoken
• ab (preposition meaning on) ⇒ aba superior

Such adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify:

• aga tam....a big house
• ha fia toyb....the good woman
• ata boka ted....my sick father
• fia telsyeb bi vafil.....a good bottle of wine
• Aata dooba doof....our national flag
• Ata tejea tyedi.....my living relatives

doba xeut state agent can also be expressed as the noun compound dobxeut. Dob means a state.

pata bok avian illness can be compounded as patbok, literally bird illness.

Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building.

Comparison of Adjectives by Degree

As in English, descriptive adjectives can be modified by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree (ga, ge, etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on Quantitative Determiners.

QUANTITATIVE DETERMINER	COMPARISON
ga more	ga fia (vyel) better (than)
ge as, equally	ge fia (vyel) as good (as)
go less	go fia (vyel) less good (than)
gla very	gla fia very good
glay so	glay fia so good
gle rather/quite	gle fia rather/quite good
glo not very	glo fia not very/slightly good
gra too	gra fia too good
gre enough	gre fia good enough
gro not enough	gro fia insufficiently good/not good enough
gwa most	gwa fia (bi, be) best (of, in)
gwe average	gwe fia good on average
gwo least	gwo fia (bi, be) least good (of, in)

The relative conjunction vyel is used to translate English as in an equalitative comparison or than in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples:

• Ata tam se ga aga vyel etas. My house is bigger than yours.
• Hia tam voy se ge aga vyel atas. This house is not as big as mine.
• His se ha gwa aga tam bi aata yubem. This is the biggest house in our neighborhood.

Unlike in English, where comparative forms can be irregular (smaller, more intense, better), there are no exceptions in the comparison of Mirad adjectives and adverbs.

Abstract Quality Nouns Derived from Adjectives

Nouns referring to abstract qualities can be derived from qualitative and often other adjectives by suffixing the letter n. For example:

ADJECTIVE	ABSTRACT QUALITY
fia good	fian goodness
yeva just	yevan justice
uja final	ujan finality
joga young	jogan youth
teyda maternal	teydan motherhood, maternity
dooba nation	dooban nationality
tojbuwa lethal	tojbuwan lethality

Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives

Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing the vowel o. This has the effect of English un- in words like unlike, unhappy, and undetermined or the Greek private prefix a(n)- in words like asymmetric or anomalous.

Prefixing the syllable yo has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective.

Here are some examples:

NORMAL	NEGATED
ega.... normal	oega.... abnormal
twa.... known	otwa.... unknown
geyla.... similar	ogeyla.... dissimilar
iva.... happy	oiva.... unhappy
data.... friendly	odata.... unfriendly yodata.... inimical, enemy-like

Adjectival Derivational Endings

All descriptive adjectives end in at least the suffix a. Many adjectives are derived from other parts of speech, using one of more of the following derivational endings.

ENDING	TRANSITION TYPE	MEANING	BASE WORD	DERIVED ADJECTIVE
-a	N->ADJ	relating to, of	fyaat god tob man dom city	fyaata divine toba human doma urban
-aya / -ika	N->ADJ	full of, -ful, -ous	mil water meb mountain tes meaning	milaya watery, aquaous mebika mountainous tesaya meaningful
-oya / -uka	N->ADJ	empty of, -less, -free	teb head level sugar tes meaning	teboya headless leveluka sugar-free tesoya meaningless
-yena	N->ADJ	like, -ish, -y	fyaat god tob man dom city	fyaatyena godly, godlike tobyena manly, virile domyena urbane
-ea	V->ADJ	-ing, -ent, -ant	ags- grow tej- live kyas- change	agsea growing, crescent tejea living, alive kyasea changing, variant
-yea	V->ADJ	-ive, tending to	dal- talk tox- forget vad- affirm	dalyea talkative toxyea forgetful vadyea affirmative
-wa	V->ADJ	-ed	dal- talk tox- forget vad- affirm	dalwa spoken toxwa forgotten vadwa affirmed
-oa	V->ADJ	-about to, apt to	toj- die kyes- happen tajb- give birth	tojoa moribund kyesoa imminent tajboa about to deliver
-ua	V->ADJ	-able, potentially V	tojb- kill bukx- harm akuj- succeed	tojbua lethal bukxua dangerous akujua potentially successful

Pronominalization of Adjectives

Adjectives can be pronominalized (converted to a pronoun) by adding s for things and t for persons. These, in turn, can be pluralized by suffixing the plural marker i.

ADJECTIVE	INANIMATE PRONOUN	ANIMATE PRONOUN
fia.... good	fias.... a good thing fiasi.... good things	fiat.... a good person fiati.... good persons
aga.... big	agas.... something big agasi.... big ones	agat.... a big person agati.... big persons
joga.... young, new	jogas.... something new, novelty jogasi.... new ones	yogat.... young person, youth yogati.... youngsters
jaga.... old	jagas.... antique jagasi.... old ones	jagat.... elderly person jagati.... oldsters
awa.... one ewa....two	awas.... one (of them) ewasi.... two (of them)	awat.... one (of them) ewati.... two of them
hia.... this	hias.... this one hiasi.... these (things)	hiat.... this one hiati.... these
gla.... much, many	glas.... a lot (of stuff) glasi.... many (things)	glati.... many (people)

Examples:

• Hia tyoyaf se ogre aga. At fu ga agas. This shoe is not big enough. I'd like a bigger one.
• Aat fu daler bay ha gwa jogati. We would like to speak with the youngest ones.
• At fe teaxer ha jogas, voy ha jagas. I want to look at the new one, not the old one.
• Ha ujnati so ha ijnati. The last shall be the first.

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Derived Adverbs

Adverbs can be derived from descriptive adjectives by adding y to the a ending.

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
fia good	fiay well
yeva fair	yevay fairly
uja final	ujay finally
joga new	jogay newly
teyda maternal	teyday maternally

At the end of sentences or clauses, common one-syllable-stem adverbs can be shortened by removing the ay ending:

• Iyt deuze fi..... She sings well.
• At upo ig..... I'll come quickly.

Otherwise, the full adverb form is used, eg.:

• Eet yefe ugay fiaser.....You must slowly improve.
• At tojo ivay, tea hav at beaye fia tej.....I will die happily knowing that I've had a good life.

Inherent Adverbs

There are some words in the language that are inherently adverbs and do not take the ay ending, because they are not formed from adjectives. Here are the most common examples:

yab....up	yeb....in oyeb....out	yob....down	yub....near	yib....far
ab....on	eb....between	ob....off	ub....toward	ib....away
bay....with/along		boy....without	byu....as far (as)	byi....since
vay....indeed	vey....perhaps	voy....not
zay....ahead	zey....across ze....to the middle	zoy....back	zu....to the left	zi....to the right
			uz....on a curve	iz....straight, directly
			yuz....around	yiz....beyond
gay....also	gey....even	goy....no more
gaj....still		goj....no longer
yan....together		yon....apart
jay....beforehand	jey....currently	joy....afterwards

The words in the above chart that are underlined can also serve as prepositions (See Prepositions).

These words are considered adverbial because they can modify verbs. For example:

• At teaxa yab..... I looked up.   (= At yabteaxa.)
• Duhev et hyej upo zoy?..... Will you ever come back.   (= ...zoyupo?)
• Et po yib be tej...... You will go far in life.   (= Et yipo...)
• At voy se eta ted.....I am not your father.
• Pu zuy, jogat!....Go left, young man!   (= Zuypu...)
• Aat vay sa hum.....We were indeed there.
• It pa oyeb.....He went outside.   (= It oyepa.)
• Iyt gay deuze.....She also sings.
• Yit yexe gey be moji.....They work even nights.
• Ha tobob gaj tujeye.....The baby is still sleeping.
• Aat yefe yexer yan.....We must work together.   (= ...yanyexer.)
• His vey upo yon.....This may come apart.   (= ...yonupo.)
• Hit se jay toja.....This one is already dead.

Many of the above adverbs can be prefixed to verbs, nouns, and even adjecctives to indicate motion in various directions. (Keep in mind that the b or p can be assimilated to the first letter of per (go) or ber (put). For example:

• yeb (in) + per (go) = yeper (to enter)  [NOT: yebper]
• oyeb (out) + bier (take) = oyebier (to take out)  [NOT: oyebbier]
• yab (up) + per (go) = yaper (to rise)  [NOT: yabper]
• yob (up) + kima (sloped) = yobkima (downward-sloping)
• yub (near) + per (go) = yuper (to approach)  [NOT: yubper]
• yib (far) + daler (talk) = yibdaler (to telephone)
• yiz (beyond) + per (go) = yizper (to surpass)
• yuz (around) + pipen (sailing) = yuzpipen (circumnavigation)
• zay (ahead) + paser (move) = zaypaser (to advance)
• ze (to the middle) + jaga (aged) = zejaga (middle-aged)
• zey (across) + mep (road) = zeymep (bridge)
• zoy (back) + nogea (gradual) = zoynogea (retrogressive)
• iz (straight) + nad (line) = iznad (vector)
• zi (to the right) + kum (side) = izkum (right side)
• zu (far) + tuyab (hand) = zutuyaba (left-handed)
• uz (on a curve) + nad (line) = uznad (curve)
• yan (together) + up (come) = yanup (a meeting)
• yon (apart) + ber (put) = yonber (to separate)

Word Order of Adverbs

The word order of adverbs is fairly free, as in English. But, to avoid ambiguity, the adverb should be placed immediately before or after the sentence element it modifies, eg.:

• It deuze viay..... He sings beautifully.
• Et yefe xer gwa ig..... You must do it as quickly as possible.
• Et hyoj ako firxa ivan..... You will never gain perfect happiness.
• At voy te. (OR) At te voy. .... I don't know.

Comparison of Adverbs by Degree

Adverbs can be compared just as adjectives with the use of quantitative determiners. The words than and as are translated by the relative conjunction vyel.

POSITIVE	+/=/- COMPARATIVE	+/- SUPERLATIVE
fiay.... well	ga fiay vyel.... better than (Lit: more good-ly than) ge igay vyel....as well as go fiay vyel....less well than	gwa fiay....(the) best (Lit: most good-ly, as well as possible gwo fiay....(the) least well

Determiners

Determiners are words that specify or point out the context of nouns and other parts of speech. The English determiner this, for example, specifies a noun for its proximity to the current context. Determiners can be categorized in Mirad as the following types:

TYPE	ENGLISH EXAMPLES
Quantitative	more, less, very
Numerical	one, half, first
Deictic	the, this, some, every, which?, when
Pronominal	my, anybody's, one's own

Furthermore, as for part of speech, determiners can be adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. As adjectives, determiners can itemize or classify. As pronouns, they can refer to one or more persons (male or female) or things. As adverbs, they can specify time, place, degree, kind, age, frequency, and so forth.

Quantitative Determiners

Quantitative determiners act in one of several ways, they:

• specify mass, uncountable, singular nouns for relative AMOUNT, eg. much happiness, less work
• specify countable nouns for relative NUMBER, eg. one apple, two birds, many places
• specify adverbs, adjectives, and verbs for relative DEGREE, eg. how poorly, very good, eat too much.

From these, pronominalized quantitative determiners for PERSONS and THINGS can be derived.

• Inanimate singular pronouns are formed by adding s for AN AMOUNT OF A THING
• Inanimate plural pronouns are formed by adding si for A NUMBER OF THINGS
• Animate plural pronouns are formed by adding ti for A NUMBER OF PERSONS.

The following table presents most of these word forms:

ADVERB / ADJECTIVE	SINGULAR INANIMATE PRONOUN	PLURAL INANIMATE PRONOUN	PLURAL ANIMATE PRONOUN
DEGREE: How...(big / quickly)? AMOUNT: How much...(money)? NUMBER: How many...(books)?	AMOUNT: How much...(+ STUFF)?	NUMBER: How many...(+ THINGS)?	NUMBER: How many...(+ PEOPLE)?
ga more	gas more (stuff)	gasi many (things)	gati many (people)
ge as, as much, as many	ges as much (stuff)	gesi as many (things)	geti as many people
go less, fewer	gos less (stuff)	gosi fewer (things)	goti fewer (people)
gla very, much, many glay so, so much, so many	glas much (stuff) glays so much stuff)	glasi many (things) glaysi so many (things)	glati many (people) glayti so many (people)
gle rather, quite a lot, quite a few	gles quite a lot (of stuff)	glesi quite a lot (of things)	qleti quite a few (people)
glo slightly, a little, few	glos a little bit	glosi a few (things)	gloti few (people)
gra too, too much, too many	gras too much (stuff)	grasi too many (things)	grati too many (people)
gre enough	gres enough (stuff)	gresi enough (things)	greti enough (people)
gro insufficiently, too little, too few	gros too little	grosi too few	groti too few (people)
gwa most	gwas the most (stuff)	gwasi the most (things)	gwati most people
gwe so, so much, so many	gwes so much (stuff)	gwesi so many (things)	gweti so many (people)
gwo least	gwos the least (stuff)	gwosi the least (number of)	gwoti the least number (of people)

Examples Using Quantitative Determiners

Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective:

• At se gla iva.....I am very happy.
• Et sa gra uga.....You were too slow.

Adverbs of Degree modifying another adverb:

• Twobi dale ge igay vyel toybi.....Men talk as fast as women.
• Aat yexe ga igay vyel yet.....We work faster (= more quickly) than you.

Adjectives quantifying a singular mass noun:

• Ga nas efwo.....More money will be needed.
• Gra nas noxwa....Too much money was spent.

Adjectives quantifying a plural countable noun (= things or people):

• At ayse gro sari....I've got too few tools.
• Gla tami osexwa.....Many houses were destroyed.
• Aat efe gla ga valdibuti.....We need many more policemen.

Pronouns referring to a mass amount of something (= stuff):

• Gas ilokeye.....More (stuff) is leaking.
• Et dileye gras.....You are asking for too much (stuff).
• Yat kexo gwas.....We will seek as much (stuff) as possible.

Pronouns referring to a countable number of things:

• Hisi se fia oy yat fe gasi.....These (items) are good but we want more (items).
• At teate drilari oy grosi.....I see pens, but too few.

Pronouns referring to a countable number of people:

• Grati xaye vyosi be hia yexem.....Too many (people) have made mistakes at this work site.
• Glati dyunwe oy gloti kebiwe.....Many are called but few are chosen.

Numerical Determiners

Numerical determiners are number words that modify nouns, such as one, fifty, a hundred. They are based on the cardinal numbers, which are explained here:

Cardinal Numbers

The cardinal numbers are words used in counting. These words are based on the vowels of Mirad and are crucial to any hierarchical ordering of lexical concepts.

• The units are formed from the plain and pre-iotated vowels:

0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
o	a	e	i	u	yo	ya	ye	yi	yu
zero	one	two	three	four	five	six	seven	eight	nine

The numerals 5-9 are pre-iotated versions of the vowels that constitute 0-4.

• The formative letter l + o zero is used to form the decades, seen below:

10	20	30	40	50	60	70	80	90
alo	elo	ilo	ulo	yolo	yalo	yelo	yilo	yulo
ten	twenty	thirty	forty	fifty	sixty	seventy	eighty	ninety

By changing the o zero in lo to other cardinal unit numbers, the numbers between the decades can be generated as follows:

alo	elo	ilo	ulo	yolo	yalo	yelo	yilo	yulo
ala 11	ela 21	ila 31	ula 41	yola 51	yala 61	yela 71	yila 81	yula 91
ale 12	ele 22	ile 32	ule 42	yole 52	yale 62	yele 72	yile 82	yule 92
...	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	...
alyu 19	elyu 29	ilyu 39	ulyu 49	yolyu 59	yalyu 69	yelyu 79	yilyu 89	yulyu 99

• By changing the decades marker l to s, you get the hundreds:

100	200	300	400	500	600	700	800	900
aso	eso	iso	uso	yoso	yaso	yeso	yiso	yuso

All the numbers in between the hundreds, can be generated by modifying the so ending, for example:

• asa 101
• asale 112
• usyulyu 199

• The thousands are generated with the formative letter r:

• aro 1,000
• aro a 1,001
• ero isi 2,300
• yoro yasula 5,641

• The millions are generated with the formative letters ml:

• emlo 2,000,000
• umlo 4,000,000

• The billions are generated with the formative letters mr;

• yamro 6 billion

The numbers composed with r, ml, and mr keep the o and are separated from the other numbers by a space.

iro asyulyo 3,195

yamlo asyulyo 6,000,195

alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele 10,075,186,922

Cardinal Numerical Determiners

Cardinal numerical determiners are numbers that modify a noun as to quantity. In a sequence of adjectives, the numerical determiner goes first. Cardinal numerical determiners are the same in form as cardinal numbers, but a special counter morpheme wa is added to the last monosyllabic number simply to aid in the comprehension and disambiguation of the words. If the numeric determiner is 2 or higher in value, then the noun is pluralized. Unlike English, "zero" is followed by a singular noun.

Mirad	English	Wa Behavior	Pluralization Behavior
owa tam	no houses, zero houses	The number is monosyllabic, so wa is suffixed.	The number is less than 2, so the noun is singular.
awa tam	one house, a house	"	"
ewa tami	two houses	"	The number is greater than 2, so the noun is pluralized.
iwa tami	three houses	"	"
uwa tami	four houses	"	"
yowa tami	five houses	"	"
yawa tami	six houses	"	"
yewa tami	seven houses	"	"
yiwa tami	eight houses	"	"
yuwa tami	nine houses	"	"
alo tami	ten houses	The number is polysyllabic, so no wa is suffixed.	"
ase tami	a hundred two houses	"	"
ero iwa tami	two thousand three houses	The number i is monosyllabic, so wa is suffixed.	"
iro alo tami	three thousand ten houses	The number alo is polysyllabic, so wa is not suffixed.	"

Cardinal numerical determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing s or t, respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing i. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a y before the t. The s suffix is short for sun thing or suni things. The t ending is short for aut person or auti persons. For example:

• Et bayse awa tam. At gey bayse awas (= awa sun). You have one house. I have one too.
• At baysa alo dresari. Hij at bayse anay ewasi (= ewa suni). I had ten pencils. Now I only have two.
• Esa asoti (= aso auti) yeb ha duzam.There were a hundred people in the concert hall.
• Aat yefe kebier eluyti (= elu auyti) bi huti. We must choose twenty-four females from those people.

Ordinal Numerical Determiners

Ordinal numerical determiners like first, second, etc. are formed from the cardinal numbers by adding the adjectival ending a to the cardinal number.

Cardinal Number	Ordinal Numerical Determiner
o.... zero	oa.... zeroth
a.... one	aa.... first
e.... two	ea.... second
i.... three	ia.... third
alo.... ten	aloa.... tenth
asu.... 104	asua.... 104th

The word nap order can be inserted in these words to make them more comprehensible in speech:

• anapa.... first, first in order, primary*
• enapa.... second, second in order, secondary
• inapa.... third, third in order, tertiary
• alanapa.... eleventh, eleventh in order

There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers:

• ijna.... initial, first, original
• ujna.... last, final
• ajna.... past, ex-, former
• ojna.... future
• ejna.... present, current
• jana.... previous, last
• jona.... next, following

Ordinal numerical determiners and adjectives can be converted into adverbs by adding the suffix y to the adjectival counterparts:

Adjective	Adverb
aa.... first	aay.... firstly
anapa.... first	anapay.... primarily
ea.... second	eay.... secondly
ujna.... last	ujnay.... finally

Ordinal numerical determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix t and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix s. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix i. The person pronouns can also be feminized.

• ha aas.... the first thing
• ha aat.... the first person
• ha aati.... the first people
• hua aayt.... that first female
• ha eas.... the second thing
• eat.... another / a second person
• ha ujnati so ha ijnati.... the last shall be first

Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal adjective> | <ordinal numerical determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective>

• hua uwa aga tami.... those four big houses
• ha aa alo oga tami.... the first ten little houses
• ata anapa ewa oga tobobi.... my first two little children

Fractional Numerical Determiners

Fractional numerical determiners like half and quarter are formed by adding -yn for those functioning as nouns, -yna for adjectives, -ynay for adverbs, or -yn for prefixes, to the respective cardinal number.

CARDINAL NUMBER	FRACTION AS NOUN	AS ADJECTIVE	AS ADVERB	AS PREFIX	AS VERB
o.... zero	oyn.... a void, vacuum	oyna.... non-existant	--	oy(n)-.... devoid of	oynxer.... annihilate
a.... one	ayn.... whole ha ayn.... the whole	ayna.... entire, whole	aynay.... entirely	ay(n)-.... holo-, whole-, all-	aynxer.... integrate
e.... two	eyn.... a half	eyna.... half	eynay.... halfway	ey(n)-.... half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-	eynxer.... halve
i.... three	iyn.... a third	iyna.... third	iynay.... by a third	iy(n)-.... terci-	iynxer.... cut in third
u.... four	uyn.... a quarter	uyna.... quarter	uynay.... quarterly	uy(n)-.... quadri-	uynxer.... quarter
alo.... ten	aloyn.... a tenth	aloyna.... tenth	aloynay.... by a tenth	aloy(n)-.... deci-	aloynxer.... decimate
aso.... hundred	asoyn.... hundredth, percent	asoyna.... hundredth	asoynay.... by a hundredth	asoy(n)-.... centi-	asoynxer.... cut by a hundred

Here are some examples:

• His uxo ha oynxen bi yata mir..... This will cause the anihilation of our world.
• Ha ayna mir te ayv et..... The whole world knows about you.
• Has se gas ev ha ayn bi hasa goni..... It is more than the whole of its parts.
• Fransad se ayn-druna dalyen..... France is a holophrastic language.
• Et yafe bier eyn..... You can take half.
• Yat yefo eynxer eta yexnix..... We will have to halve your salary.
• Hus sa eyn-vyan..... That was a half-truth.
• Eso eyn-zyunida dropek..... There is going to be a hemispheric war.
• Duhev his se eyn-exea dopar?.... Is this a semi-automatic weapon?
• Iynxu hua ableyavol..... Cut that pie in thirds.
• It yeyfe bixwer ay uynxwer..... He should be drawn and quartered.
• Hia nas se aloyn bi has yat baysa zojab..... This money is a tenth of what we had last year.
• Ha dep aloynxwu..... The army would be decimated.
• Ewa asoyni bi ha dityan baksa..... Two percent (=hundredths) of the citizenry got sick.
• Hia tom se anay asoynge aga vyel hua tom..... This building is only a hundredth as big as that building.

The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples:

• Et so aynay dudyefa av eta axi..... You will be wholly accountable for your actions.
• Iyt eynay tikabeloka..... She almost (=halfway) threw up.

Words like half of it, a third of them:

• Eynas sa fia.....Half of it was good.
• Eynasi sa fua.....Half of them were bad.
• Esa uwa tobi se hua fukyes. Eynati toja.....There were four people in that accident. Half (of them) died.
• Iynati bi yet se vyasa.....A third of you are right.
• Uynati bi yat yantexe.....A quarter of us agree.
• Alo asoynasi bi hia dyeni fyunxwa.....Ten percent of these books were ruined.

Multiplicative Numerical Determiners

Multiplicative numerical determiners like double, triple can be formed by adding -on to the respective cardinal number if the number is monosyllabic, otherwise just -n. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix -a. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. The prefix ending, -n is often dropped.

CARDINAL NUMBER	MULTIPLE AS NOUN	...AS ADJECTIVE	...AS ADVERB	...AS PREFIX	...AS VERB-MAKER
o.... zero	oon.... null	oona.... nil		on-.... zero-	onxer.... cancel, zero out
a.... one	aon.... single	aona.... single	aonay.... singly	an-.... uni-/mono-	anxer unify
e.... two	eon.... twosome, double	eona.... double	eonay.... doubly	en-.... di-/bi-	enxer double
i.... three	ion.... threesome, triplet	iona.... triple	ionay.... triply	in-.... tri--	inxer.... triple
u.... four	uon.... quartet	uona.... quadruple	uonay.... quadruply	un-.... quadri-/tetra-	unxer.... quadruple
yo.... five	yoon.... quintet	yoona.... quintuple	yoonay.... quintuply	yoon-*.... quinti-/penta-	yoonxer*.... quintuple
ya.... six	yaon.... sextet	yaona.... sextuple	yaonay.... sextuply	yaon-*.... sexi-/hexa-	yaonxer*.... sextuple
alo.... ten	alon.... decade	alona.... decadic	alonay.... by a multiple of ten	alon-.... deca-	alonxer.... multiply by ten
aso.... hundred	ason.... hundredfold	asona.... hundredfold	asonay.... by a hundredfold	ason-.... hecato-	asonxer.... multiply by a hundred

* An extra o is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with yan meaning together and yon meaning apart.

The multiplicative noun dozen is expressed by aleon.

• Aleoni bi pati yizpapa..... Dozens of birds flew by.

By adding the suffix -at to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people:

• aonat.... solo, single

• aonatser.... become single

• eonat.... duo, pair, twosome, couple

• eonatser.... couple up, copulate

• ionat.... trio, threesome, trinity

• Ionatin.... Trinitarianism

• uonat.... quartet, foursome
• yoonat.... quintet, group of five people
• yoonati.... quintets

By adding the suffix -un instead of -on, we get the following:

• aun.... unit

• auna.... unitary, individual
• aunser.... unite
• aunyan.... series

• aunyana.... serial

• eun.... pair

• euna.... even, paired, binary
• oeuna.... odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired

• oeunat.... odd man out
• eunxer.... even out

Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used:

• Yat naptyoyapa be eonati yez ha mep..... We marched in twos (= pairs) down the street.
• Asonati upo bay aat bu is ovdal..... Hundreds (of people) will come with us to this protest.
• Hia ivxel xwe enyabay..... This celebration happens biennially.
• Iyt se untubokat..... She is a quadriplegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)
• Diwe sagu ha auni..... Please count the units.
• Eet gafisa aronay!.... You all have improved a thousandfold!
• Tob se entyoyaba sat..... Man is a bipedal creature.

Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in -on in the numbers below ten is shortened to -n in common words:

• anzyus.... monocycle
• enzyus.... bicycle
• ingun.... triangle
• ungun.... quadrangle

Note: The prefixes for penta-/quinti- and hexa-/sext- must keep the -on so as to distinguish them from the prefixes yon apart and yan together.

• yoongona.... quintipartite  BUT: yonper.... separate, go apart
• yaongun.... hexagon  BUT: yanuper.... meet, come together

Frequentative Determiners

There are two ways to form determiners of frequency:

• Using jod(i) meaning occasion(s), instance(s), time(s), or
• Using xag meaning frequency

Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners:

"JOD" METHOD	"XAG" METHOD	MEANING
hogla jodi?	hoxag?	how often?, how many times?
hagla jodi	haxag	as many times, as often
hegla jodi	hexag	sometimes, on some occasions
higla jodi	hixag	this often, this many times
hugla jodi	huxag	that often, that many times, so many times
huugla jodi	huuxag	so often, so many times
hyogla jodi	hyoxag	never, on no occasion
hyagla jodi	hyaxag	always, at all times
hyegla jodi	hyexag	any number of times, however often
hyigla jodi	hyixag	as often, the same number of times
hyugla jodi	hyuxag	not as often, some other number of times
ga jodi	gaxag (vyel)	more often (than)
ge jodi	gexag (vyel)	as many times (as), as often (as)
go jodi	goxag (vyel)	less often (than)
gla jodi	glaxag	many times, often
gle jodi	glexag	quite a few times, quite often
glo jodi	gloxag	not so many times, seldom
gra jodi	graxag	too often
gre jodi	grexag	often enough
gro jodi	groxag	too seldom
gwa jodi	gwaxag	as often as possible, most often, most times
gwe jodi	gwexag	an average number of times
gwo jodi	gwoxag	least often, as seldom as possible
owa jod	--	never, at no time, zero times
awa jod	--	once, one time
ewa jodi	--	twice, two times
iwa jodi	--	thrice, three times
alo jodi	--	ten times

Arithmetical Expressions

The following chart shows verbs from which are formed derivative words relating to mathematical operations:

VERB	OPERATION	PATIENT	SUBJECT	OPERATOR	SIGN	RESULT
gaber.... add	gab.... addition	gabwas.... addend	gabeas.... adder	gab.... plus, +	gabsin.... plus sign	gabix.... sum
galer.... multiply	gal.... multiplication	galwas.... multiplicand	galeas.... multiplier	gal.... times, x	galsin.... times sign	galix.... product
garer.... exponentiate, raise	gar.... power	garwas.... number being raised	gareas.... exponent	gar.... raised to the power of	garsin.... exponent	garix.... raising result
gober.... subtract	gob.... subtraction	gobwas.... subtrahend	gobeas.... subtractor	gob.... minus, -	gobsin.... minus sign	gobix.... difference
goler.... divide	gol.... division, fraction	golwas.... dividend	goleas.... divisor	gol.... divided by, ÷	golsin.... division sign	golix.... quotient
gorer.... cut, uproot	gor.... cut, root	gorwas.... radicand	goreas.... radical	gor.... lower to the power of, √	gorsin.... radical sign	gorix.... root lowering result
geler.... equal	gel.... equation	gelwas.... thing being equated	geleas.... equator	gel.... equal to, as, like	gelsin.... equal sign	gelix.... equation results

Examples of mathematical expressions:

• E gab e gele u..... Two plus two equals four.
• E gal i gele ya..... Two times three equals six.
• I gar e gele yu..... Three to the second power equals nine.
• E gob e gele o..... Two minus two equals zero.
• Yu gol i gele i..... Nine divided by three equals three.
• Yu gor i gele i..... Nine cubed equals three.
• Aso gor e gele alo..... One hundred squared equals ten.

Decimal Expressions

Decimal expressions like 2.5 use the word nod point as in English.

• Hia bavol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) aronkyiki.....This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.

Calendar Expressions

The word for calendar is judar. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used:

Basic Calendar Units

Time is divided using the following basic terms:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
job	time
jab	year
jeb	season
jib	month
jub	day
jwob	hour
jwab	minute
jweb	second

Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical morphemes to some of the time units above:

MIRAD	ENGLISH	NUMERICAL FORMULA
arojab	millenium	year x 1,000
asojab	century	year x 100
alojab	decade	year x 10
eynjab	half year	year x 1/2
uynjab	quarter	year x 1/4
yejub	week	day x 7
eynjwob	half hour	hour x 1/2

This, next, last, etc. are expressed as follows:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
hijub hia yejub hijab	today this week this year
zojub ha jana yejub zajab	yesterday last week last year
zajub ha jona yejub zajab	tomorrow next week next year
hujub hua yejub hujab	that day that week that year
jazojub ja ewa yejubi jazojab	the day before yesterday two weeks ago the year before last
jozajub jo ewa yejubi jozajab	the day after tomorrow two weeks from now the year after next

Seasons of the Year

Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for season jeb:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jeab	spring
jeeb	summer
jeib	autumn, Fall
jeub	winter

Examples of usage:

• be jeab.... in spring
• ja jeeb.... before summer
• ju jeib.... until autumn
• ji jeub.... since winter
• je ha jeb.... during the season
• ub ha uj bi jeeb.... toward the end of summer
• eb jeab ay jeeb.... between spring and summer
• jeeba gemoj.... vernal equinox
• jeiba fayebi.... autumn leaves
• jeba til.... seasonal drink
• jeubyena jebmalyen.... wintry climate
• jeabyena malyen.... spring-like weather
• jeuben.... hibernation

Months of the Year

Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month jib:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jiab	January
jieb	February
jiib	March
jiub	April
jiyob	May
jiyab	June
jiyeb	July
jiyib	August
jiyub	September
jilob	October
jilab	November
jileb	December

Some expressions using the months:

• be jilob.... in October
• ja jiyab.... before June
• ja zajiyeb.... by next July
• hijib.... this month
• zojib.... last month
• zajib.... next month
• bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis... month-to-month rent
• jibay... monthly
• jibi joy... months later
• jiba sindryen.... monthly magazine
• hujiba jobnis.... that month's rent
• hya ionjib.... every trimester
• jiber.... menstruate

Days of the Week

Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day jub:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
juab	Monday
jueb	Tuesday
juib	Wednesday
juub	Thursday
juyob	Friday
juyab	Saturday
juyeb	Sunday

Here are some common terms relating to days of the week:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
hojub?	which day
hajub hu...	the day that...
hejub	someday
hijub	today
hujub	that day
hyijub	(on) the same day
hyajub	every day
hyejub	any day
zajub	yesterday
zojub	tomorrow
ha jajub be ha jana jub	the day before, (on) the previous day
ha jojub be ha jona jub	the day before, (on) the previous day
jazojub	the day before yesterday
jozajub	the day after tomorrow
hya ea jub	every other/second day
hyajub boy juyeb	every day except Sunday

Examples of Usage:

• be juyob....on Friday
• ju juib....until Wednesday
• ji zojub.... since yesterday
• lojo jubuj.... by [Lit: not after] day's end
• jo zajub.... after tomorrow
• je ha jub.... during the day
• bi juab bu juub... from Monday to Friday

Parts of the Day

Here are the principal parts of a day:

DAYTIME	NIGHTTIME
maj....daytime, day	moj....nighttime, night
bi maj....A.M.	bi moj....P.M.
jaijmaj....pre-dawn	jaijmoj....pre-dusk
ijmaj....daybreak, dawn	ijmoj....dusk
amaryap....sunrise, sunup	amaryop....sunset, sundown
imaj....morning zaimaj....tomorrow morning hiimaj....this morning zoimaj.... yesterday morning huimaj....that morning hyaimaj....every morning	imoj....evening zaimoj....tomorrow evening hiimoj....this evening zoimoj.... yesterday evening huimoj....that evening hyaimoj....every evening
jwaimaj....early morning	jwaimoj....early evening
jwoimaj....late morning	jwoimoj....late evening
eymaj....noon	eymoj....midnight
joeymaj....afternoon	joeymoj....after midnight
ujmaj....dusk, day's end	gwomoj...late night

• Examples of Usage:

• At tijpa ja ijmaj.....I woke up before dawn.
• At iyfe tuyjer be ha jwoa joeymaj.....I like to nap in the late afternoon.
• It yexe bi amaryap bu amaryop.....He works from sunup to sundown.
• Be gwa umaji, at teaxe teasibar.....Most evenings, I watch television.

Expressing Dates

The following is a how a date (jud) is normally expressed:

• be juab, 11 jieb 2018 JoK.....on Monday, February 11th, 1918 A.D.

A date like 2018 can be expressed as twenty eighteen (elo alyi) or two thousand eighteen (ero alyi).

The day in the above expression is pronounced ali.

The year is pronounced elo alyi (like English twenty eighteen).

The acronym for B.C. is JaK, short for Ja Krist (before Christ).

The acronym for A.D. is JoK, short for Jo Krist (after Christ).

Other date expressions follow:

• be ha 1800 jabi (alyi aso jabi)....In the 1800's (eighteen hundreds)
• ja ha 20a (eloa) asojab....before the 20th (twentieth) century
• eb 1920 (yulo elo) ay 2001 (elo awa)....between 1920 (nineteen twenty) and (two thousand one)
• hyaje hua alojab....throughout that decade
• At yexa hum je gla jabi.....I worked there for [Lit: during] many years.
• Ujbu his lojo jiyab.....Finish this by [Lit: not after] May.
• Iyt so him ub ha uj bi 2 (ewa) jiab....She will be here toward the end of January 2nd.

Telling Time

Clock time expressions use mostly the word jwob (hour) or jwobi (hours).

The usual time-of-day question is Se hojwob? What time is it? [Lit: is what-hour?]

The typical answer is in the format Se aa/ea... jwob gab/gob alo/ali... bi maj/moj. (Lit: (It) is (the) first/second... hour plus/minus ten/eleven...of day/night.

Here are some typical answers:

• Se aa jwob..... It is one o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) first hour.] [NOTE: The article "the" is left unexpressed.]
• Se ea jwob..... It is two o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) second hour.]
• Se alea jwob..... It is twelve o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) twelfth hour.]

• Se ia jwob bi maj*..... It is three o'clock A.M.  [Lit: It is third hour of daytime.]
• Se aloa jwob bi moj**..... It is ten o'clock P.M.  [Lit: It is tenth hour of nighttime.]

* bi maj (a.m.) can be abbreviated as bma

** bi moj (p.m.) can be abbreviated as bmo

• Se ua jwob (gab) alo..... It is four ten.....  [Lit: It is fourth hour (plus) ten.]
• Se iloa jwob gob ali..... It is thirteen minutes til three.  [Lit: It is thirteenth hour minus thirteen.]
• Se yoa jwobi gab uyn..... It is quarter after five.  [Lit: It is fifth hour plus a quarter.]
• Se yoa jwobi gob uyn..... It is quarter past five.  [Lit: It is fifth hour minus a quarter.]
• Se yaa jwobi gab eyn..... It is six thirty.  [Lit: It is sixth hour plus a half.]
• Se yaa jwobi gab ilo..... It is six thirty.  [Lit: It is sixth hour plus thirty.]
• Se yaa jwobi gob eyn..... It is thirty minutes til six.  [Lit: It is sixth hour minus thirty.]
• Se yaa jwobi gob ilo..... It is thirty minutes til six.  [Lit: It is sixth hour minus a half.]

• Se vyavay yea jwob gab alo bi moj..... It is exactly 7:10 P.M..  [Lit: It is exactly seventh hour plus ten of nighttime.]
• Et sa alo jwoa bey alo jwabi.....You were late by 10 minutes.  [Lit: You were late by ten minutes.]
• Has ijo jub 5:30 (= yaa jwob gab ilo) bmo (= bi moj).....It will begin around 5:30 (= five thirty [Lit: five hours plus thirty]) p.m.
• Puu him loga jwoa ev 3 (= ia) j. (= jwob)....Get here no later than 3 (= three) o'clock.
• Ha yautpar puo hum yeb 10 jwabi.....The bus will arrive there within 10 minutes.
• Ha jwobar izeade 2:30 (= ea jwob gab ilo).....The clock says [Lit: indicates] 2:30.
• Yit pua be 3a j. be ha nod.....They arrived at 3 on the dot.

Mirad normally uses a 12-hour system with distinction between a.m. and p.m., but military 24-hour time can also be used in particular situations, in which case the a.m./p.m. distinction is not needed.

• Yanpu at be iloa jwob gab alyo..... Meet me at 13:15. (= 1:15 p.m.)

The word jwab (hour, o'clock) can be abbreviated as j., as in the following:

• Yanpu at be 13a j..... Meet me at 13:00 (hours) [Lit: at (the) 13th h.]

The word gab (plus) can be omitted, as in:

• At teato et be yoa j. alyo..... I'll see you at five fifteen / quarter past five.

Note the following clock time idioms:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jwa	early
jwe	on time
jwo	late
Se vyavay eloa jwob.	It is exactly two o'clock.
yub eymaj	around noon
ub eymoj	toward midnight
yeb jwebi	within seconds
ji alo jwabi	ten minutes ago
lojo 3 j.	no later than / by 3 o'clock.
jwobay	hourly / by the hour / on the hour
Hia pop efxe 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.	This trip takes (Lit: necessitates) 2 1/2 hours.
ju awa jwob bi hij	until one hour from now
ji zojub be 10a j.	since yesterday at 10 o'clock.
je ha jana 12 jwabi	for the last 12 minutes
ja / lojo 10a j.	before / by 10 o'clock (= the tenth hour)
lojo 10 jwobi.	by / in / within 10 hours.
jo 10a j.	after 10 o'clock.
jo 10 jwobi.	after 10 hours / 10 hours later / 10 hours ago

Expressing Age

Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for age: jag.

The typical question is:

• Et se hojaga?....How old are you? (Lit. what-aged)

A typical answer is:

• At se eli jaga....I am twenty-three years old.

The following chart shows other age expressions, many of which are agglutinations of the deictic morphemes beginning with h:

AGE
hojaga?.... how old?
hajaga.... of the age
hejaga.... of some age
hijaga.... this old
hujaga.... that old
huujaga.... so old
jaga....old jayga....oldish
joga....young joyga....youngish
gle jaga.... rather old, oldish
gla jaga.... very old
gra jaga.... too old, super-aged
gro jaga.... under-aged, minor
ge jaga.... as old, of the same age
awa jab jaga.... one year old awa jaga awa jab
ewa jabi jaga.... two years old ewa jaga ewa jabi
alo jabi jaga.... ten years old alo jaga alo jabi
ga jaga vyel et.... older than you
ga joga vyel at.... younger than me
ge joga vyel iyt.... as young as her
ha gwa jagat bi ata tedetyan....the youngest of my siblings
grojagat....a minor
alojagat....a ten-year-old
aloyjagat....a teenager
jogat....a boy, a youth joygat...a girl
grejat....an adult, someone of age jagseat....an adolescent jagsat....grownup
yiloyjagat...an octogenarian
asoyjagat....a centenarian

Some other examples of usage:

• Et jagseye fi.....You are aging well.
• At voy jogseye hyegla.....I am not getting any younger.
• His se taam av ha jagati.....This is a home for the ederly.
• Egaku eta jogan!....Regain your youth!
• At se ga jaga vyel ha meybi.....I am as old as the hills.
• Teaxu ata gwa joga tobob.....Look at my youngest child.
• Yat ife aata awajagat.....We love our one-year-old.
• Jagseatan se yika joob bi tej.....Adolescence is a difficult period of life.

Money Expressions

This section is currency-dependent and remains under construction.

Deictic Determiners

Deictic determiners are words which point out or specify other words. They include the following:

• demonstratives like this, that, those
• indefinite specifiers like any, some, all, the, etc.
• Derived animate and inanimate pronouns like this one, those things, something, everyone, etc.
• Derived adverbs of time like when, now
• Derived adverbs of place like there, here, somewhere
• Derived adverbs of manner like how, thus, somehow
• Derived adverbs of kind so, age this year old, direction that way, reason why?, and so forth.

Deictic Determiner Base Morphemes

There are eleven deictic determiner base morphemes. These are used as prefixes joined to other elements to derive adjectival, pronominal, and adverbial determiners.

CATEGORY	BASE MORPHEME
INTERROGATIVE	ho-...?....what?
DEFINITE	ha-....the
INDEFINITE1	he-....some, a certain
PROXIMAL PROXIMAL IMMEDIATE	hi-....this, these hii-....the following
DISTAL DISTAL EMPHATIC	hu-....that, those huu-....such, so
NEGATIVE	hyo-....no, not any
DISTRIBUTIVE2	hya-....every, all, each
INDETERMINATE3	hye-....any, whatever
IDIODEICTIC4	hyi-....the same, the very
ALLODEICTIC5	hyu-....the other, another, else

1 Sometimes referred to as assertive existential.

2 Sometimes referred to as universal.

3 Sometimes referred to as elective existential

4 Idiodeictic is a coined Greek word meaning "same-specifying" and refers to words that point reflexively to the same entities, such as at the same time, in the same way, the same person, etc. This category is sometimes referred to as negative alternative.

5 Allodeictic is a coined Greek word meaning "other-specifying" and refers to words that point outwardly to other entities, such as somebody else, some other time, in other ways, etc. This category is sometimes referred to as positive alternative.

Adjectival Determiners

Here is a table showing the deictic determiner prefixes attached to elements ending in -a to form various adjectival deictic determiners:

	ADJECTIVE OF SELECTION	ADJECTIVE OF KIND	PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE
INTERROGATIVE	hoa?....which?	hoyena?....what kind of?	hota?....whose?
DEFINITE	ha....the	hayena....the kind of	hata....the one's
INDEFINITE	hea....some, a certain	heyena....some kind of, a certain kind of	heta....someone's
PROXIMAL PROXIMAL IMMEDIATE	hia....this, these hiia....the following	hiyena....this kind of, such (a), like this, like these hiiyena....the following kind of	hita....this one's hiita....the following person's
DISTAL DISTAL EMPHATIC	hua....that, those huua...such a, such	huyena....that kind of, like that, like those, such huuyena....such a kind of	huta....that one's huuta....such a person's
NEGATIVE	hyoa....not, not a, not any	hyoyena....no kind of, no such	hyota....nobody's
DISTRIBUTIVE	hya    (short for hyaa)....every, all, each	hyayena....every kind of, all kinds of	hyata....everybody's
INDETERMINATE	hyea....any, whatever	hyeyena....any kind of, whatever kind of	hyeta....anybody's
IDIODEICTIC	hyia....the same	hyiyena....the same kind of	hyita....the same one's
ALLODEICTIC	hyua....the other	hyuyena....some other kind of	hyuta....someone else's

Note: The definite deictic determiner adjective ha (actually, short for haa) is used as what is more commonly referred to as the definite article the.

Note also: The distributive deictic determiner adjective hya (every) is short for hyaa.

Note further: Pronominal adjectives referring to people (plural) rather than person (singular) use the preposition bi (of). So, some people's houses would be rendered by ha tami bi heti ( = the houses of some (people).).

The pronominal adjectives can also incorporate gender in such a way that they refer to female or male persons specifically. This done by inserting the letter w before the characteristic vowel for males and the letter y after the characteristic vowel for females, eg.:

• Hwita tam se ga aga.....This guy's house is bigger.
• At voy bee ha dyuni bi huuyti.....I don't have those women's names (= the names of those women).

Usage examples of deictic determiner adjectives:

• Hoa tam se etas?.... Which house is yours?
• Hoyena dyezuni ifxe et?.... What kind of movies do you like?
• Hota tef okwa?.... Whose hat was lost?
• Ha tob ta yata dyuni..... The man knew our names.
• Hayena dini at ife, et ufe..... The kind of stories I love, you hate.
• Hea mepi eejdyunwo..... Certain streets will be renamed.
• Heyena fukyes uxaye parnyan..... Some kind of accident has cause a traffic jam.
• Heta abtaf akwa be ha zatem...... Someone's coat was found in the foyer.
• Hia dyes se ata gafias..... This book is my favorite.
• Hiia duni se yofwa..... The following words are prohibited.
• Hiiyena xeyen voy afwu.....The following sort of behavior would not be allowed.
• Hiyena xeyen voy vayafwo..... This type of behavior will not be tolerated.
• Hita tim so yovoza..... This guy's room will be blue.
• Hua mas efwa eejvozilbwer..... That wall needs to be repainted.
• Huua dini yufxe jogati.....Such stories scare children.
• Huyena duni yeyfwe yixwer za at..... Such words should not be used in front of me.
• Huta tam magseye..... That guy's house is on fire.
• Hyoa din se ga tesike..... No story is more important.
• Hyoyena tes tesiyafwe..... No such meaning can be inferred.
• Hyota jatexdren sa ga fia..... Nobody's plan is better.
• Hya mepi izpe Roma..... All roads lead to Rome.
• Hya tob yefe xer ita gon..... Every man must do his part.
• Hyayena telami ese be hia mep..... All manner of restaurants exist on this street.
• Hyata tej se uka bi yabi ay yobi..... Everyone's life is full of ups and downs.
• Hya ewa domi agxaye..... Both cities have grown.
• Hyea voz so fia..... Any color will be fine.
• Hyeyena til se beuwa..... Any kind of drink is available.
• Hyeta ved se ge ifa vyel atas..... Anyone's guess is as good as mine.
• Hyea tim et fe et yafe bayser..... Whatever room you want, you can have.
• Hyia fukyesi kyese glajodi..... The same accidents occur frequently.
• Hyiena dyezuni teaxuwa zajub..... The same kind of films were shown yesterday.
• Hyita dyun yixwa gajod..... The same person's name was used again.
• Hyua dyezun sa ifuyea..... The other movie was more entertaining.
• Hyuena mos teasu ga fia..... Another kind of furniture would look better.
• Hyuta texyen se ga fyia..... Someone else's opinion is equally valid.
• Ha dyuni bi hiyti voy dodraye..... These women's names have not be make public.
• Ha dyuni bi hwiiti voy dodrowe.....The following males' names will not be publicized.

If the definite article or any other deictic morpheme is omitted before a noun, than it has the effect of the English indefinite article a / an with a singular noun or some with a plural noun. For example:

• Aat tilia ha tilyeb bi vafil..... We drank the glass of wine., vs.
  • Aat tilia tilyeb bi vafil..... We drank a glass of wine.

• Aat tilia ha tilyebi bi vafil..... We drank the glasses of wine., vs.
  • Aat tilia tilyebi bi vafil..... We drank (some) glasses of wine.

• Aat tilia awa tilyeb bi vafil..... We drank one glass of wine., vs.
  • Aat tilia ha awa tilyeb bi vafil..... We drank the one glass of wine.

• Aat tilia ewa tilyebi bi vafil..... We drank two glasses of wine., vs.
  • Aat tilia ha ewa tilyebi bi vafil..... We drank the two glasses of wine., vs.
  • Aat tilia hya ewa tilyebi bi vafil..... We drank both glasses of wine.

• Aat tilia owa tilyeb bi vafil..... We drank no/zero glasses (=not a single glass) of wine.

• Aat tilia ea tilyeb bi vafil..... We drank another/a second glass of wine., vs.
  • Aat tilia ha ea tilyeb bi vafil..... We drank the second glass of wine., vs.
  • Aat tilia ea tilyebi bi vafil..... We drank second glasses of wine., vs.
  • Aat tilia ha ea tilyebi bi vafil..... We drank the second glasses of wine.

If an indefinite article sense is needed for clarity, the words awa (one) or hea (some, a certain) can be used, eg.:

• At igtease awa tob yiztyoyaber.....I glanced a man walk by.
• Hwit upo hea juab....He will come on a / a certain / some Monday.

Pronominal Deictic Determiners

The following chart shows deictic determiners used as pronouns. Note that the suffix -s (short for sun) is used pronouns referring to things, while -t (short for tob) is used for those referring to persons. The suffix -i pluralized either of these. The distinction between a form like what? and a selective form like which? is made by using the full adjectival form (with -a-) in the selective forms. So, for example, hot? is who?, but hoat? is which one? (referring to a person). The determiners referring to persons can optionally be made specifically male with the insertion of the letter w before the stem vowel or specifically female with the insertion of the letter y before the stem-ending t:

PRONOUNS	THING THINGS	SELECTIVE THING SELECTIVE THINGS	NUMBER GENDER	SELECTIVE PERSON SELECTIVE PERSONS	PERSON PERSONS	PERSON'S THING PERSON'S THINGS
INTERROGATIVE	hos?....what (thing)? -- -- hosi?....what (things)? -- --	hoas?....which one? -- -- hoasi?....which ones? -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	hoat?....which person?? hwoat?...which man? hoayt?....which woman? hoati?....which people? hwoati?...which men? hoayti?....which women?	hot?....who?, whom? hwot?....who?, whom? hoyt....who? hoti?....who?, whom? hwoti?....who?, whom? hoyti?....who?, whom?	hotas?....whose (thing)? hwotas?....whose hoytas?....whose? hotasi?....whose (things)? hwotasi?....whose? hoytasi?....whose?
DEFINITE	has....it, the thing -- -- hasi....they, them, the things -- --	haas....the one -- -- haasi...the ones -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	haat....the one hwaat...the male one haayt....the female one haasi....the ones hwaasi...the male ones haaysi....the female ones	hat....the person, he, him hwat....he, him hayt....she, her hati....the persons, they, them hwati....the males, they, them hayti....the females, they, them	hatas....whose? (thing) hwatas....whose haytas....whose hatasi....whose )things) hwatasi....whose haytasi....whose
INDEFINITE	hes....something -- -- hesi....some (things) -- --	heas....a certain one -- -- heasi....certain ones -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	heat....a certain one hweat....a certain male heayt....a certain female heati....certain ones hweati....some males heayti....some females	het....someone hwet....some male heyt....some female heti....some (people) hweti....some males heyti....some females	hetas....someone's hwetas....some male's heytas....some female's hetasi....some people's hwetasi....some males' heytasi....some females'
PROXIMAL	his....this -- -- hisi....these -- --	hias....this one -- - hiasi....these -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	hiat....this one hwiat....this one hiayt....this one hiati....these ones hwiati....these of the males hiayti...these of the females	hit....this person hwit....he, him hiyt....she, her hiti....these people, they, them hwiti...these males hiyti....these females	hitas....this person's, his hwitas....this male's hiytas....this female's hitasi....this person's (things), theirs hwitasi....this man's hiytasi...this woman'
PROXIMAL IMMEDIATE	hiis....the following -- -- hiisi....the following (things) -- --	hiias....the following one -- -- hiiasi....the following ones -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	hiiat....the following person hwiiat....the following male hiiayt....the following female hiiati....the following ones hwiiati...the following males hiiayti....the following females	hiit....the following person hwiit...the following male hiiyt....the following female hiiti....the following (people) hwiiti....the following males hiiyti....the following females	hiitas....the following person's (thing) hwiitas....the following male's hiiytas....the following female's hiitasi....the following person's (things) hwiitasi....the following male's hiiytasi....the following female's
DISTAL	hus....that -- -- husi....those -- --	huas....that one -- -- huasi....those -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	huat....that one hwuat....that one of the males huayt....that one of the females huati....those people, they hwuati....those males huayti....those females	hut....that person, he, him hwut....that guy, he, him huyt...that female, she, her huti....those people, they, them hwuti....those males huyti....those females	hutas....that person's, his hwutas....his huytas....hers hutasi....that person's (things), his hwutasi....his huytasi....hers
EMPHATIC	huus....such, such a thing -- -- huusi....such things -- --	huuas....such a one -- -- huuasi....such ones -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	huuat....such a person (rare) (rare) huuati....such people (rare) (rare)	huut....such a person hwuut....such a male huuyt....such a female huuti....such people hwuuti....such males huuyti....such females	huutas....such a person's (rare) (rare) huutasi....such people's (things) (rare> (rare)
NEGATIVE	hyos....nothing -- -- hyosi....none -- --	hyoas....not a one -- -- hyoasi....none -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	hyoat....not a one -- -- hyoati....none -- --	hyot....nobody hywot...no male hyoyt....no female hyoti....no people hywoti....no males hyoyti....no females	hyotas....nobody's -- -- hyotasi....nobody's (things) -- --
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyas....everything, all -- -- hyasi....all things -- --	hyaas....each one -- -- hyaasi....all of them -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	hyaat....each one -- -- hyaati....all of them -- --	hyat....everyone hywat....every male hyayt...every female hyati....all (people) hywati....all males hyayti....all females	hyatas....everyone's -- -- hyatasi....everyone's (things) -- --
INDETERMINATE	hyes....anything, whatever -- -- hyesi....any -- --	hyeas....whatever one -- -- hyeasi....any of them -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	hyeat....whichever one -- -- hyeati....whichever ones -- --	hyet....anyone hywet...any male hyeyt....any female hyeti....whoever hyweti....whichever males hyeyti....whichever females	hyetas....whoever's -- -- hyetasi....anybody's (things) -- --
IDIODEICTIC	hyis....the same thing -- -- hyisi....the same things -- --	hyis....the same one -- -- hyiasi....the same ones -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	hyiat....the same one -- -- hyiati....the same one -- --	hyit....the same person hywit....the same guy hyiyt....the same woman hyiti....the same people hywiti....the same men hyiyti....the same women	hyitas....the same person's -- -- hyitasi....the same person's (things) -- --
ALLODEICTIC	hyus....something else -- -- hyusi....other things -- --	hyuas....the other one -- -- hyuasi....the other ones -- --	SINGULAR NEUTRAL SINGULAR MALE SINGULAR FEMALE PLURAL NEUTRAL PLURAL MALE PLURAL FEMALE	hyuat....the other one -- -- hyuati....the others -- --	hyut....someone else hywut...the other guy hyuyt....the other woman hyuti....others hywuti....the other guys hyuyti....the other women	hyutas....someone else's -- -- hyutasi....someone else's (things) -- --

Here is a chart of pronominal deictic determiners of kind formed from the corresponding adjectival determiners of kind (eg. hoyena?....what kind of...?):

	KIND OF THING KIND OF THINGS	KIND OF PERSON KIND OF PEOPLE
INTERROGATIVE	hoyenas?....what kind of thing? hoyenasi?....what kind of things?	hoyenat?....what kind of person? hoyenati?....what kind of people?
DEFINITE	hayenas....the kind of thing hayenasi....the kind of things	hayenat....the kind of person hayenati....the kind of people
INDEFINITE	heyenas....some kind of thing heyenasi....some kind of things	heyenat....some kind of person heyenati ....some kind of people
PROXIMAL	hiyenas....this kind of thing, such a thing hiyenasi....these kinds of things, such things	hiyenat....this kind of person, such a person hiyenati....these kinds of people, such people
PROXIMAL IMMEDIATE	hiiyenas....the following kind of thing hiiyenasi....the following kinds of things	hiiyenat....the following kind of person hiiyenati....the following kinds of people
DISTAL	huyenas....that kind of thing, such a thing huyenasi....such things, such things	huyenat....that kind of person, such a person huyenati....those kind of people, such people
EMPHATIC	huuyenas....such a thing huuyenasi....such kinds of things	huuyenat....such a person huuyenati....such kinds of people
NEGATIVE	hyoyenas....no such thing hyoyenasi....no such things	hyoyenat....no such person hyoyenati....no such people
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyayenas....every kind of thing hyayenasi....all kinds of things	hyayenat....every kind of person hyayenati....all kinds of people
INDETERMINATE	hyeyenas....any kind of thing hyeyenasi....any kinds of things	hyeyenat....any kind of person hyeyenati....any kinds of people
IDIODEICTIC	hyiyenas....the same kind of thing hyiyenasi....the same kinds of things	hyiyenat....the same kind of person hyiyenati....the same kinds of people
ALLODEICTIC	hyuyenas....some other kind of thing hyuyenasi....other kinds of things	hyuyenat....some other kind of person hyuyenati....other kinds of people

Any of the above animate deictic determiners can be made to refer specifically to males or females with the ending -wat or -wati for males and -ayt or -ayti for females. For example: any kind of males would be translated with hyeyenwati. Every kind of female would be translated with hyayenayt.

Selective vs. Non-Selective Forms

The pronominal deictic interrogative determiner hot? means who and contrasts with its selective counterpart hoat?, which means which one?. All the selective determiners refer to one or more things or persons from a selectable pool of things or persons.

The following sentences illustrate the use of the above pronominal determiners:

• Hot aka zajuba ek?.... Who won yesterday's game?
• Hoat bi ha akuti sa ha gwa fiat?.... Which one of the winners was the best?
• Hota tam se hus?.... Whose house is that?
• Hotas se hus?.... Whose is that?
• Hotia deuzi et gaife?.... Whose songs do you prefer?
• Hotias et gaife?.... Whose do you prefer?
• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hosi se eta gaifuni?.... What are your preferences?
• Hoa deuzi se eta gwafiasi?.... Which songs are your best?
• Hoasi se eta gwafiasi?.... Which ones are your best?
• Bi hia deuzuti, hoat et gafie?.... Of these vocalists, which one do you prefer?
• Hiiti yaneko hijub..... The following people will compete today.
• Hoati se gwa fia?'.... Which ones are best?
• Hoti et teexe gwa jodi?.... Who (all) do you listen to the most often?
• Huat hu at teexe gwaxag draye ejna deuz..... The one I listen to the most has written a new song.
• Ejna deuz? At voy teste haas hu et tede..... New song? I don't understand which one you mean.
• Hias. This one.
• Vo. Huasi se ga fia..... No. Those are better.
• His se jub av ivxelen..... This is a day for celebration.
• Va. Hia jub. At tese hijub..... Yes. This day. I mean To-day.
• Husi sa ha jubi, ata dat! Those were the days, my friend!
• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hot aka ha igpek?.... Who won the race?
• Hyas uja fi..... Everything ended well.
• Hyasi uje..... All things come to an end.
• Hyayenasi vey kyesu..... All sorts of things might happen.
• Hyos yoka at..... Nothing surprised me.
• Hyot ta adut hu ako..... Nobody knew who would win.
• Huaytihu fu pier yefe..... Those females who would like to leave may.
• Hyet yefe eker hia ifek..... Anyone can play this game.
• Huyenasi voy afwo..... Such things will not be permitted.
• Hua twob voy taxe hia toyb..... That man does not remember this woman.
• Huti yanyexe fi..... Those guys work well together.
• Huuyti hyaj yubixe tezex.....Such females always attract attention.
• At jay teataye hiyenasi..... I've seen such things before.
• Huyenwat voy vabiwu..... A man like that would not be accepted.
• Hoyenasi weet iyfe xer je ha maj..... What kinds of things do you guys like to do during the day?

Placement of Interrogative Deictic Determiners

In a sequence of adjectives before a noun, deictic determiners go first, eg.:

• Hoa ewa oga nyefi bewe et?.... Which two small bags belong to you?

In interrogative sentences, the interrogative deictic determiner (question word) often starts out the sentence, as in English.

• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hot et teata aay hijub?.... Who(m) did you see first today?

Interrogative deictic determiners can also go at the end of sentence:

• Eta dyun se hos?.... What is your name? Lit. Your name is what?

Distributive Deictic Determiners Incorporating Numerical Information

Sometimes, a deictic determiner specifies numerical information. This chart shows those forms:

ADJECTIVE	INANIMATE PRONOUN	ANIMATE PRONOUN	POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE	POSSESSIVE PRONOUN
hawa* the only	hawas the only thing hawasi the only things	hawat the only one (person) hawati the only ones	hawata the only person's	hawatas the only one's hawatasi the only one's (things)
hyawa* each	hyawas each one	hyawat each person	hyawata each person's	hyawatas each one's hyawatasi each one's (things)
hyaewa both	hyaewasi both (things)	hyaewati both (people)	bi hyaewati both person's	has bi hyaewati both person's hasi bi hyaewati both persone's (things)
hyaiwa all three	hyaiwasi all three (things)	hyaiwati all three (people)	hyaiwata all three person's	has bi hyaiwati all three person's hasi bi hyaiwati all three person's (things)
ohyawa not every	ohyawas not everything	ohyawat not everyone	ohyawata not every person's	ohyawatas not everyone's ohyawatasi not everyone's (things)
hyoawa not a single	hyoawas not a single thing	hyoawat not a single person	hyowata not a single person's	hyowatas not a single person's hyowatasi not a single person's (things)
hyeawa either	hyeawas either one	hyeawat either one (person)	hyeawata either one's	hyeawatas either one's hyeawatasi either one's (things)
hyeewa any two	hyeewasi any two things	hyeewati any two people	bi hyeewati any two person's	has bi hyeewati any two persons' hasi bi hyeewati any two persons' (things)
hyeowa neither	hyeowas neither one	hyeowat neither person	hyeawata neither person's	hyeowatas neither one's hyeowatasi neither one's (things)
hyuawa another	hyuawas another one	hyuawat another	hyuawata another's	hyuawatas another's hyuawatasi another's (things)
hyuowa no other	hyuowas nothing else	hyuowat nobody else	hyuowata no other's	hyuowatas no other's hyuowatasi no other's (things)

*Hawa and hyawa are short for haawa and hyaawa, respectively.

Examples using the above numerically-based deictic determiners:

• Ohyawat se iva bay eta vaod..... Not everyone is happy with your decision.
• Hyaewasi yafwe uxer yata efi..... Both (things) can serve our needs.
• Hyeawa tim ivlaxo at..... Either room will satisfy me.
• Hyeowas oivlaxo at..... Neither one will dissatisfy me.

Note: Hyua means the other, while hyuawa means another, eg.:

• At fu hyua til.....I would like the other drink., vs.
• At fu hyuawa til.....I would like another drink.

Similarly, hya means every, all, while hyawa means each, eg.:

• Hya dom bee tebixea suni teaxer.....Every city has interesting things to see.
• Hya domi bee tebixuni.....All cities have things of interest.
• Hyawa dom bee tebixun.....Each city has something of interest.

Also, ha means the, while hawa means the only, eg.:

• Hawa twob nazea ata tezex se et.....The only man worth my attention is you.
• Ha twob hu at gwa ife se et.....The man I most love is you.

By appending y to hawa, we get the adverb haway only, solely, eg;

• Haway et nize ata tezex.....Only you deserve my attention..

The singular person pronouns in the above chart can be converted into possessive adjectives by adding the adjective suffix a, eg.:

• Hyawata tej se ge glatesa vyel hyutas..... Each one's life is as important as another's.
• Hyeowata dyun se vyama..... Neither person's name is real.

However, the plural person pronouns in the above chart use the preposition bi (of) to form possessives, eg.:

• Ha teji bi hyaiwati se kyebukuwa..... The lives of all three are in danger.

The above singular possessive adjectives can, in turn, be converted into inanimate pronouns with the suffix -s.

• Hyawatas se glatesa..... Each one's is important.
• Hyeowatas se vyama..... Neither's is real.

The plural possessive adjectives can be nominalized with the use of bi, eg:

• Hyaiwasi bi huti se kyebukuwa..... All three of theirs' are in danger.

Correlative Distributive Deictic Determiners are handled as follows:

• Hyeawa A ey B.... either A or B
• Hyeowa A oy B.... neither A nor B
• Hyaewa A ay B.... both A and B
• Hawa A, voy B.... only A, not B

Adverbial Deictic Determiners

This tables shows a correlated set of pro-adverbs built through the agglutination of basic deictic determiners. This is not all-inclusive, because their are other similary-constructed pro-verbs relating to age, frequency, and so forth.

PRO-ADVERBS	MANNER (b)yen	PLACE (n)em	TIME j(ob)	DEGREE nog	REASON sav	FREQUENCY xag
INTERROGATIVE	hoyen? how?, in what way?	hom? where?	hoj? when?	honog? how?, to what degree?	hosav? why?	hoxag? how often?
DEFINITE	hayen the way, how	ham the place, where	haj the time, when	hanog as, to the degree	hasav because	haxag as often (...as)
INDEFINITE	heyen somehow, in some way	hem somewhere	hej sometime	henog somewhat	hesav for some reason	hexag with some frequency
PROXIMAL	hiyen this way, so	him here	hij now	hinog so, this, to this extent	hisav for this reason, hence	hixag this often
PROXIMAL IMMEDIATE	hiiyen in the following way	hiim hereby	hiij here now	hiinog to the following extent	hiisav for the following reason	hiixag as often as follows
DISTAL	huyen that way, thus	hum there	huj then	hunog so, that, to that extent	husav for that reason, therefore, so	huxag that often
EMPHATIC	huuyen in such a way, so, thus	huum at such a place	huuj at such a time	huunog so, to such an extend	huusav for such a reason	huuxag so often
NEGATIVE	hyoyen in nowise	hyom nowhere	hyoj never	hyonog not at all	hyosav for no reason	hyoxag never
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyayen totally, in every way	hyam everywhere	hyaj always	hyanog totally	hyasav for every reason	hyaxag always
INDETERMINATE	hyeyen anyway	hyem anywhere, wherever	hyej whenever	hyenog however, to any degree	hyesav for whatever reason	hyexag with whatever frequency
IDIODEICTIC	hyiyen likewise	hyim at the same place	hyij at the same time	hyinog as, to the same extent	hyisav for the same reason	hyixag as often
ALLODEICTIC	hyuyen otherwise	hyum elsewhere	hyuj some other time	hyunog not as	hyusav for some other reason	hyuxag not as often

Some of these pro-adverb determiners are agglutinated abbreviations for longer, full forms:

• hom....where   <   ho   +   nem   =   what place
• hoj....when   <   ho   +   job   =   what time
• hoyen....how   <   ho   +   byen   =   what manner
• hot....who   <   ho   +   tob   =   what human being

The longer, expanded forms of pro-adverbs can be used at any time. For example:

• At egteato et hejob.....I will see you again sometime.
• Hosun se eta dyun?....What is your name?
• Et yeyfe axer hubyen.....You shouldn't act that way.

It should be noted that all of these pro-adverb determiners, unless used as nouns, such as in the sentence Iyt iyfe him. She likes this place (or) She likes it here., are really abbreviations of longer expressions with mostly the preposition be at. For example, At tameya hum., meaning I used to live there. is ignoring the preposition be from the longer, more explicit version At tameya be hum., lit. I used to live at that-place. The proper preposition must be explicitly present if something other than be at is meant. For example, from where? is expressed as bi hom? Similarly, until then would be expressed as ju huj.

Here are some examples of how adverbial determiners are used:

• Hom et tame?.... Where do you live?   <   Et tame be HOa neM? You live at what place.)
• At tame hum..... I live there.
• Et tame hum hu ha mep uje..... You live where the road ends.
• Hom yet peye?.... Where are you guys going?
• Et yafe per hyem hu et fu..... You can go anywhere.
• Bi hom et se?.... Where are you from?
• Hoj et taja?.... When were you born?
• At voy tajaya huj..... I had not been born then.
• Et yeyfe duder hiiyen..... You should respond in the following way.
• Ot voy yefe daler huuyen..... One must not talk in such a manner.
• Et pia hesav..... He left for some reason.
• Hoyen et iyfe hia vafil?.... How do like this wine?
• Voy se fia axer hiyen..... It is not good to act this way.
• Hosav et tadsa huunog jwa?.... Why did you marry so late?
• Ha tob pia hyosav..... The man left for no reason.
• He tob pia hasav hu it efa per hyum.....The man left because([for] the reason that) he needed to go elsewhere.

The different, somewhat confusing, meanings of how are illustrated here:

• Hoyen it xa hus?.... How did he do that?.... (Equivalent to Be hoa byen...? In what way...?) (MANNER)
• Hoyen et xeye?.... How are you doing?.... (This is the normal way of saying How are you? or How do you do? (MANNER)
• Hoyena sa ha dyezun?.... How was the film?.... (How here is an ADJECTIVE OF KIND, and thus ends in -a.)
• Honog (= Hogla) aga it se?.... How big is he?.... (DEGREE)
• Honog (= Hogla) iyfla et se!.... How nice you are!.... (DEGREE, but used here as an EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSION)

The conjunction as is expressed most often using pro-adverbs of manner:

• Xu hayen hu at de..... Do as I say. = (in) the way that...
• Xu hyiyen hu at xe..... Do as I do. = (in) the same way that...
• Xu hiiyen:.... Do as follows: = (in) this hereby manner...

However, the particle gel (like, as) can be substituted:

• Xu gel at de..... Do as I say.

Many of the pro-adverb determiners in the above chart can be relativized by adding the relative marker hu after the base form, eg:

• At teaso et haj hu et puo him.....I will see you when you get here.
• It xa has hasav hu tosa yefa.....He did it because (for the reason that) he felt compelled.
• Hyem hu et po, et so ga iva.'....Wherever you go, you'll be happier.

See more about this in the section on relative clauses under Verbs.

Quantitative Deictic Determiners

The deictic prefixes can be combined with gla to form quantitative expressions acting as adverbial or adjectival determiners, and substantives (pronouns referring to things or people):

	ADVERBIAL / ADJECTIVAL DETERMINER	INANIMATE SINGULAR PRONOUN	INANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN	ANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN
INTERROGATIVE	hogla? how?/how much?/how many?	hoglas? how much?	hoglasi? how many	hoglati? how many (people)?
DEFINITE	hagla how/as much/as many	haglas as much	haglasi as many	haglati as many (people)
INDEFINITE	hegla somewhat/some/some	heglas some	heglasi some	heglati some (people)
PROXIMAL	higla this/this much/this many	higlas this much	higlasi this many	higlati this many (people)
DISTAL	hugla that/that much/that many	huglas that much	huglasi that many huyglasi so many	huglati that many (people)
EMPHATIC	huugla so very, so much, so many	huuglas so much	huuglasi so many	huuglati so many (people)
NEGATIVE	hyogla not at all/no/no	hyoglas none of it	hyoglasi none of them	hyoglati none
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyagla totally/all/all	hyaglas all of it	hyaglasi all of them	hyaglati all
INDETERMINATE	hyegla however/any/any	hyeglas any of it	hyeglasi any of them	hyeglati any number of them
IDIODEICTIC	hyigla as/as much/as many, equally	hyiglas the same amount	hyiglasi the same number	hyiglati as many (people)
ALLODEICTIC	hyugla not as much/not as much/not as many	hyuglas a different amount	hyuglasi a different number of things	hyuglati a different number of people

Here are some examples showing how these quantitative determiners are used:

• Et deuze huugla fi..... You sing so well.
• At se hegla booka..... I am somewhat tired.
• Hogla pati et teata hijub?.... How many birds did you see today?
• At teata vyavay hugla tami..... I saw exactly that many houses.
• Iyt fe hyiglas vyel et..... She wants the same amount as you.
• Hoglati yantexe yet?.... How many (people) agree with you?
• Hyoglati yantexe..... None agree.
• Iit fu heglasi..... They would like some (of them).
• Et yafe bier hyeglasi et fe..... You can take however many you want.
• At se huugla booka.....I am so tired.

NOTE: The following determiners are synonymous and interchangeable:

• hegla = gle = henog (somewhat, to some degree)
• hyigla = ge = hyinog (as, equally, to the same degree)

The determiners hogla and huugla can be used as exclamatory adverbs, eg.:

• Hogla et agsaye!.... How you have grown!
• Hua twob jagsaye huugla!.... That man has aged so much!
• Hia jotul se huugla fiteluza!.... This dessert is sooo delicioius!

Possessive Determiners

For a discussion of possessive determiners like my, mine, yours, our own, etc., see Possessive Adjectives under Pronouns.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun I stands for the person standing at this place. The pronoun this stands for the thing or person nearest.

In Mirad, pronouns can be:

• personal or deictic
• ordinary or reflexive
• animate or inanimate
• specific or generic
• ungendered or feminine

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns in Mirad can be analyzed into the following categories:

CATEGORY	ELEMENTS
ANIMACY	1. animate, 2. inanimate
PERSON LEVEL	1. first, 2. second, 3. third
NUMBER	1. singular, 2. plural
GENDER	1. gender-neutral, 2. male, 3. female
SPECIFICITIES	1. specific, 2. generic, 3. reflexive, 4. emphatic, 5. reciprocal

This chapter deals only with personal pronouns and not with deictic pronouns like this person, whoever, and those. Such pronouns are discussed in the chapter on Determiners. Pronouns do not have case forms like English he / him or she / her but they can be adjectivized to form what are known as possessive adjectives in English like his or my or possessive pronouns like hers or mine. Here below are charts showing the basic personal animate pronouns, split into gender-neutral, masculine, and feminine, including the generic and reflexive pronouns. The emphatic, reflexive, and reciprocal forms of personal pronouns are treated separately in a later section.

• GENDER-NEURAL PRONOUNS:

GENDER-NEUTRAL PRONOUNS	SINGULAR	PLURAL (Double the vowel)
FIRST PERSON SPECIFIC	at....I, me	aat....we, us
SECOND PERSON SPECIFIC	et....you	eet....you, you all
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	it....he, him, she, her, it	iit....they, them
THIRD PERSON GENERIC	ot....one	oot....they, them, people
THIRD PERSON REFLEXIVE	ut....self, oneself	uut....selves, oneselves

NOTE: The generic and reflexive pronouns ot and ut do not express gender and are therefore not seen in the next two charts.

NOTE: The pronoun it can be translated as he or it in English when referring to animals or babies.

• MALE PRONOUNS:

MALE PRONOUNS (Pefix with w)	SINGULAR	PLURAL
FIRST PERSON	wat....I, me	waat....we, us
SECOND PERSON	wet....you	weet....you, you all
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	wit....he, him	wiit....they, them

• FEMALE PRONOUNS:

MALE (Insert y)	SINGULAR	PLURAL
FIRST PERSON	ayt....I, me	aayt....we, us
SECOND PERSON	eyt....you	eeyt....you, you all
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	iyt....she, her	iiyt....they, them

NOTE: The generic pronouns ot, oot and the reflexive pronouns ut, uut do not express gender. The third person generic pronouns ot and oot are used as English one and they, people (means unspecifed persons), as in the following examples:

• Ot yefe xer ha yakwas..... One must do what is expected.
• Oot de hav et vyode hoj..... They/People say you never lie.

The gender-neutral third person pronouns it and iit can refer to any sex, but are masculine by default or out of context. In practice iyt (she/her) is the only gendered pronoun used commonly. The others are rarely used. The first person plural pronoun aat can be either inclusive or exclusive, i.e. it can mean "you and I" or "you and the others." The plural pronouns have double vowels, but the second, final vowel is stressed. For example, aat is pronounced a-AHt and eeyt is pronounced eh-EHt. There is no distinction of case in Mirad, so at can mean I or me. For example:

• Xu at fibun..... Do me a favor.
• At so dat..... I will be a friend.
• Hov tojbu it..... Don't kill him/her.
• At ta hav iyt upo..... I knew she would come.
• Fyadilu av aayt..... Pray for us (women).

NOTE: The English pronoun it is inanimate (refers to a thing or abstraction) and is not included in the above set of animate personal pronouns. This inanimate pronoun is explained later.

Reflexive Personal Pronouns

Reflexive personal pronouns like English myself, yourself, etc. are formed postfixing the reflexive pronoun ut or uut depending on whether the pronoun is singular or plural. The gender of the pronoun is reflected in the first personal pronoun morpheme, not the ut morpheme. The generic pronoun ot is invariable in terms of gender.

REFLEXIVE	SINGULAR GENDER-NEUTRAL	SINGULAR MALE	SINGULAR FEMALE	PLURAL GENDER-NEUTRAL	PLURAL MALE	PLURAL FEMALE
FIRST PERSON	atut.... myself	watut.... my male self	aytut.... my female self	aatuut.... ourselves	waatuut....our male selves	aaytuut.... our female selves
SECOND PERSON	etut.... yourself	wetut....your male self	eytut.... your female self	eetuut.... your female selves	weetuut....your male selves	eeytuut.... your female selves
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	itut.... himself/herself	witut....himself	iytut.... herself	iituut.... themselves	wiituut....their male selves	iiytuut.... their female selves
THIRD PERSON GENERIC	otut.... oneself	--	--	ootuut.... people themselves	--	--

Examples of usage:

• Wat yafe teater watut be ha sinzyef.....I (a male) can see myself (as a male) in the mirror.
• Iyt yubteaxa iytut.....She examined herself.
• Tyeu etut!....Know thyself.
• It tojbu itut.....He/she would kill him/herself.
• Ot yefe ifer otut.....One must love oneself.
• Oot glaxag voy ife ootuut.....People often don't love themselves.

The reflexive pronoun ut self can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean auto-, or self-, eg.:

• tojber.... kill → uttojber.... commit suicide
• vyixer.... clean → utvyixer.... wash up, clean oneself, self-clean
• exer.... function → utexer.... function automatically, self-run
• izber.... pilot → utizber.... auto-pilot, self-drive
• exut.... operator → utexut.... automaton
• deber.... rule → utdebea.... autocratic, self-ruling
• tejdin.... biography → uttejdin.... autobiography
• fider.... praise → utfider.... boast   (= self-praise)

Emphatic Personal Pronouns

Emphatic personal pronouns can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the adverb anutay (particularly), eg.:

EMPHATIC PRONOUNS	SINGULAR	PLURAL
FIRST PERSON	at anutay.... I myself, me myself	aat anutay.... we ourselves, us ourselves
SECOND PERSON	et anutay.... you yourself	eet anutay.... you yourselves
THIRD PERSON	it anutay.... the person him or herself wit anutay.... he himself iyt anutay.... she herself	iit anutay.... they themselves wiit anutay....the males themselves iiyt anutay....the females themselves

Examples:

• At anutay voy vyatexe Tot.....I myself (= I in particular) don't believe in God.
• At jateate eeyt anutay be hua dezzamos.....I foresee you gals yourselves on that stage.
• Iyt anutay voy sa hum.....She herself was not here.

Reciprocal Personal Pronouns

The reciprocal pronoun one another, each other is translated with hyuit, which is a melding of hyut (the other person) and hyit (the same person).

• Aat yefe ifer hyuit..... We must love one another.

This reciprocal pronoun can be converted to a possessive adjective by suffixing a, as in hyuita....one another's, mutual, reciprocal:

• Waat yefe fiyzaxer hyuita fwasi. We guys must respect one another's wishes.

Note the following:

• hyuita....mutual, reciprocal
• hyuitif....Mutual love
• huitan....mutuality, reciprocity
• hyutin....altruism
• atin.... egoism
• utyena....selfish
• utifa....egoistic
• utifat....egoist
• utufa....self-loathing
• utin....egotism
• utina....egotistic
• utinat....egotist
• ha at....the ego
• ha it....the id
• ha ut....the self
• ha aybat....the superego
• ha hyut....the other
• hyutifa....altruistic
• hyutifat....altruist
• hyutifa....xenophobic

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives, which can also be referred to as pronominal determiners, are derived from basic and reflexive personal pronouns by adding the adjectival ending a to the basic or reflexive personal pronoun, as follows:

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES	SINGULAR BASIC	PLURAL BASIC	SINGULAR REFLEXIVE	PLURAL REFLEXIVE
FIRST PERSON NEUTRAL-GENDER FIRST PERSON FEMALE FIRST PERSON MALE	ata my ayta my wata my	aata our aayta our waata our	atuta my own aytuta my own watuta my own	aatuuta our own aytuuta our own waatuuta our own
SECOND PERSON NEUTRAL-GENDER SECOND PERSON FEMALE SECOND PERSON MALE	eta your eyta your weta your	eeta your eeyta your weeta your	etuta your own eytuta your own wetuta your own	eetuuta your own eeytuuta your own weetuuta your own
THIRD PERSON NEUTRAL-GENDER THIRD PERSON FEMALE THIRD PERSON MALE	ita his/her iyta her wita his	iita their iyta their wiita their	ituta his/her own iytuta her own wituta his own	iituuta their own iiytuuta their own wiituuta their own
THIRD PERSON GENERIC	ota one's	oota people's	otuta one's own	ootuuta people's own

The above possessive adjectives an be substantivized as pronouns by adding the suffix s thing possessed, or si things possessed, as follows:

SUBSTANTIVIZED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES	BASIC POSSESSED THING	BASIC POSSESSED THINGS	REFLEXIVE POSSESSED THING	REFLEXIVE POSSESSED THINGS
FIRST SINGULAR NEUTRAL-GENDER POSSESSOR FIRST SINGULAR FEMALE POSSESSOR FIRST SINGULAR MALE POSSESSOR	atas mine, my thing aytas mine watas mine	atasi mine, my things aytasi mine watasi mine	atutas my own, my own thing aytutas my own watutas my own	atutasi my own, my own things aytutasi my own watutasi my own
SECOND SINGULAR NEUTRAL-GENDER POSSESSOR SECOND SINGULAR FEMALE POSSESSOR SECOND SINGULAR MALE POSSESSOR	etas yours eytas yours wetas yours	etasi yours, your (things) eytasi yours wetasi yours	etutas your own eytutas your own wetutas your own	etutasi your own, your own things eytutasi your own wetutasi your own
THIRD SINGULAR NEUTRAL-GENDER POSSESSOR THIRD SINGULAR FEMALE POSSESSOR THIRD SINGULAR MALE POSSESSOR	itas his/her iytas hers witas his	itasi his/her (things) iytasi her (things) witasi his (things)	itutas his/her own (thing) iytutas her own (thing) witutas his own (thing)	itutati their own (things) iytutasi their own (things) witutasi their own (things)
THIRD SINGULAR GENERIC POSSESSOR	otas one's	otasi one's , one's things	otutas one's own	otutasi one's own (things)
FIRST PLURAL GENDER-NEUTRAL POSSESSOR FIRST PLURAL FEMALE POSSESSOR FIRST PLURAL MALE POSSESSOR	aatas ours aaytas ours waatas	aatasi ours, our things aaytasi ours waatasi ours	aatuutas our own aaytuutas our own waatuutas our own	aatuutasi our own (things) aaytuutasi our own waatuutasi our own
SECOND PLURAL GENDER-NEUTRAL POSSESSOR SECOND PLURAL FEMALE POSSESSOR SECOND PLURAL MALE POSSESSOR	eetas yours eeytas yours weetas yours	eetasi yours, your things eeytasi yours weetasi yours	eetuutas your own eeytuutas your own weetuutas your own	eetuutasi your own (things) eeytuutasi your own weetuutasi your own
THIRD PLURAL GENDER-NEURAL POSSESSOR THIRD PLURAL FEMALE POSSESSOR THIRD PLURAL MALE POSSESSOR	iitas theirs iiytas theirs wiitas theirs	iitasi theirs, their things iiytasi theirs wiitasi theirs	iituutas their own iiytuutas their own wiituutas their own	iituutasi their own (things) iiytuutasi their own wiituutasi their own (things)

Examples:

• Aat yefe valbeler aatuutasi.....We must protect our own.
• Etasi naze ga vyel atasi.....Yours are worth more than mine.
• Weet, Biku weetuta soni.....You guys, mind your own business.
• Aayt fe ser bay aaytuuti.....We gals want to be with ourselves.

Translating various uses of it in English

When translating English it referring to an animal or baby, the Mirad pronoun it is used, eg:

• At eke bay ha epet avhas hu at iyfe it..... I play with the dog because I like it.

When translating English it referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the Mirad deictic pronoun has is used, eg:

• At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa has gla.....I saw the movie and I liked it a lot.

The possessive forms of has is hasa its, for example:

• At iyfe ha dyes ay at ife hasa abdyun..... I like the book and I love it's title.

If the pronoun they/them is just a plural of it referring to an object or abstraction, then the pronoun hasi is used.

• Ha sizuni se via ay at ife hasi..... The dogs are beautiful and I love them.

The possessive form of hasi they/them must be expressed with the preposition bi of, eg.:

• Ha tefi se via oy ha naxi bi hasi se otwa..... The hats are beautiful, but their prices (= the prices of them) are unknown.

If it introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the it is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example:

• Mamilo..... It will rain. ( = Will rain.)
• Se fia hav et upa..... It is good that you came. ( = Is good that you came.)
• Sa via jub bay et..... It was a beautiful day with you. ( = Was a beautiful day...)
• Voy se yuka yarper hia meb..... It is not easy to climb this mountain. ( = Is not easy...)

Referring to Third Persons with Deictic Determiners

The definite, proximal, distal deictic determiners can be used for third person pronouns. These forms can be animate or inanimate, masculine or feminine, singular or plural, definite, proximal (near to the speaker) or distal (remote from the speaker). The general forms of these specifiers are given in a previous section, but they are elaborated here for their use as third person pronouns:

		THING	PERSON	FEMALE	MALE
DEFINITE	SINGULAR PLURAL POSSESSIVE	has it/this/the thing hasi they/them/these/the things hasa its/this/the thing's	hat the person/he/she/him/her hati the people/they/them hata the person's/his/her	hayt she/her hayti they/them/the females hayta her/the female's	hwat he/him/the male person hwati they/them/the males hwata his/the male's
PROXIMAL	SINGULAR PLURAL POSSESSIVE	his it/this/this thing hisi they/them/these/these things hisa its/this/this thing's	hit this person/he/she/him/her hiti these people/they/them hita this person's/his/her	hiyt she/her hiyti they/them/these females hiyta her/this female's	hwit he/him/this male person hwiti they/them/these males hwita his/this male's
DISTAL	SINGULAR PLURAL POSSESSIVE	hus it/this/that thing husi they/them/these/those things husa its/this/these thing's	hut this person/he/she/him/her huti these people/they/them huta this person's/his/her	huyt she/her huyti they/them/those females huyta her/that female's	hwut he/him/that male hwuti they/them/those males hwuta his/that male's

Mirad does not force you to indicate gender in animate pronouns. The gender-neutral forms in the PERSON column are ordinarily sufficient. The forms in the MALE and FEMALE column are optional and used only when a distinction is needed.

Here are some examples using the above pronouns:

• Huyt voy se tadsa..... She (that woman) is not married.
• At hoj teataye hiti..... I have never seen them (these people).
• Hasi bi huyti se ga aga vyel atasi..... Theirs (= the ones of those females) are bigger than mine.
• Hom et koxa has?.... Where did you hide it (the thing)?
• Hoyen et ijtya hat?....How did you meet him (the person)?
• At tyaye huyt yagjob..... I've known her (=that female) for a long time.

The above pronouns answer the questions hos? what?, hosi? what things?, hot? who(m)?, or hoti? what persons?, but there is another set of deictic selective pronouns that answer the questions hoat? which one?, hoayti? which ones (of the females mentioned)?, hoas? which one/thing?, and hoasi? which ones/things?:

SELECTIVES	THING	THINGS	PERSON	PERSONS
DEFINITE	haas the one	haasi the ones	haat the one	haati the ones
PROXIMAL	hias this one	hiasi these	hiat this one	hiati these
DISTAL	huas that one	huasi those	huat that one	huati those

Here are some examples using these deictic selective pronouns:

• Duhev et fu hias ey huas?.... Would you like this one or that one?
• Huayt se haat..... She (that female person) is the one.
• At iyfe hiasi ga vyel huasi..... I like these more than those.

Compare the following two examples:

• Hoas et fu? Hias..... Which one would you like? This one. (SELECTIVE)
• Hos et fu? His..... What would you like? This. (SPECIFIC)

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are presented in the chapter on Verbs, under the section "Free Relative Clauses".

Verbs

Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present infinitive (see Infinitives), such as beer to have. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because of it is somehow special, and the stem is the infinitive minus the wer ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions.

This shows how the STEM is derived:

PRESENT INFINITIVE VERB FORM	STEM	INFINITIVE ENDING
beer to have	be-	-er
poser to (come to a) stop	pos-	-er
xer to do	x-	-er
xwer to happen, be done (PASSIVE)	x-	-wer

Verb Categories

Morphological Categories

Verbs are inflected with the following morphological categories:

• STATES: finite, non-finite
• TENSES: present, past, future
• ASPECTS: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, conditional
• VOICES: active, passive (reflexive and reciprocal are lexical, not morphological)
• MOODS: indicative, hypothetical
• PERSONS: 1st singular, 2nd singular, 3rd singular, 1st plural, 2nd plural, 3rd plural

In effect, the PERSONS category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself, because the Mirad verb form stays the same for all PERSONS. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense depending on the PERSON. The following chart shows how this differs from the corresponding stationary verb form in Mirad:

PERSON	ENGLISH	MIRAD
1st SING	(I) am	(at) se
2nd SING	(you) are	(et) se
3rd SING	(he/she/it) is	(it) se
1st PLUR	(we) are	(aat) se
2nd PLUR	(you) are	(eet) se
3rd PLUR	(they) are	(iit) se

Lexical Categories

In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing lexical categories:

STATIVE	DYNAMIC
ser.... to be	xer....to do
INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE
agaser....to grow large	agaxer....to magnify
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	OBJECT-ORIENTED
bier....to take	buer....to give
REFLEXIVE	NON-REFLEXIVE
utvyixer....to wash up (wash oneself)	vyixer....to wash
ACTIVE	PASSIVE
xer....to do	xwer....to happen, to be done
INCHOATIVE	CAUSATIVE
tujper....fall asleep	tujber....put to sleep
AUTONOMOUS	DYNAMIC
yijer....to open (by itself)	yijber....to (make it) open
RECIPROCAL	NON-RECIPROCAL
hyuittujber....to kill one another	tujber....to kill
GESTURAL	MOTIONAL
baser....to stir, budge	paser....to move

Non-finite Forms

Non-finite verb forms are not conjugated for person, cannot form a predicate, and do not have a subject. There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad:

• INFINITIVES: the dictionary reference form of a verb, ending in er
• GERUNDS: verbal nouns, ending in en
• PARTICIPLES: verbal adjectives, ending in a

Infinitives

Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the present infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or sometimes the present passive infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus this er or wer ending is the VERB STEM.

STEM	ENDING	INFINITIVE
ags	er	agser to grow
agx	er	agxer to magnify
p	er	per to go
x	wer	xwer to happen, be done

The infinitive in Mirad is used just as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two tenses (present, past) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the respective endings are underlined:

INFINITIVE	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
PRESENT	agaxer to magnified	agaxwer to be magnified
PAST	agaxayer to have magnified	agaxawer to have been magnified

Gerunds

The gerund is a verbal noun like English mating in mating rituals. It is formed by suffixing en to the verb stem for the active voice and wen for the passive voice (The consonant w is used in Mirad for indicating the passive voice).

INFINITIVE	STEM	ACTIVE GERUND	PASSIVE GERUND
agaxer...to magnify	agax-	agaxen... magnifying, magnification	agaxwen being magnified
per... to go	p-	pen... going	(no passive voice)
saxer... to create, make, form	sax-	saxen... forming, creation	saxwen being created

Some examples:

• Ha saxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi..... The formation of this star took millions of years.
• Iyta deuzen sa gla via..... Her singing was very beautiful.
• Popen se yika yex..... Traveling is hard work.
• Teetwen fiay se glatesa av dezuti..... Being heard well is important for actors.

Participles

Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a. Participles can be present, past, future, or hypothetical. They can also be active or passive. Here is a table of participles:

TENSE-VOICE	INFINITIVE	STEM	ENDING	PARTICIPLE	EXAMPLE
PRESENT ACTIVE	deuzer to sing	deuz-	-ea	deuzea singing	ha deuzea pat the singing bird
PRESENT PASSIVE	ebdaler to discuss	ebdal-	-ewa	ebdalewa being discussed	ha ebdalewa dyen the book being discussed
PAST ACTIVE	pier to depart	pi-	-aa	piaa departed	ha piaa topi the departed souls
PAST PASSIVE	azyujber to lock	azyujb-	-(a)wa	azyujbawa locked	ha azyujbawa (or: azyubwa) mes the locked door
FUTURE ACTIVE	tajber to give birth	tajb-	-oa	tajboa about to give birth	ha tajboa toyb the woman about to give birth
FUTURE PASSIVE	osexer to destroy	osex-	-owa	osexowa about to be destroyed	ha osexowa tam the house about to be destroyed
HYPOTHETICAL ACTIVE	tojber to kill	tojb-	-ua	tojbua apt to kill	tojbua til a lethal potion
HYPOTHETICAL PASSIVE	tiler to drink	til-	-uwa	tiluwa drinkable	tiluwa mil potable water

Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples:

• Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay. She entered the room singing.
• Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia. The speech having been finished, he left.

Also, the above participles can be nominalized by suffixing n. Examples:

• tiluwa drinkable → tiluwan potability
• tojbua lethal → tojbuan lethality
• piaa departed → ita piaan his having departed...

Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for peoples. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized:

• xwa known → xwas what is known, a fact
• xwa known → xwasi facts, information
• oxwa unknown → oxwas what is not known, a mystery
• osexea destroying → osexeas a destroyer
• tojbua lethal → tojbuas something lethal, a lethal thing
• tojboa moribund → someone about to die, a fatal case
• tejea living → tejeat a living person
• tejea living → tejeasi living things

There is a special nominalized animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer), which refer to person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These participles end in ut.

• sexut.... builder
• nuut.... supplier
• tojbut.... killer
• ifut.... lover
• akuti.... winners

Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut the winner.

Finite Forms

In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories:

• two MOODS (indicative and hypothetical)
• three TENSES (present, past, future)
• five ASPECTS (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, conditional)
• two VOICES (active, passive)

Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person suject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se. Thus, at se I am, et se you are, it se he is, etc.

Moods

There are two moods in Mirad: indicative and hypothetical.

• Indicative Mood

The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go.

The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, and future indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively.

• Hypothetical Mood

Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below:

• a command , i.e. the IMPERATIVE (Go!)
• a wish or suggestion, i.e. the HORTATIVE or JUSSIVE (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!)
• an imagined if-condition, i.e. the SUBJUNCTIVE (If I were a rich man...)
• an imagined then-situation, i.e. the CONDITIONAL (I would be happy.)

Aspects

There are four aspects in the Mirad verb system.

• the SIMPLE aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional.
• the PROGRESSIVE aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense.
• the PERFECT aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed.
• the IMMINENT aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen.
• the CONDITIONAL aspect, i.e. an action supposed to happen.

• The Simple Aspect (default)

Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, and non-conditional.

Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of two Mirad verbs (saxer to create and ser to be) with the endings underlined:

MOOD	TENSE	ASPECT	VOICE	VERB #1 saxer	VERB #2 ser
INDICATIVE	PRESENT	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxe. I create	At se. I am
INDICATIVE	PAST	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxa. I created	At sa. I was
INDICATIVE	FUTURE	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxo. I will create	At so. I will be
HYPOTHETICAL	ATEMPORAL	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxu. I would create [CONDITIONAL] Hav aat saxu! Let's create! [HORTATIVE] Saxu has! Create it! [IMPERATIVE] Hav hyat saxu! May everyone create! [JUSSIVE]	At su. I would be Hav has su. Let it be. Su fia! Be good! Hav hyat su iva! May everyone be happy!

• The Simple Indicative Present Tense

The simple indicative present tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later.

• The Simple Indicative Past Tense

The simple past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time.

• The Simple Indicative Future Tense

The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future.

• The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal

A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, jussive, conditional, or subjunctive.

Generally, if a verb form ending in u begins a sentence, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!. If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers hav, hev, or hov, than it is probably a CONDITIONAL predicate like At fu per. I would like to go.. If the subject of the verb is preceded by hev if, then it is a SUBJUNCTIVE (unreal conditional) clause as in Hev at su nasikat... If I were a rich man.. If the subject is preceded by Hav that/let/may or hov don't, then it is a HORTATIVE wish like Hav et yagteju. May you live long. or a JUSSIVE suggestion like Hav aat fadilu. Let us pray. or a prohibition like Hov tilu his! Don't drink this!. If the sentence consists merely of a SUBJECT + VERB ending in -u, the meaning is CONDITIONAL, eg.: At voy xu hus. I would not do that.

Voices

Mirad has two voices, ACTIVE and PASSIVE (although REFLEXIVES and RECIPROCALS can be produced lexically.).

• Active Voice

The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action.

• Passive Voice

A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just before the last vowel of the verb form. The past passive particle ending awa can be reduced to wa (done is xawa or xwa) if the resultant combination of consonants is not to hard to pronounce.

The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs:

TENSE-MOOD	ACTIVE	PASSIVE	EXAMPLE
INFINITIVE	xer to do	xwer to be done	Ese hyos xwer. There is nothing to be done.
PRESENT PARTICIPAL	sexea constructing	sexewa being constructed	His se sexewa. This is under construction.
PRESENT	xe does	xwe is done	Huyenasi hoj xwe. Such things are never done.
PAST PARTICIPAL	xaa having done	x(a)wa done	Hyas se xawa. Everything is done.
PAST	tojba killed	tojbwa was killed	Hoj it tojbwa? When was he killed?
HYPOTHETICAL	bakxu heal	bakxwu be healed	Hav it bakxwu. May he be healed.

Sometimes, the passive voice is used to represent a medio-passive. For example, ujwer to open is used medio-passively in the expression Ha mes ujwa. The door opened., because there is no overt subject, as if the door opened itself. Many intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the verb tajber to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tobob tajbwa zajub. The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tobob taja zajub. The child was born yesterday.)

• Reflexive Voice

A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example:

• tojber to kill → uttojber to kill oneself
• milber to wash → utvyilxer to wash up
• teater to see → utteater to see oneself
• yalber to lift → utyalber to lift oneself → Utyalbu! Lift yourself up!
• ter to know → utter to know oneself → Uttu! Know thyself!

• Reciprocal Voice

A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun hyuit one another, for example:

• tojber to kill → hyuittojber to kill one another
• vyilxer to wash → hyuitvyilxer to wash one another
• teater to see → hyuitteater to see one another

Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form uut is used if the subject is plural, for example:

• Iiyt vyilxa uut.....They (f.) washed up. (= washed selves).
• Ha twobeti dizeuda hyuit.....The boys laughed at one another.

Aspects Revisited

Mirad verbs have the following aspects:

• SIMPLE -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. NON-PROGRESSIVE, NON-PERFECT, NON-IMMINENT, and NON-POTENTIAL.
• PROGRESSIVE -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time.
• PERFECT -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state.
• IMMINENT -- this describes an action or state about to happen.
• POTENTIAL -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible.

The Simple Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.). The simple conditional refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.).

SIMPLE ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
SIMPLE PRESENT	At xe.... I do	Has xwe.... It is done
SIMPLE PAST	At xa.... I did	Has xwa.... It was done
SIMPLE FUTURE	At xo.... I will do	Has xwo.... It will be done
SIMPLE CONDITIONAL	At xu.... I would do	Has xwu.... It would be done

The Progressive Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE	at xeye.... I am doing	Has xewe.... it is being done
PAST PROGRESSIVE	at xeya.... I was doing	Has xewa.... it was being done
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE	at xeyo.... I am going to be doing	Has xewo.... it will be happening
CONDITIONAL PROGRESSIVE	at xeyu.... I would be doing	Has xewu.... it would be happening

The Perfect Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

PERFECT ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT PERFECT	At xaye.... I have done	Has xawe.... It has been done
PAST PERFECT	At xaya.... I had done	Has xawa.... It had been done
FUTURE PERFECT	At xayo.... I will have done	Has xawo.... It will have been done
CONDITIONAL PERFECT	At xayu.... I would have done	Has xawu.... It would have been done

The Imminent Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect. The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

IMMINENT ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT IMMINENT	At xoye.... I am going to do	Has xowe.... It is going to be done
PAST IMMINENT	At xoya.... I was going to do	Has xowa.... It was going to be done
FUTURE IMMINENT	At xoyo... I will be about to do	Has xowo.... It will be about to be done
CONDITIONAL IMMINENT	(not used)	(not used)

The Potential Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

POTENTIAL ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT POTENTIAL	At xuye I am to do	Has xuwe It is to be done, it is doable
PAST POTENTIAL	At xuya I was to do	Has xuwa It was to be done, it was doable
FUTURE PERFECT	(not used)	(not used)
CONDITIONAL PERFECT	(not used)	(not used)

Putting It All Together: The Mirad Verb Conjugation System

The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad verb conjugation system using the verb xer to do and its passive xwer to be done, happen:

STATE	MOOD	ASPECT	TENSE	VOICE	CONJUGATED FORM	TRANSLATION
INFINITIVE		SIMPLE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xer xwer	to do to be done, to happen
INFINITIVE		PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaer xawer	to have done to have been done, to have happend
PARTICIPLE		PROGRESSIVE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xea xewa	doing being done, happening
PARTICIPLE		PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaa xawa ∼ xwa	having done done, happened
PARTICIPLE		IMMINENT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoa xowa	about to do about to happen
PARTICIPLE		POTENTIAL		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xua xuwa	bound to do doable
GERUND				ACTIVE PASSIVE	xen xwen	doing, deed being done, happening, event
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xe xwe	does is done, happens
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xa xwa	did was done, happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xo xwo	will do will be done, will happen
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (CONDITIONAL / IMPERATIVE)	SIMPLE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xu xwu	would do, do! would be done, would happen, be done!
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeye xewe	is doing is being done, is happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeya xewa	was doing was doing, was happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeyo xewo	will be doing will be happening
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (= CONDITIONAL)	PROGRESSIVE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeyu xewu	would be doing would be happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaye xawe	has done has been done, has happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaya xawa	had done had been done, had happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xayo xawo	will have done will have been done, will have happened
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (= CONDITIONAL)	PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xayu xawu	would have done would have been done, would have happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	IMMINENT	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoye xowe	is about to do is about to be done, is about to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	IMMINENT	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoya xowa	was to be done was to be done, was to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	POTENTIAL	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xuye xuwe	is supposed to do is supposed to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	POTENTIAL	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xuya xuwa	was supposed to do was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen

Predicate Types

Predicate types, i.e. illocutions, refer to whether the verb, predicate, clause, or sentence is expressed as a question (INTERROGATIVE), a declaration (DECLARATIVE), a negation (NEGATIVE), affirmation (AFFIRMATIVE), or combinations of these.

Making Predicates Interrogative

To make a declarative predicate or sentence into a question, simply begin it with the Yes/No Question Introducer Duhev Say whether.../Is it true that...? or any other interrogative pronoun or adverb such as Hos? What?, Hot? Who(m)?, or Hom? where?. Note that the Du in Duhev means Say.../ Tell me..., so Duhev...? really is a command meaning Say whether.... The word hev without the du is a conditional complementizer and just means if or whether. The part of the sentence after Duhev is a simple declarative statement in the normal word order. The same is true for the words following other interrogative words, such as Hos? What? and Hom? Where?. In other words, there is no inversion of word order in questions as there often is in English, Spanish, and many other languages.

DECLARATIVE	INTERROGATIVE
Et se taduwa..... You are married.	Duhev et se taduwa?.... Are you married? (= Say whether you are married.)
Ha mari se maya..... The stars are bright.	Duhev ha mari se maya?.... Are the stars bright? (= Say whether the stars are bright.)
Hut aka.....That guy won.	Hot aka?.... Who won?
Iyt aka glas.....She won a lot.	Hoglas iyt aka?.... How much did she win?
It paye..... He has gone.	Hom it paye?.... Where has he gone?

Note that the question words introduce the sentence and do not alter the word order as seen in the declarative. Also, a declarative sentence can be made interrogative simply by adding a question mark at the end in writing or raising the voice inflection at the end in speaking, eg:

• Et bese ha yubem?.... You live in the neighborhood?

The yes-no tag vao can be placed at the end of a declaration to make it a question, eg.:

• Et bese ha yubem, vao?....You live in the neighborhood, right?

Yes/no questions such as the above and those introduced with Duhev usually are answered with va yes, ve maybe, or vo no or their equivalents.

YES-NO QUESTION	ANSWER
Duhev eta dyun se John?.... Is your name John?	Vo, se Bill..... No, it's Bill.
Duhev eta apet aka?.... Did you horse win?	Va. Atas vay aka....Yes. Mine won indeed.
Duhev et texe hav ha malyen gafiso hijub?.... Do you think the weather will improve today?	Ve..... Maybe.
Fe per bay at?.... Wanna go with me?	Vey zajub.... Maybe tomorrow.
Et se tadio, vao?....You're going to get married, right?	Vey va, vey vo.....Maybe yes, maybe no.

Affirming/ Doubting / Negating Declarations

The following set of interjections and adverbs can be used to affirm, cast doubt on, or negate declarations:

	INTERJECTION	ADVERB	PROPOSITION
AFFIRMATIVE	va yes	vay indeed, really	Va. At vay yantexe.... Yes, I indeed/do/really agree.
DUBITATIVE	ve maybe, perhaps	vey possibly, may...	Ve. At vey po..... Maybe. I may/possibly will go.
NEGATIVE	vo no	voy not	Vo. At voy su iva..... No. I would not be happy.

Mixing Them Up

The above interrogative words and the words of affirmation / doubt / negation can be used in various combinations, for example:

• Duves et voy se tadsa?.... Aren't you married?
• Avhos iyt se voy tadsa?.... Why isn't she married?
• Vey voy mamilo..... It may not rain.
• At vay voy tadso iyt..... I will certainly not marry her.
• Et peyo, vao?.... You will go, right?
• Vo. Hus vey vay se vyoa..... No. That may indeed be wrong.
• Et te ha dud, vao?.... You know the answer, don't you? (=right?)

Note that the particles of affirmation/doubt/negation usually precede the verb, but can just as easily follow it.

• At voy te. .... I don't know.
• At te voy. .... I don't know. [Lit: I know not.]

Note that vao? is a particle meaning yes or no?, right?, n'est-ce pas?

Imperative and Hortative Expressions

An imperative expression is a command. In Mirad, a verb in the hypothetical form ending in -u without a subject is assumed to an imperative referring implicitly to you. For example:

• Ipu !.... Go away!
• Tiju !.... Wake up!
• Su fiat !.... Be a good person!

Hortative expressions, i.e. urging or wishing expressions like Let's go. or May he win., use the hypothetical form of the verb with the clause introduced by the positive complementizer vas that, may, let. In Arabic and some other languages, this is called the jussive' mood.

• Hav aat fadilu..... Let's pray. (Lit: That we would pray.)
• Hav et aku hia ifek..... May you win this game.
• Hav ha edeb yagteju..... Long live the king. (Lit. That the king would long-live.)

The negative version of imperative and hortative expressions is introduced with the negative complementizer hov don't, lest, let's not. If there is no subject pronoun, you is understood.

• Hov dalu at huyen..... Don't (you) speak to me that way.
• Hov iit oku..... May they not lose.
• Hov aat toxu it..... Let's not forget him.

Complementizers

Hav, hev, and hov are part of a whole system of complementizers:

TYPE	COMPLEMENTIZERS	MEANING	MIRAD EXAMPLE	ENGLISH EQUIVALENT
INTERROGATIVE	duhev...?	Is it true that...? Tell (me) whether... (yes/no question introducer)	Duhev eta dyun se John?	Is (it true that) your name is John?
CONDITIONAL	hev	if, whether	Hev et te, du has. At utdide hev it upo.	If you know, say so. I wonder whether he'll come.
ANTI-CONDITIONAL	ohev	unless	Ohev et yexe, et voy ako.	Unless you work, you will not win.
POSITIVE/HORTATIVE	hav	that, so that, let, may	At ta hav it upo. Hav aat dilo. Hav et su iva. At xa has hav et fitexu at.	I knew (that) he would come. Let's pray. Let you be happy. I did it so you'd think well of me.
NEGATIVE/PROHIBITIVE	hov	Don't, let...not, lest	Hov teaxu at. Hov aat su uva. At pio hov et futipsu.	Don't look at me. Let's not be sad. I will leave lest you get angry.
RELATIVE	hu	who, whom, that, which	Ha toybi hu ifaye et... Ha toyb hu et ife. Koxon hu at yofe onyafxer.	The women who have loved you. The woman (whom) you love. A problem (that/which) I cannot solve.

Subjunctive Clauses

The hypothetical mood is also used in subjunctive clauses. A subjunctive clause is one in which an action or state is desired, requested, required, or wanted in some other way by the actor in the main clause. Positive subjunctive clauses are introduced with the positive complementizer hav that, let's, so that. Here are some examples:

• Ha ideb dila hav at tyoibu za it..... The king asked that I kneel before him.
• Se igefwa hav et upu gwa ig..... It is urgent that you come as soon as possible.
• Dirwa hav hyat dolu..... It was ordered that everyone be silent.

A negative subjunctive clause is introduced with the negative complementizer hov don't, lest.

• Su bikaya hov et pyosu..... Be careful lest you fall / that you not fall.

The conditional complementizer hev if, whether can introduce a clause in the subjunctive, indicating an unreal condition, as in the following examples:

• At sexu tam hev at su nasika....I would build a house if I were (= would be) rich.
• Hos et xu hev et baysu ga nas?...What would you do if you had (= would have) more money?

Many of the above sentences could be rephrased with an infinitive in order to avoid the subjunctive:

• Ha ideb dila at tyoiber za it..... The king asked me to kneel before him.
• Se igefwa av et uper gwa ig..... It is urgent for you to come as soon as possible.
• Hyat dirwa doler..... Everyone was ordered to be silent.
• Su bikaya voy pyoser..... Be careful not to fall.

If-Then Conditional Clauses

A conditional clause is introduced with the conditional complementizer hev if, whether. The if-clause can be a real tense or a hypothetical. If the if-clause is hypothetical, the then-clause is also hypothetical. Here are the possible variations:

IF-CLAUSE	THEN-CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Hev ot yexe gla, If one works hard,	ot akxe. one succeeds.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
Hev et ta, If you knew,	et dola. you kept quiet.
FUTURE INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
Hev et pio, If you leave,	at so uva. I will be sad.
PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
Hev at su nasika, If I were rich, Hev et teetu, If you would listen,	at nusbiu aga tam. I would buy a new house. et testu. you would understand.
PAST HYPOTHETICAL	PAST HYPOTHETICAL
Hev at tayu, If I had known,	at dudayu hyuyen. I would have responded differently.

Note that in English, when the then-clause is future tense, the if-clause is present; This is not the case in Mirad, where both clauses are in the future. In Mirad, the formula is "If you WILL leave, I WILL be sad." In English, the formula "I didn't know whether he WOULD x" is translated in Mirad as "I didn't know whether he WILL x."

If/Whether Subordinate Clauses

Here are some examples of sentences where the main clause contains some verb of knowing, questioning, wondering, guessing followed by a subordinate clause introduced by the conditional complementizer hev whether / if. Note that the tenses in Mirad are somewhat different in that there is no relative shifting of time as in English.

MAIN CLAUSE	IF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
At utdide I wonder	hev it te ha vyan. if / whether he knows the truth.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
At voy te I don't know	hev iit aka ey oka. if / whether they won or lost.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
At voy te I don't know	hev et ujako. if / whether you will succeed.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
At utdide I wonder	hev et yantexu. if / whether you would agree.
PAST INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
At voy ta I didn't know	hev wit se taduwa. if / whether he was [Mirad: is] married.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
At dida I asked	hev iyt teata hia dezun. if / whether she had seen [Mirad: saw] this play.
PAST INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
At voy ta I didn't know	hev it upo if / whether he would [Mirad: will] come.
PAST INDICATIVE	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
At dida I asked	hev it fu per bay at. if / whether he might like to go with me.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST HYPOTHETICAL
At dida I asked	hev it fayu per bay at. if / whether he might have liked to go with me.

The negative conditional complementizer ohev unless is used in main-subordinate clause structures in the same way as the above.

MAIN CLAUSE	IF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Ot voy ujake One does not succeed	ohev ot yexe jestay. unless one works hard.
FUTURE INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Et voy teato at You won't see me	ohev et upo. unless you come (= will come).

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are of two types:

• Bound relative clauses qualify an explicit element (usually a noun or phrase) appearing in the main clause, and refer back to that element by means of the relative complementizer hu, and:
• Free relative clauses, which do not have an explicit antecedent external to themselves. Instead, the relative clause itself takes the place of an argument in the matrix clause. For example, in the English sentence I like what I see, the clause what I see is a free relative clause, because it has no antecedent, but itself serves as the object of the verb like in the main clause. (An alternative analysis is that the free relative clause has zero as its antecedent.) In Mirad, deictic pronouns or adverbs followed by the relative complementizer hu, as shown in the chart below, are used to introduce the free relative clause.

Bound Relative Clauses

The invariable relative complementizer hu is used to introduce a bound relative clause and refer back to an element in the main clause. Here are some examples:

• Ha tob, hu tadsa ja ewa jabi, bayse awa tobot.....The man, who got married two years ago, has one child.
• Ha toyb hu ake ibe aga nazun.....The woman who wins receives a big prize.
• Hia pati hu at pexa magilwo himaj.....These birds (that/which) I caught will be cooked this evening.
• Biu hyea jotul hu et fu.....Take any dessert (that) you'd like.
• Ha apet hu at bua it ha afyab apeda bay if.....The horse I gave the apple to neighed with pleasure. (= ...that I gave him the apple...)
• Iyt ijtyexa at bu ha yexeb hu iyt yexaya ob it je gla jabi....She introduced me to the boss under whom she had worked for many years. (Lit: ...that she had worked under him...)

Note that in cases where the relative clause ends in a preposition governing the man clause antecedent, a pronoun is added agreeing in gender, number, and animacy with the main clause antecedent. This type of construction occurs in the last two example sentences above. So, the English relative clause for whom I sang would be expressed in Mirad as that I sang for her/him/it/them depending on the gender, number, and animacy of the antecedent in the main clause.

• Ha toybi hu at deuza av iyti fida ata yafi.....The ladies for whom I sang (= that I sang for them) praised my abilities.

Bound relative clauses beginning with whose are expressed in Mirad as hu ita/iyta/yita/yiyta (= that his/her/their/their), depending on the gender and number of the explicit antecedent in the main clause.

• Ha ekuyt hu iyta tyoyab yonpyexwa yofa eker hijeb....The female player whose foot (= that her foot) was broken was unable to play this season.
• Ata yubati, hu yita tam sa jay ga aga vyel yatas, agaxa iita param gajod....Our neighbors, whose (= that their) house is already bigger than ours, enlarged their garage again.

If no preposition governing the antecedent is involved, but the relative clause takes the place of an objective case element, supplying a pronoun referring back to the antecedent noun, is optional:

• Ha dyeni hu at dyedi (hasi) zamaj sa hya fiasi....The books I read (= them) last evening were all good (ones).

Free Relative Clauses

Free relative clauses are introduced by a deictic pronoun or adverb followed by the relative complementizer hu as shown in the charts below.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS	MIRAD...ENGLISH	EXAMPLE
THING(S)	has hu...what/that which/the thing that hasi hu...what/those which/the things that hyes hu...whatever/anything that hyesi hu...whatever/anything that/any things that hyas hu...everything that/all that hyasi hu...all (things) that hyos hu...nothing (that) hyosi hu...none of the things (that) haas hu...which one haasi hu...which ones	Has hu at da se vyaa....What I said is true. Hasi hu it xa futepyenua at....What/the things he did angered me. At xo hyes hu et do....I will do whatever/anything you say. Et voy teeta hyesi hu at deuza....You didn't hear any of the things I sang. Hyas hu at fe se poos....All I want is peace. At akxa hyusi hu at fa....I achieved all the things I wanted. At testa hyos hu et da....I understood nothing you said. Hyosi hu et iyfe ifue at....None of the things you like appeal to me. At te voy haas hu at gwafe....I don't know which one I like best. At te haasi hu at gwofe....I know which ones I like least.
PERSON(S)	hat hu...who//the person (who) hati hu...those who/the ones who hyet hu...whoever/anybody who/that hyeti hu...whoever/any people that/who hyat hu...everyone that/everybody who hyati hu...all (people) who hyot hu...nobody (that/who) hyoti hu...no people (that/who) hata hu...whose haat hu...which one haati hu...which ones	Hat hu et teata pia....The person you saw left. Hati hu at tye yantexe....The people I know agree. At teapo hyet hu at fe....I will visit whomever I wish. Et voy teata hyeti hu at teata....You didn't see any of the ones I saw. Hyat hu at ijtya sa fiyena....Everyone I met was nice. At fida hyati hu at yeyfa....I praised all the people I was supposed to. At testa hyot hu at teeta....I understood nobody I heard. Hati hu et ijtyaxa sa fuyena....The ones you introduced were ill-mannered. At te voy hata hu ifpot his se....I don't know whose pet this is. At te voy haat hu at gwafe....I don't know which one (person) I like best. At te haati hu at gwofe....I know which ones (people) I like least.
RELATIVE ADVERBS	MIRAD ADVERB...ENGLISH ADVERB	EXAMPLE
PLACE	ham hu...where hyem hu...wherever hyam hu...everywhere hu...bi ham...from where, whence hu...bu ham...to where, whither	Yat teje ham hu ha malyem se ema....We live where the weather is mild. At fu per hyem hu et po....I'd like to go wherever you go. Hyam hu et pe, su bikaya....Everywhere you go, be careful. Ha dom hu at upe bi ham se gla oga....The town from where I come (Lit: that I come from it) is very small. Ha memi hu at popeyo hami se gle jiba....The countries where I am going to be traveling are quite distant.
TIME	haj hu...when hyej hu...whenever hyaj hu...everywhere	Du at haj hu et puo....Tell me when you arrive. Hyej hu iyt se iva, iyt deuze....Whenever/anytime she is happy, she sings. Hyaj hu at yabteaxe, et yobteaxe....Every time I look up, you look down.
MANNER/KIND	hayen hu...how, in what way, as hyeyen hu...however, in any way, in whatever manner hyiyen hu just as, the same way as	At utdide hayen hu it xa hus....I wonder how he did it. Hyeyen hu xwa se kos....However it happened is a mystery. Xu has hyiyen hu at xe has....Do it the same way as I do it.
DEGREE	hagla hu...how, to what extent hyigla hu...as, to the same degree as	Et hyoj to hagla hu iva at se....You'll never know how happy I am. At yofe poper hyigla yib hu et yafe....I cannot travel as far as you can.
QUANTITY	hagla hu...how much, how many hyegla hu...however much, however many hyigla hu...as much/many as	Duhev et te hagla nas hu it bayse?...Do you know how much money he has? Yet dida yat hyegla tami hu yat sexa....You guys asked us however many houses we built. Et niso hyigla nas hu at xe....You will earn as much money as I do.
REASON	avhas hu...why, for what reason avhyes hu...why ever, for whatever reason	Duhev et te avhas hu it xa hus....Do you know why he did that? Yat voy teste avhyes hu et xu hus....We don't understand why ever you'd do that.

If the relative clause is restrictive (i.e. it cannot be omitted without violating the meaning of the sentence), then no commas are used, but if it is non-restrictive (i.e. it provides new information that can be omitted), then it is surrounded by commas, just as in English.

• RESTRICTIVE: Ha mar hu yata mer zyupe dyunwe ha amar. The star that our planet goes around is called the sun.
• NON-RESTRICTIVE: Ha amar, hu yata mer zyupe, se vay haway hea mar. The sun, which our planet goes around, is really only a star.

Indirect and Direct Discourse

As in English, Mirad has both indirect discourse and direct discourse. Indirect discourse is when you know or say that something happened, whereas direct discourse is when you directly quote what someone has said.

Indirect Discourse

Sentences that have a main clause of communication or knowledge, followed by a subordinate clause with an indirect indication of what was said or known, use the positive complementizer hav (that, the fact that) to introduce the subordinate clause. The tense in the subordinate clause is a true tense, not a relative tense. Unlike in English, where the that can often be omitted, the Mirad hav complementizer can never be omitted.

• At ta hav et upo..... I knew that you would (= will) come.
• Ata ted da hav it yexe hya ita tej gel fufut..... My father said that he had worked (= he worked) all his life as a plumber.
• Se vyaa hav at gra tele..... It is true that I eat too much.
• At jada hav et puo jwa..... I predicted that you would (= you will) arrive early.

The conditional complementizer hev if, whether and the negative complementizer hov lest, don't, that...not are discussed in later sections.

Direct Discourse

Direct discourse works as in English, except that a colon (:) is used instead of a comma. Double quotes are used to surround the directly quoted part of the sentence.

• Iyt da: "At voy fe per." She said, "I don't want to go."
• At dida it: "Hot so eta aadezut?". I asked him, "Who will be your lead actor?"

Transitivity

Verbs can be transitive, intransitive, or reflexive. Verbs in the passive voice are by nature intransitive.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs can take a direct object and oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity.

Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go). Here are some examples:

TRANSITIVE	INTRANSITIVE
xer do	ser be
agxer grow (something)	agser grow (up)
amxer heat, make hot	amser become hot, heat up
puxer throw	puser jump
per go	ber put
aber put on	aper get on
yaber raise	yaper rise
poxer stop (something)	poser (come to a) stop
yuber bring	yuper approach
yeber insert	yeper enter

• At agxe vobi..... I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants.
• Ha vobi agseye ig..... The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast.

• Poxu ha par!.... Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car!
• Ha pur posa..... The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE].

• At yaba ha mis..... I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window.
• Ha amar yapaye..... The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE].

Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity

Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer to sleep vs. tujper to fall asleep. The transitive forms can be either active or passive.

INTRANSITIVE STATIC	INTRANSITIVE DYNAMIC	TRANSITIVE ACTIVE	TRANSITIVE PASSIVE
Ha mes yija....The door opened.	Ha nasyef yijpa....The purse came open.	At yijba ha mes....I opened the door.	Ha mes yijbwa bey yelput.....The door was opened by an intruder
Ha mes yuja.....The door closed.	Ha yanup yujpa.....The meeting adjourned.	At yujba ha mes.....I closed the door.	Ha mes yeyfe yujbwer ja sumjob.....The door should be closed by bedtime.
Ha dezun ijaye.....The play has started.	Ha par ijpa boy poys.....The car started up immediately.	At ijba ata tyal.....I started my meal.	Ha tyal ijbwa jwa.....The meal was started early.
Ha dezun ujaye.....The play has ended.	Ata yex ujpaye.....My work has come to an end.	A ujba ha dyes.....I finished the book.	Ha dyes hyoj ujbwa.....The book never got finished.
Ha tob toja zomoj.....The man died yesterday evening.	Ha tob tojpa.....The man dropped dead.	Hot tojba ha twob?....Who killed the man?	Ha twob tojbwa bey ita tayd.....The man was killed by his wife.
Teju.....Live!.	Tejpu!.....Come alive!.	Yat efe tejber ha twob.....We need to revive the man.	Ha twob yofwa tejbwer.....The man could not be revived.
Ha tobot taja zojub.....The baby was born yesterday.	Hoj ha tobot tajpo?....When will the baby pop out?	Iyt tajba awa twobot zojub.....She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.	Ha twobot tajbwa jo eymoj.....The baby boy was birthed after midnight.
At tija jwe.....I woke up on time.	It voy tijpa.....He did not come to..	At tijbo et jwa.....I will wake (you) up early.	At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa.....I don't want to be woken too early.
At tujeya.....I was sleeping.	At tujpeya.....I was falling sleep.	At tujbo it.....I will put (him) to sleep..	Ha tobot tujbwo glojo.....The baby will be put to sleep soon.

Reflexive Verbs

Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.:

• At tujboye atut..... I am going to kill myself.
• Tu etut!.... Know thyself!
• It gorba itut bay gorbar..... He cut himself with a knife.
• Ot yefe yuxer otut..... One must help oneself.

Sometimes, verbs incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix:

• uttujber.... commit suicide
• utboler.... support oneself

Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.:

• Et efe vyilxer etut..... You need to wash up [= wash yourself]. (or)
• Et efe utvyilxer.....You need to wash up [= self-wash].

Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs

Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object.

PREPOSITION-INCORPORATING VERB	EXAMPLE
per go (to)	Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home. It pa Paris. He went to Paris.
der say (to), tell	Du at eta dyun. Tell me your name. Du at has. Tell it to me.
peser wait (for)	Pesu at. Wait for me.
buer give (to)	Buu at hua dyes. Give me that book.

As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu has bu at. Give it to me.

Transitive/Causative and Intransitive/Inchoative Verbs

Derived from Adjectives

Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, while an inchoative verb means to become or take on the quality of something. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize.

To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix xer to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer.

ADJECTIVE	CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE	CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE
-xer	LITERAL	IDIOMATIC
aga big	agaxer to magnify	agxer to grow
ana one	anaxer to unify	anxer to unite
yona apart	yonaxer to separate	yonxer to cut
yaga long	yagaxer to lengthen	yagxer to stretch
yuga slow	yugaxer to retard	yugxer to brake
sana formal	sanaxer to formalize	sanxer to form
gea equal	geaxer to equalize	gexer to copy, equate
jaa prior	jaaxer to prioritize	jaxer to prepare

To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser to be to either the stem or the whole adjective.

ADJECTIVE	INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE	INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE
-ser	LITERAL	IDIOMATIC
aga big	agaser to get bigger	agser to grow
ana one	anaser to unify	anser to unite, become united
yona apart	yonaser to become separate	yonser to break

Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.:

• Ansu ey eet yonxwo. Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE]
• At otadsa haj hu at sa eta jag. I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE]
• Hisi agaxo has hu et teate. These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE]
• Hia tobot agseye ig. This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE]
• Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom. My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE]

Derived from Nouns

Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X.

NOUN	TRANSITIVE/CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE	INTRANSITIVE/INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE
mog ash	mogxer to incinerate	mogser to become ashes
yan collection	yanxer to collect	yanser to get together
tad spouse	tadxer to marry	tadser to get married
yom ice	yomxer to freeze/make ice	yomser to freeze/become ice
mag fire	magxer to burn, set fire to	magser to burn, get burned
uk void	ukxer to empty	ukser become empty, empty out

Derived from Verbs

Verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb stem ux (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused, eg.:

• At gorbuxo ata tayeb zamaj..... I will get my hair cut tomorrow.
• Et voy yafe puxer at..... You cannot make me go.
• It tojbuxa iit..... He had them killed.
• At efe vyilxuxer ata par..... I need to have my car washed.
• Et upuxwa him avhes..... You were made to come here for some reason.
• At bakambuxo et..... I will have you hospitalized.
• Et voy yafe deuzuxer at..... You cannot make me sing.
• At ivteuduxwa..... I was tickled (= made to laugh).
• Eta deuz ivteuduxa aat..... Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)
• Hav het ivasuxu weet..... May someone get you guys to be happy.

Directional Verbs

The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the ending ier for an action or motion toward the speaker and uer for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some object, eg.:

SUBJECT-DIRECTED	OBJECT-DIRECTED
bier to take	buer to give
nier to consume	nuer to supply
nyier to order	nyuer to deliver
nunier to buy	nunuer to sell
nazunier win a prize	nazunuer award a prize
noysier pay off	noysuer charge
ojbier borrow	ojbuer lend
tadier get married	taduer marry off
papier take flight	papuer send off flying
pipier set sail	pipuer dock
simbier take a seat	simbuer offer a seat
tampier leave home	tampuer arrive home
tamier settle in	tamuer shelter
nusbier to buy	nisbuer to sell
telier to eat	teluer to feed
gonbier to participate	gonbuer to share
tilier to drink	tiluer to water, give to drink
teubier to swallow	teubuer to spit out
teatier to observe, watch	teatuer to show
taxier to memorize	taxuer to remind
alier to breathe in	aluer to breathe out, expire
ilier to absorb	iluer to leak, soak
ifier to enjoy	ifuer to please
dier to ask	duer to suggest
tier to learn	tuer to inform
pier to depart	puer to arrive
kebier to choose	kebuer to distribute
tujier to fall asleep	tujuer to put to sleep
tojier to fall dead	tojuer to kill
byier to originate	byuer to target
mempier to take off	mempuer to land
sinier visualize	sinuer display
xier to result	xuer to cause
yifier to get up the courage	yifuer to encourage
yafonier to gain power	yafonuer to empower
tyier to become acquainted with	tyuer to acquaint
tepizier to pay attention to	tepizuer to draw attention to

Prepositions and Directional Adverbs as Verbal Prefixes

Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate to p before the verb per to go and a preposition ending in b will lose the b before a verb beginning with b. Here are some examples:

PREPOSITION/ADVERB	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
ab on	aber apply	aper get on, mount
ob off	ober remove	oper get of, dismount
eb between	eber block	eper intervene
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise
yob down	yober take down	yoper descend
yub near	yuber bring near	yuper approach
yib far	yiber take away	yiper go far away
yeb in	yeber insert	yeper enter
yeb in	yepuxer throw in	yepuser jump in
oyeb out	oyeber expose	oyeper exit
oyeb out	oyepuxer eject	oyepuser jump out
zyu round	zyuber rotate	zyuper revolve
zya throughout	zyaber spread	zyaper tour
av for	avdaler plead	avper pursue
ov against	ovber oppose	ovper countervene
yan together	yanber compose	yanper meet
yon apart	yonber separate	yonper separate
iz direct	izber lead	izper head
uz curved	uzber divert	uzper diverge
yuz around	yuzbexer surround	yuzper circulate
yiz beyond	yizber transfer	yizper surpass

Note:

The prefix eg- anew, again is used like the English prefix re-, eg.:

• ember to position → egember to reposition, replace
• der to say → egder to repeat
• sanxer to shape, form → egsanxer to reshape, reform

The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.:

• saxer to build, construct → losaxer to destroy, deconstruct
• yonxer to unite → loyonxer to disunite
• xer to do → loxer to undo

The prefix vyo- is used as the counterpart to the English mis-, meaning wrongfully, eg.:

• nadxer to align → vyonadxer to misalign
• der to say → vyoder to misstate, lie
• utbier to appropriate → vyoutbier to misappropriate

The prefix yan- together is used as the English co-, eg.:

• exer to operate → yanexer to cooperate
• tamer to dwell → yantamer to cohabit
• napber to put in order → yannapber to coordinate

The prefix zoy- is used as the English re(tro)-, meaning back, eg.:

• teaper to visit → zoyteaper to revisit
• uper to come → zoyuper to return, come back
• buxer to push → zoybuxer to repel, push back
• puxer to throw → zoypuxer to reject, throw back, jettison

The prefix az- (from aza strong) is used as an intensifier, eg.:

• yujber to close → azyujber to lock
• der to say → azder to emphasize
• duer to suggest → azduer to urge
• dizeuder to laugh → azdizeuder to guffaw

By contrast, the prefix oz- (from oza weak) is used as a softener, eg.:

• der to utter → ozder to whisper
• duer to suggest → ozduer to hint
• dizeuder to laugh → ozdizeuder to chuckle
• uvteuder to moan → ozuvteuder to whimper

The prefix ja- before is used as the English prefix pre-, fore-, or ante-, eg.:

• der to tell → jader to foretell, predict
• teater to see → jateater to foresee, preview
• ter to know → jater to presage, have foreknowledge of
• yever to judge → jayever to prejudge
• juder to date → jajuder to antedate

By contrast, jo- after is used as the English prefix post-, eg.:

• juder to date → jojuder to postdate
• texer to think → jotexer to reflect on, review
• der to say → joder to mourn, regret
• ibler to obtain → joibler to inherit

The prefix gra- too much is used for actions that are excessive, eg.:

• telier to eat → gratelier to overeat
• fer to want → grafer to cover
• der to say → grader to exaggerate
• daler to talk → gradaler to yammer

By contrast, the prefix gro- to little is used for actions that are underdone, eg.:

• fyinder to value → grofyinder to underestimate
• mageler to cook → gromageler to undercook

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc.

Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad:

POSITIVE		NEGATIVE
afer may ayfer might	efer need	ofer may not oyfer might not
ifer love iyfer like	fer want	ufer hate uyfer dislike
yafer can, be able yayfer might, could	yefer must, have to yeyfer ought, should	yofer cannot yoyfer could not, might not
yifer dare		yufer be afraid
yiver have a right, be free		yuver be bound

If the modal verb is in the hypothetic aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples:

• At fe per..... I want to go.
• At fu per..... I would like to go.

• Et yafe aker..... You can win.
• Et yafu aker..... You could win.

• Yet yefe iper..... You must leave.
• Yet yefu iper..... You ought to leave.

Post-iotating the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example:

• At ife et. ....I love you.
• At iyfe et. ....I like you.

• Et yefe iper..... You must leave.
• Et yeyfe iper..... You should leave.

• Iyt yafe aker..... She can win.
• Iyt yayfe aker..... She might win.

• At ufa uda tuz..... I hated that art.
• At uyfa uda tuz..... I disliked that art.

By the same token, adding the intensifying consonants l and r add strength to the model verb sense:

• Hua toyb yufxa at..... That woman scared me.
• Hua toyb yulfxa at..... That woman intimidated me.
• Hua toyb yurfxa at..... That woman terrorized me.

• Hia yex efwo..... This work will be necessary.
• Hia yex elfwo..... This work will be critical.
• Hia yex erfwo..... This work will be indispensable.

• Su yifa..... Be brave.
• Su yilfa..... Be bold.
• Su yirfa..... Be heroic.

• Et yuve buer nas..... You are supposed to give money.
• Et yulve buer nas..... You are bound to give money.
• Et yurve buer nas..... You are absolutely compelled to give money.

Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries:

• Et afe oyeper ay ifeker..... You may go out and play.
• Aat efa tujer..... We needed to sleep.
• Ot ofe mavier him..... One is prohibited to smoke here.
• Mavier him ofwe..... Smoking here is prohibited.
• At ife dyeer..... I love to read.
• He et fe yebuper?.... Do you want to come in?
• At fu teaper et edjub..... I would like to visit you some day.
• It ufaye hyaj teaxwer..... He has always hated being looked at.
• Duhev et iyfe per tilami?.... Do you like going to bars?
• At uyfe tijer gra jwa..... I dislike waking up too early.
• Et yafe xer hyes hu et fu..... You can do whatever you like.
• Et yefer xer ad vyaas..... You must do the right thing.
• Et yeyfe voy daler huyen azay..... You should not talk so loud.
• At yeyfa ter ga fi..... I should have known better.
• At voy yifu der hyea fuas..... I would not dare say anything bad.
• Hov yufu der has hu et tesde..... Don't be afraid to say what you mean.
• Et yive dier yevanavdut..... You have a right to ask for a lawyer.
• Aat voy yuve kyoejer..... We are not bound to stick around.

Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms

All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective yafa able is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective yafwa possible is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown:

MODAL TYPE	SUBJECT-ORIENTED	SUBJECT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED
	VERB	ADJECTIVE	VERB	ADJECTIVE
PERMISSION	afer.... may	afa.... allowed	afwer.... be permitted	afwa.... permissable
NECESSITY	efer.... need	efa.... needful	efwer.... be necessary	efwa.... necessary, required
PROHIBITION	ofer.... be unallowed	ofa.... prohibited	ofwer.... be prohibited	ofwa.... banned
POSSIBILITY	yafer.... be able	yafa.... able	yafwer.... be possible	yafwa.... possible
OBLIGATION	yefer.... must	yefa.... obliged	yefwer.... be obligatory	yefwa.... obligatory
DUTY	yeyfer.... should	yeyfa.... supposed, duty-bound	yeyfwer'.... be supposed	yeyfwa.... due
IMPOSSIBILITY	yofer.... be unable	yofa.... unable	yofwer.... be impossible	yofwa.... impossible
VOLITION	fer.... want	fa.... willing	fwer.... be desirable	fwa.... desirable, wanted
LOVE	ifer.... love	ifa.... enamored	ifwer.... be loved	ifwa.... lovable
HATE	ufer.... hate	ufa.... averse	ufwer.... be hated	ufwa.... odious
RISK	yifer.... dare	yifa.... daring, brave	yifwer.... be safe	yifwa.... safe
FEAR	yufer.... be afraid	yufa.... afraid	yufwer.... be a danger	yufwa.... frightening
JOY	iver.... enjoy	iva.... glad	ivwer.... be a joy	ivwa.... enjoyable
SORROW	uver.... be sorry	uva.... sorry, sad	uvwer... be a shame	uvwa.... regrettable

Examples of subject-oriented forms:

• At se yafa xer hes..... I am capable of doing anything.
• Et ofe teater hia dyezun..... You are not allowed/are prohibited to see this film.
• Duhev at afe per hum?.... Am I allowed to go there?
• Yat fu ter eta dyun..... We would like to know your name.
• Piti ufe beser be mel..... Fish hate to remain on dry land.
• At ajay ifa dazer..... I once loved to dance.
• Et se iva, at yife der..... You are beautiful, I dare say.
• At yeyfa xer has ga ig..... I should have done it sooner.
• Hov yufu; At yupeye..... Fear not; I am coming.
• Et yefe puer ja eymaj..... You must arrive before noon.
• Eet yofe daler je ha dezun..... You people must not talk during the performance.
• Aat yeyfe (= se yeyfa aker..... We should (= are bound/supposed/due) to win.
• At ive teater et bakser..... I'm glad to see you get better.
• Su iva..... Be happy.
• At uvu (= su uva) teater et iper..... I would be sad to see you leave.

Examples of patient-oriented forms:

• Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him..... It is permissible to smoke here.
• Ofwe (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him..... It is prohibited to throw litter here.
• Fwe (= se fwa) hav yet dolu..... It is desired that you stop talking.
• Voy yafwe beser him gajob..... It is not possible to remain here any longer.
• Yofwa av at ivteuder..... It was not possible for me to laugh.
• Yefwe hav et piu ig..... It is essential that you leave quickly.
• He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi?.... Is it obligatory to remove my shoes?
• Ga yux efwo..... More help will be needed.
• Yurx se ufwa xetyen..... Slavery is an odious practice.
• Uvwe hav wit oka..... It's a shame that he lost.

*Ofawa is used for unwanted for disambiguation purposes.

Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems

Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below:

SUBJECT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED
afxer allow (someone to do sthg.)	afwaxer permit (something to be done)
efxer require	efwaxer necessitate
ofxer prohibit	ofwaxer prohibit
yafxer enable	yafwaxer make possible
yefxer oblige	yefwaxer make obligatory
yofxer cripple	yofwaxer disable
yifxer embolden	yifwaxer make safe
yufxer intimidate	yufwaxer make frightening
ifxer please	ifwaxer make pleasant

Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes

Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things.

SUBJECT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED
Xyafa.... able to X, -able	Xyafwa.... posssible to X
Xyofa.... unable to X	Xyofwa....impossible to X
Xifa.... fond of Xing, Xophile
Xufa.... averse to Xing, Xophobic
Xyika.... hard of Xing	Xyikwa.... hard to X
Xyuka.... comfortable/easy Xing	Xyukwa....easy to X
-Xefa in need of Xing	Xefwa necessary to X
Xyufa afraid of Xing	Xyufwa frightening to X

This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems:

	POSITIVE ADJECTIVE	POSITIVE VERB	NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE	NEGATIVE VERB
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	teatyafa able to see, sighted	teatyafer be able to see	teatyofa blind	teatyofer be blind
PATIENT-ORIENTED	teatyafwa visible	teatyafwer be visible	teatyofwa invisible	teatyofwer be invisible
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	teetyafa able to hear, hearing	teetyafer be able to hear	teetyofa deaf	teatyofer be deaf
PATIENT-ORIENTED	teetyafwa audible	teetyafwer be audible	teeyofwa inaudible	teeyofwer be inaudiable
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	dalyafa able to speak	dalyafer be able to speak	dalyofa mute, dumb	dalyofer be mute, dumb
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	doabifa patriotic	doabifer be patriotic	doabufa rebellious	doabufer rebel
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	tosyafa sensitive	tosyafer be able to feel	tosyofa insensitive	tosyofer be numbed
PATIENT-ORIENTED	tayotyafwa palpable	tayotyafwer be palpable	tayotyofwa numb	tayotyofwer be impalbable, numb
PATIENT-ORIENTED	testyukwa easy to understand	testyukwaxer make easily understood	testyikwa hard to understand	testyikwaxer make hard to understand
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	tilefa thirsty	tilefer be thirsty
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	telefa hungry	telefer be hungry
PATIENT-ORIENTED	tejefwa vital	tejefwer be vital

Sensing Verbs

Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows:

	teab eye teata visual	teeb ear teeta audial	teib nose teita olfactory	teub mouth teuta gustatory	tayob skin tayota tactile
RECEPTIVE/ACTIVE	teater see	teeter hear	teiter smell	teuter taste	tayoter feel
RECEPTIVE/PASSIVE	teatwer be seen	teetwer be heard	teitwer be smelled	teutwer be tasted	tayotwer be felt
STATIVE	teaser seem	teeser sound	teiser smell	teuser taste	tayoser feel
DYNAMIC/ACTIVE	teaxer look at	teexer listen	teixer sniff	teuxer taste	tayoxer touch
DYNAMIC/PASSIVE	teaxwer be looked at	teexwer be listened to	teixwer be sniffed	teuxwer be tasted	tayoxwer be touched
CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE	teatuer show	teetuer make hear	teixuer make smell	teuxuer offer a taste	tayoxuer make feel
CAUSATIVE/PASSIVE	teatuwer be shown	teetuwer be made to hear	teituwer be made to smell	teutuwer be given a taste	tayotuwer be made to feel
INCHOATIVE/ACTIVE	teatier perceive, catch sight of	teetier catch the sound of	teitier get a whiff of	teutuer get a taste of	tayotier get the sensation of
INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE	teatiwer be perceived	teetiwer be heard	teitiwer be whiffed	teutiwer be tasted	tayotiwer be felt
NEGATIVE-MODAL/PATIENT-ORIENTED/ STATIVE	teatyofer be blind	teetyofer be deaf	teityofer be unable to smell	teityofer be unable to taste	tayotyofer be insensitive
NEGATIVE-MODAL/OBJECT-ORIENTED/ STATIVE	teatyofwer be invisible	teetyofwer be inaudible	teityofwer be undetectable odorwise	teityofwer be insipid	tayotyofwer be undetectable by touch
NEGATIVE-MODAL/PATIENT-ORIENTED/CAUSATIVE	teatyofxer blind	teetyofxer deafen	teityofxer desensitize to smell	teutyofxer desensitize to taste	tayotyofxer desensitize
NEGATIVE-MODAL/OBJECT-ORIENTED/CAUSATIVE	teatyofwaxer make invisible	teetyofwaxer make inaudible	teityofwaxer make odorless	teutyofwaxer render tasteless	tayotyofwaxer numb

Examples of usage:

• At teatyofxwa bey ha mani. I was blinded by the lights.
• Ha xeus sa teetyofxyea. The noise was deafening.
• Hia tit se gla teatiyafa. This pupil is very perceptive.
• Hua bekil se teityofwa. That medecine is odorless (impossible to smell).
• Teatyofwaxu ha vyuni. Make the spots invisible.
• Ha magmeb yonprex tayotyafwa zya ha mir. The volcano eruption could be felt throughout the world.

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that connect and show a relationship between a noun or noun phrase and the rest of the sentence. In Mirad, prepositions are simple monosyllables or phrases. Prepositions, as in English, are positioned before the noun or noun phrase they connect.

Single-word Prepositions

Here is a chart of simple prepositions. Most are spatial, but some are temporal, relational, or mathematical.

POSITIVE	NEUTRAL	NEGATIVE
SPATIAL
ab.... on, upon	eb.... between	ob.... off, off of
ayb.... over, above	eyb.... among, amid	oyb.... under, below
bu.... to	be.... at	bi.... from, of
byu.... as far as, up to		byi.... since, starting with
ub.... toward		ib.... away from
za.... in front of	ze.... at the middle of	zo.... behind, in back of
zu.... (to the) left (of)		zi.... (to the) right (of)
zya.... throughout	zye.... through zey....across
TEMPORAL
ja.... before	je.... during, while	jo.... after
ju.... until		ji.... since
RELATIONAL
bay.... with	bey.... by	boy.... without
av.... for	vyel.... than, as, compared to, about	ov.... against
ay.... and	ey.... or	oy.... but, except
MATHEMATICAL
gab.... plus, +		gob.... minus, -
gal.... times, ×	gel.... like ogel.... unlike	gol, ÷.... divided by
gar.... to the power of, ˆ		gor.... to the minus power of,√

Examples showing how these single-word prepositions are used:

• Ha dyes se ab ha sem..... The book is on the table.
• Hov et pyosu ob ha abtamas!.... Don't fall off the roof!
• Ha pati papa ayb ata tam..... The birds flew over my house.
• It kosa oyb ha yagsim..... He hid under the bench.
• Simbiu eb hut ay at..... Take a seat between that person and me.
• Yat teje eyb fiati..... We live among good people.
• Hos se nax bi pop bu ay bi Boston?.... What is the cost of a trip to and from Boston?
• His se ifek bi kyen..... This is a game of luck.
• Duhev et sa be hua duzun zomoj?.... Were you at that concert last night?
• Iit se embwa be ha zenod bi ha mapil..... We are positioned at the hub of this storm.
• Iyt tyoyapa byu ha mis..... She walked up to/as far as the door.
• Ha twob tojbwa bey gobar..... The man was killed with/by a knife.
• Et xu ga fiay ser bay at vyel boy at..... You would do better to be with me than without me.
• Teaxu ib ha amar..... Look away from the sun.
• Hov teaxu iz ub ha man..... Don't look directly toward the light.
• Iyt simpa za at. .... She sat in front of me.
• Et yeyfe simbier zo hua toyb..... You should sit in back of that woman.
• Embu has zu ha mis..... Put it to the left of the door.
• At simpo zi et..... I will sit to the right of you.
• Ha pat poosa ze ha tim..... The bird stayed in the middle of the room.
• Mil upeye zye ha mes..... Water is coming through the door.
• Et popo zey ewa mipi.....You will travel across two rivers.
• His xwo ja zajub. .... This will happen before tomorrow.
• Esa mapil je ha moj..... There was a storm during the night.
• Ju zamaj..... Until tomorrow morning.
• At voy teataye et ji zoyejub..... I have not seen you since last week.
• Diwe xu hes av at..... Please do something for me.
• Hia dyen se din vyel ewa fiuti..... This book is a story about two lovers.
• Datan se ga fia vyel nas. Friendship is better than money.
• Hos se ge fua vyel has hu yat soa zojab. Nothing is as bad as what we underwent last year.
• Iit yexeya ov aat..... They were working against us.
• Et ay at yeyfe ser dati..... You and I should be friends.
• Hot ako, et ey at?....Who will win, you or I?
• Hyat oy hut ta ha dud..... Everyone but that guy knew the answer.
• Et voy se gel at..... You are not like me.
• Et se hyagla ogel at..... You are totally unlike me.
• E gab e gese u..... Two plus two equals four.
• U gob e gese e..... Four minus two equals two.
• E gal e gese u..... Two times two equals four.
• E gol e gese a..... Two divided by two equals one.
• U gar e gese asya..... Four squared (4²) equals sixteen. (Lit: Four to the power of two...)
• Alya gor e gese u..... The square root (√16) of sixteen is four. (Lit: Sixteen to the minus power of two...)

Phrasal Prepositions

Phrasal Prepositions Using Adverbs

There are certain directional adverbs that can play a part in forming phrasal prepositions, but cannot act as prepositions in and of themselves:

yub near		yib far
yuz around		yiz beyond
iz directly, straight		uz indirectly, roundabout
yab up	yeb in oyeb out	yob down
yaz along	yez flush (with)	yoz perpendicular (to)
zay forward, ahead	zey across	zoy back

The next chart lists some phrasal prepositions using the above adverbs:

PHRASAL PREPOSITION	EXAMPLE
yub bi near to, close to	At fe tujer yub bi et..... I want to sleep close to you.
yib bi far from	Ha amar se yib bi ha imer..... The sun is far from the earth.
yab bu up to	It fu paper yab bu ha mam..... He would like to fly up to the sky.
yab bi up from	Su yab bi ha sim..... Get up from the bed.
yab bey up (by way of)	Aat tyoyapo yab bey ha meab..... We will walk up the hill.
yab be up on	Ha yipet kaxwa yab be ha abtammmas..... The cat was found up on the roof.
yob bu down to	Igpu yob bu ha obmos..... Run down to the cellar.
yob bi down from	Ha tat upa yob bi ha mam..... The angel came down from the sky.
yob bey down (by way of)	Iyt igtyoyapa yob bey ha meab..... She ran down the hill.
yob be down on	Ha dyes kase yob be ha oybmas..... The book is down on the floor.
yob ab down on	Has kaxwa yob ab eta oybmos..... It was found down on your floor.
yeb be in, inside	Eta teyd se yeb be ha tam..... Your mother is in(side) the house.
yeb bu into	It pyasa yeb bu ha mip..... He jumped into the river.
yeb bi in from	Upu yeb bi ha oma oyebem..... Come in from the cold outdoors.
oyeb be out in/at	Ha tobobi sa oyeb be ha zodeym.....The children were out in the backyard.
oyeb bi out from	Yepu oyeb bi ha om.....Come in out from the cold.
oyeb bu out to	Aat fu peper oyeb bu ha meim.....We'd like to ride out to the countryside.
yaz bi along	Ha twob tyoyapa yaz bi ha mip.....The man walked along the river.
yez bi flush with	Ha simi se yez bi ha mas..... The chairs are flush with the wall.
yoz bi perpendicular to	Ha mampar pyosa yoz bi ha mel..... The plane fell perpendicular to the ground.
yuz bi around	Ha pati papa yuz bi yata tam.....The birds flew around our house.
yiz bi beyond, past	Et paye yiz bi ha yuznad.....You have gone beyond the perimeter.
iz bu straight to	Pu iz bu fyomir! ....Go straight to hell!
iz zoy bi right back from	It upu iz zoy bi ha yexim..... He came right back from the office.
zay bu on to, forth to, ahead to	Ha naadpar popa zay bu zona doym..... The train traveled on to the next town.
zey bi across from	Iyt simbia zey bi yat..... She sat across from us.
zoy bi back from	At se zoy bi ha yexim..... I am back from the office.

Phrasal Prepositions Using Nouns

The following chart shows how prepositions and directional adverbs can be joined with the spatial ending -(e)m meaning place (or others) to be form spatial nouns, which, in turn, can be used in idiomatic prepositional phrases:

PREPOSITION OR ADVERB	SPATIAL NOUN
ab on	abem top abned upper surface abmas roof
eb between	ebem interstice ebjob interval ebnod intersection ebmas partition
ob off	obem bottom obned lower surface obmas foundation
ayb above	aybem area above aybmas ceiling
oyb below	oybem area below oybmas floor
yab up	yabem upstairs, upper area yabneg top level
yob down	yobem downstairs, lower area yobneg bottom level
yeb in	yebem inside, interior, indoors yebnig inner space
oyeb out	yobem outside, exterior, outdoors
za in front of	zam front, foreground zan face
ze in the middle of	zem middle zenod center, hub zen center zenad median
zo behind	zom back, rear, background
zi right	zim right area zikum left side ziizon right direction zimer east
zu left	zum left area zukum left side zuizon left direction zumer west
iz straight	izmep direct route iznad vector izon direction
uz indirectly	uzmep detour uznad curve uzon deviation
yub near	yubem vicinity yubkum near side yubaj recent past
yib far	yibem distance yibkum far side yibnod pole yiboj distant future
yuz around	yuzem perifery yuznad perimeter yuznig environment
yiz beyond	yizem area beyond yiznod extremity

The following chart shows phrasal prepositions that can be created with the use of the spatial nouns in the previous section or other nouns. These phrases are considered idiomatic, because they are abbreviated by the omission of the definite article ha in front of the noun:

be abem bi at the top of	bu abem bi to the top of	bi abem bi from the top of
be obem bi at the bottom of	bu obem bi to the bottom of	bi obem bi from the top of
be ebem bi in the area between	bu ebem bi to the area between	bi ebem bi from the area between
be aybem bi above, over	bu aybem bi to the area above	bi aybem bi from the area above
be oybem bi below, under	bu oybem bi to the area below	bi oybem bi from the area below
be eybem bi amid	zye eybem bi through the midst of	bi eybem bi from the midst of
be zam bi at the front of	bu zam bi to the front of	bi zam bi from the front of
be zem bi at the middle of	bu zem bi to the middle of	bi zem bi from the middle of
be zom bi at the back of	bu zom bi to the back of	bi zom bi from the back of
be zim bi at the right of	bu zim bi to the right of	bi zim bi from the right of
be zum bi at the left of	bu zum bi to the left of	bi zum bi from the left of
be yubem bi in the vicinity of	bu yubem bi to the vicinity of	bi yubem bi from the vicinity of
be yibem bi at a distance from	bey azon bi by dint of	be avon bi in favor of
be ubem bi in the direction of	bay ux bi with assistance from	be byux bay in touch with
be yabem bi in the upper reaches of	be vyen bu in relation to	doytaxwa bay associated with
be yobem bi in the bottom area of	be ned bi on the level of	be mep bu on the way to, en route
be yebem bi on the inside of, inside	be oyebem bi on the outside of, outside	bu oyebem bi to the exterior of
bey mep bi by way of, via	be kum bi beside, at the side of	be ij bi at the start of
be uj bi at the end of	bey uxun bi by means of	be kunad bi at the edge of
be nod bi at the point of	be yebem bi at the interior of, inside	be oyebem bi at the exterior of, outside
be nad bay in line with	be uznod bi alongside	be tes bi in the sense of
be teas bi in the guise of	be san bi in the form of	be yanx bi in conjunction with
be bol bi in support of	be gab bu in addition to	be dyun bi in the name of
be avson bi on behalf of	be vyeson bi on the subject of	bay yux bi with the aid of

Separable Verb Prefixes

Verbal prefixes that are prepositions can usually be "unpacked", that is, treated as separate prepositions. The following table demonstrates how that works:

yuzper = per yuz...go around, circle	Zyulmap yuzpa yata tam. = Zyulmap pa yuz yata tam....The tornado circled/went around our house.
yobnoger = noger yob...scale down	Ha yux bi yams yobnogwu. = Ha yux bi yams nogwu yob....The use of carbon should be downscaled.
zaybuxer = buxer zay...advance, push forward	Aat zaybuxo hia dovyabdren. = Aat buxo hia dovyabdren zay....We shall advance this legislation.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that join or introduce clauses. They are divided into coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. Also some conjunctions consist of a combination of words.

Coordinating Conjunctions

This chart shows the coordinating conjunctions used in Mirad:

ay	and
ey	or
oy	but
oey	nor

Usage examples:

• At oveko ay at ako. I will compete and I will win.
• Bosu ey at tuyapyexo et. Be still or I will spank you.
• It yeka oy it oka. He tried but he lost.
• At voy tilo oey at telo. I shall not drink, nor shall I eat.

Correlative Coordinating Conjunctions

The above coordinating conjunctions can be associated in correlative pairs, as follows:

hyaewa...ay	both...and
hyeawa...ey	either...or
hyoawa...oey	neither...nor
voy hyawa...oy (gay)	not only...but (also)

Examples:

• At hyaewa dyede ay dre Mirad..... I both read and write Mirad.
• Et yafe hyeawa beser ey pier. Se eta kebiun..... You can either stay or leave. It's your choice.
• Aat hyoawa move oey tile..... We neither smoke nor drink.
• At voy hyawa deuze oy gay at daze.....I not only sing but also I dance.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunctions introduce a dependent clause. All subordinating conjunctions must consist of at least one of the five so-called complementizers in the following chart. These complementarizers function in two ways:

• as a clause linker, where the complementizer introduces a clause that is a statement of FACT or CONDITION, or
• as a clause introducer, where the complementizer introduces a sentence that is a command/wish, a prohibition, or a yes-no question. Some of these complementizers can act in either or both roles.

Complementizers

There are six complementizers, which, in and of themselves, are subordinating conjunctions. They can act as clause linkers or statement introducers, as shown in the chart below:

TYPE	COMPLEMENTIZER	CLAUSE LINKER	STATEMENT INTRODUCER
POSITIVE / HORTATIVE	hav	that, the fact that	May... (something happen), Let... (something happen)
CONDITIONAL	hev	if, whether	--
NEGATIVE / PROHIBITIVE	hov	lest, that...not	Don't
ANTI-CONDITIONAL	ohev	unless	--
INTERROGATIVE	Duhev...?	--	Is it true that, say whether..., do(es)?
RELATIVE	hu	that, which, who(m)	--

Examples of these conjunctions linking a main and subordinate clause:

• At ta hav et upo..... I knew that you would come.
• At xa has hav et testu..... I did it so that you would understand.
• At voy ta hev et upo..... I did not know whether you would come.
• Hev et te ha dud, du has..... If you know the answer, say it.
• At yufa hov et upu..... I feared lest you come.
• At voy upo ohev et upo gay..... I will not come unless you come, too.

Example of these conjunctions introducing different types of statements:

• Hav aat fadilu..... Let us pray. (HORTATIVE, i.e., A WISH)
• Hav iit teliu avol!.... Let them eat bread.
• Hav ha edeb yagteju..... May the king live long.
• Duhev et te ha dud?.... Do you know the answer? (YES/NO QUESTION)
• Duhev et se tadsa..... Say whether you are married.
• Hov (et) yufu..... Don't (you) be afraid. (PROHIBITIVE, i.e., AN INJUNCTION)
• Hov hus xwu..... Let that not happen.

The sentence-initial interrogative complementizer Duhev (Is it true that?) is used to introduce a yes/no question. The word can be analyzed as a command meaning Say whether....

• Duhev et se tadokayt?.... Are you a widow? (= Say whether you are...).

Conjunctions with hav

Other conjunctions are formed with two or more morphemes, the last being a complementizer. These contain an a preposition or adverb of place, time, cause, etc., followed by the positive complementizer hav or sometimes, the conditional complementizer hev. English can use a bare preposition as a conjunction, as in the sentence "He will grow up before you notice it." However, Mirad requires the hav or hev complementizer, much as in French, where "avant" (before) must be accompanied by "que" when followed by a clause ("Il se grandira avant que tu ne le remarque.") Here is a chart showing the most important of these conjunctions:

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLES
ja hav.... before	Du hay ja hav et pio..... Say hi before you leave.
je hav.... while	Je hav at so him, at xo gle yex av et..... While I'm here, I'll do some work for you.
jo hav.... after	At buo et has jo hav et nuso..... I will give it to you after you pay.
ju hav.... until	Aat voy ijo ju hav et puo him..... We won't start until you get here.
ji hav.... since	At voy teataya huyenas ji hav et sa hum..... I had not seen such a thing since you were there.
gey hev.... even if	Gey hev et yontexe, at bolo et..... Even if you disagree, I'll support you.
gel hev.... as if	Aat yeyfe axer gel hev aat teata yod..... We should act as if we saw nothing.
gey ov hav.... even though	Gey ov hav ha pansin sa gra yaga, at ifia has.....Even though the movie was too long, I enjoyed it.
ov hav.... (al)though	At po ov hav at voy fe..... I'll go, although I don't want to.
av hav.... so (that)	It utifbua av hav hyuti yafu tejer..... He sacrificed himself so that others might live.

If the conjunction contains a deictic adverb like where, when, how, etc., then the relative complementizer is attached, as in the following examples:

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLES
haj hu.... when (Lit: the time that...)	Haj hu et pua, ha iv ija..... When you arrived, the fun began.
ham hu.... where (Lit: the place that...)	At voy te ham hu it pa..... I don't know where he went.
av has hu.... why (Lit: for the thing that...)	Duhev et te av has hu it xa his?.... Do you know why he did it?
av has hu.... because (Lit: for the thing that...)	It xa has av has hu it fa teatuer yat hes..... He did it because he wanted to show us something.
hayen hu....how, as, in the way that (Lit: the way that...)	Xu hayen hu et fu hav hyuti alxu ub et..... Do as you'd want others to act toward you.

In other cases, the conjunction is really just a relative adverb, and often ends in hus that:

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLES
jo hus.... then	Aat deuza jo hus hyat daza..... We sang, then everyone danced.
je hus.... meanwhile	Je hus, at ujba hyas..... Meanwhile, I finished everything.
av hus.... so, therefore	It vuda at, av hus at pia..... He insulted me, so I left.
(gey) ov hus.... nevertheless, even so, despite that, yet, however	At yexa kyotepay, ov hus, at ujoka.....I work diligently, yet I failed.
gel hus.... likewise, also, similarly	At daze. Gel hus, at deuze.....You dance; likewise, I sing.
ogel hus.... otherwise, else	Du hes, ogel hus, piu.....Say something, otherwise, leave.

There are some common conjunctions that need no complementizers:

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLES
ay....and	It upa, it teata, ay it akra.....He came, he saw, and he conquered.
ey (hyuyen)....or (else)	Yexu kyotepay ey (hyuyen) et ujoko.....Work hard or (else) you'll fail.
oy....but	It tyoyafa oy iyt pa bey par.....He walked but she went by car.
hyiyen....likewise, and so	It aka; hyiyen at.....He won; and so did I.
hyuyen....otherwise, else	Xu has; hyuyen dolu.....Do it; otherwise shut up.

Interjections

Interjections in Mirad include the words for yes, no and maybe:

va	yes
ve	maybe, perhaps
vo*	no

* Not to be confused with voy, which translates the English adverb not, as in Vo, it voy se tadsa. He is not married.

Examples:

• Va. At se otadsa..... Yes. I am unmarried.
• Va. At se vay otadsa..... Yes. I am indeed/really unmarried.
• Va, vay..... Yes, indeed.
• Va ay vo. Hus vey se vyaa..... Yes and no. That may be true.
• Va ey vo?.... Yes or no?
• Ve. At te voy valay..... Maybe. I don't know for sure.
• Vo. At voy vatexe et..... No. I don't believe you.
• Vo! Dilwe hov xu has..... No! Don't do it.
• Et se Amerikama, va vo?.... You're American, yes or no?
• Hev va, (hav et) xu has..... If so, (let you) do it.
• Hev vo, hov (et) xu has..... If not, don't (you) do it.

Other interjections include greetings and non-vulgar expletives:

INITIAL GREETING	hay!	Hello!, Hi!
VOCATIVE GREETING	hey!	Hey!, O!, Oh!
TERMINAL GREETING	hoy!	Goodbye!, Bye!
PROXIMAL SPECIFIER	hiy!	Voici!, Here is...
DISTAL SPECIFIER	huy!	Voila!', There is...
POSITIVE EXCLAMATION	hyay!	Great! Wow!, Bravo!, Woopee!,Hurrah!, Thanks!
SURPRISE EXCLAMATION	hyey!	What a...!, Oh!, Well!, You're welcome!
NEGATIVE EXCLAMATION	hyoy!	What a pity!, It's a shame!, Woe is...!, Darn it!, Yikes!, Boo!, Sorry!

Examples:

• Hay! Ata dyun se Johan.....Hi! My name is John.
• Hey, Johan! Hoyen et xeye?....Hey, John, how are you doing?
• Hey, Tot! O, God!
• Hoy. At teato et zajub.....Bye. I will see you tomorrow.
• Hiy ha dyen et dila..... Here's the book you requested.
• Hiy Tobyan..... Behold Man. (Ecce Homo).
• Hiy ata dyundraf..... Here's my caling card.
• Huy! Se xawa..... Voilà! It's done.
• Huy hos at yaka..... There's what I expected.
• Hyay et!.... Good for you!
• Hyay! Et utnaze his...... Bravo! You deserve this.
• Hyay! Et sa gla fitipa......Thanks.! You were very kind.
• Hyey via imaj! ....Oh, what a beautiful morning!
• Hyey At ta voy hav et upo..... Oh! I didn't know you were coming.
• Hyoy at..... Woe is me.
• Hyoy! Ga fia fikyen jonay..... Pity!. Better luck next time.

Vulgar expletives are not offered here, but may arise naturally in daily speech.

Alternating Directionals

There is a class of words in Mirad which are called alternating directionals, which are abbreviated combinations of opposite morphemes that mean something and something else or something or something else. For example, in English, swinging is "rocking BACK-AND-FORTH", or, questions can be of the type "YES-OR-NO". The vowels in these directionals are, for euphonic purposes, ao, eo, or ui. These alternating expressions are often used as adverbs or verbal prefixes. Here is an incomplete list of such expressions, the elements decomposed, and examples of their usage:

ABBREVIATED ALTERNATING DIRECTIONAL	DECOMPOSITION	EXAMPLES
yaob....up-and-down	yab (up) + yob (down)	yaobur....elevator (up-and-down machine) yaopyaser....jump up and down
yeob....in-and-out	yeb (in) + oyeb (out)	yeobar....piston (in-and-out-device)
zao....front-and-back / north-and-south	za (front) + zo (back)	zaobaser....rock zaopaser....swing zaonada....vertical zaomera....north-south
zui....left-and-right / east-and-west	zu (left) + zi (right)	zuinada....horizontal zuibaser....wobble zuipaser....zigzag zuimera....east-west
bui....to-and-fro // give-and-take	bu (to) + bi (from)	buinax....round trip fare buipar....shuttle bus buier....trade
aob....off-and-on	ab (on) + ob (of)	aoper....get on and off aober....take on and off
vao....yes-and-no / yes-or-now	va (yes) + vo (no)	vaoder....decide vaotexer....wonder vaodid....yes-or-no question
yuij....open-and-shut	yuj- (shut) + yij- (open)	yuijer....blink
teoj....life-or/and-death	tej (life) + toj (death)	teoja ebyem....life-and-death situation
huim....here-and-there	hum (there) + him (here)	huimpoper....travel here and yon
huis....this-and-that	hus (that) + his (this)	huisbier....select (between this and that)
hyaos....all-or-nothing	hyas (everything) + hyos (nothing)	hyaoson....all-or-nothing matter
hyuit....one another	hyut (another) + hyit (the same person)	hyuita....mutual hyuitifer....love one another

Keep in mind that if an alternative directional ends in b, the b assimilates to the first consonant of per (go) and ber put words, such that -b + b becomes b and -b + p becomes p. Thus, aob + per becomes aoper. This follows the regular manner of assimilation between any prepositional prefixes ending in -b before per and ber verbs and their derivatives.

Greetings and Other Polite Expressions

MIRAD	ENGLISH
Hay!	Hello!
Hey!	Hey!
Hoy!	Bye!
Hiy...	Here is / Here comes... / Voici
Huy...	There's... / There goes... / Voila
Hway!*	Great! / Good for you! / Thanks! / Congratulations!
Hwey!	Oh my! / Goodness gracious! / Well! / Your're welcome!
Hwoy!	Too bad! / What a shame! / Sorry!'
Fijub!	Good day!
Fimaj!	Good morning!
Fimoj!	Good evening!
Hoyen et xeye?	How are you? (Lit. How are you doing?)
Fi. Ay et?	Fine. And you?
Iftaxwo. Hway.	Thank-you. (Lit. (It) will be fondly remembered.)
Toxu. Hwey.	You're welcome. (Lit. Forget (it).)
Diwe.	Please. (Lit. It is asked.)
Yovobu (at). Hwoy.	Excuse (me).
Fipop!	Bon voyage!
Su valta!	Be safe!
Igbaksu!	Get well soon!
Yanivtos! Hway!	Congratulations! (Lit: together-happy-feeling)
Iva Tajjub!	Happy Birthday!
Yanuvtos! Hwoy!	My condolences! (Lit: together-sad-feeling)

• hw is pronounced in Mirad like a wh in English words.

Word Formation

In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings have been attached to consonants and various values have been ascribed to vowels.

The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of core words and derived words.

Guiding Principles for Word Formation

The vocabulary is built on root morphemes, that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by:

• The meaning of each letter of the word.
• The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: fixed vs. variable.
• How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language.
• The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about).
• The logic of its composition.
• The mnemonic associations this word suggests.

The words derived from root morphemes in turn follow very simple laws called vocabulary-building rules.

Root Morphemes

Root morphemes are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. These root morphemes are divided into two groups:

• 1st Group:  consisting of nouns
• 2nd Group:  consisting of prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and verbs.

Root Morphemes of the 1st Group (nouns) are composed of three letters:

• The first, a consonant called the classifier
• The second, a vowel¹ called the ordinal
• The third, a consonant called the generic

Examples:

CLASSIFIER	ORDINAL	GENERIC	MEANING
t	o	b	man
d	o	t	society
f	a	b	tree

1. A vowel in this case includes pre-yodified vowels like ya, ye, etc.

Root Morphemes of the 2nd Group (Adjectives, Verbs,and anything but nouns) are composed of a consonant+vowel or vowel+consonant, such as the following:

ab....on	ob....off
bu....to	bi....from
if-....love	uf-....hate
fi-....good	fu-....bad
va....yes	vo....no
vya-....true	vyo-...false

In a few cases, a 2nd group root morpheme consists of just a single consonant or just a single vowel:

b-....put	p-....go
s-....be	x-....do
t-....know	d-....say
f-....want	w-....[passive marker]
i....[plural marker]	o....un-
a....[adjective marker]	-t...person

Consonants and Their Meanings

The classifier and generic letters in 1st group root morphemes are consonants. Also, 2nd group root morphemes almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart:

CONSONANT	1st Group Root Morphemes (NOUN)	2nd Group Root Morphemes	Numeric Value
	INITIAL FINAL	INITIAL OR FINAL	IN NUMBERS
b	organ, health, body, etc. organism	gesture, putting	--
p	animal, vehicle motion	motion, going	--
s	thing, furniture thing	form, thing	hundred
x	action doing	action, doing, making	--
d	society family	reading, writing, saying	--
t	human person, animal	intelligence, knowing	--
f	vegetation clothing	volition, attributes	--
v	plant, color linen	veracity, attributes	--
g	quantity measurement	quantity, attributes	--
k	-- risk	change, attributes	--
j	time time	time	--
z	-- precious, art	spatial, attributes
l	-- liquid	(intensifier)	ten
m	nature place, building, furniture, metal		ml = million
n	merchandise abstraction	(abstract)	(abstract)
r	-- tool, machine	(intensifier)	thousand, mr = billion
y	(intensifier/minimizer/feminine)	(intensifier/minimizer)
w	--	(passivizer, intensifier substitute, masculine)	(enumerator)
h	(deictic formant)	--	--

The letters l and r are used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word. The letter y, if used before a stem vowel intensifies the semantics of the word, but mitigates the semantics if it follows the stem vowel.

The letter h is used only in certain interjections, conjunctions, and determiners and has no semantic identity.

The letter w has no semantic identity of its own, but is used only to form the masculine gender of pronouns and the passive of verbs and to form a counter morpheme used in numbers, and sometimes to substitute for y when the latter letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. jwo late, instead of jyo).

1st Group Root Morphemes

The ordinal vowels of noun morphemes have certain values:

• Numeric Values:

The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with y are considered pre-iotated vowels.

o	a	e	i	u	yo	ya	ye	yi	yu	alo	ala	ale
0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
zero	one	two	three	four	five	six	seven	eight	nine	ten	eleven	twelve

A vowel with a numeric value is sometimes prefixed to nouns to form a hierarchy of nouns:

MIRAD deb	ENGLISH ruler		MIRAD dob	ENGLISH rule
adeb	emperor		adob	empire
edeb	king		edob	kingdom
ideb	prince		idob	principality
udeb	duke		udob	duchy
yodeb	marquis, margrave		yodob	marquisate
yadeb	earl, count		yadob	county, earldom
yedeb	lord, vassal		yedob	dominion
yideb	viscount		yidob	viscountcy
yudeb	baron		yudob	barony
alodeb	tribal chief		alodob	tribe

Sometimes the numeric vowel falls inside the word after the ordinal vowel. This happens with days of the week, as shown here:

MIRAD jub	ENGLISH day
juab	Monday
jueb	Tuesday
juib	Wednesday
juub	Thursday
juyob	Friday
juyab	Saturday
juyeb	Sunday

• Positional Values:

The positional value of vowels is shown below (Rule nr. 10):

	a.... up, superior, north, ahead, on
u.... left, west, near	e.... center, middle	i.... right, east, away
	o.... down, inferior, south, back, off

	za.... front, ahead
zu.... left	ze.... middle	zi.... right
	zo.... back

	zamir.... north
zumir.... west	zemir.... equator	zimir.... east
	zomir.... south

	ab.... on
ib.... away	eb.... between	ub.... toward
	ob.... off

	yab.... up
yib.... far	yeb.... in	yub.... near
	yob.... down

	ja.... before
ji.... since	je.... during	ju.... until
	jo.... after

• Geophysical Values:

o	outer space, nature
a	air, gas, sky
e	land, soil, earth
i	liquid, water, juice
u	underground, minerals

Some examples:

mol nature	mom outer space	poper travel	pot animal	mop orbit	dop military
mal air	mam sky	paper fly	pat bird	map wind	dap air force
mel soil	mem land	peper ride	pet land animal	mep road	dep army
mil water	mim sea	piper sail	pit fish	mip river	dip marines
mul mineral	mum underground	puper burrow	put bug	mup tunnel	dup submarine force

Morpheme Chart

The meaning of the 1st Group root morphemes comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the generic consonant, as show in the chart below. Most often, the root morphemes have a zeroth element in which the ordinal vowel is o. Related, usually hierchically subordinate, words are created by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel.

ROOT MORPHEME	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	GENERIC CONSONANT
tob man	t = human, animal	b = organism
tod family	t = human, animal	d = society
tof clothes	t = human, animal	f = tissue
tov lingerie	t = human, animal	v = linen
tol food	t = human, animal	l = fluid, substance
vob plant	v = plant	b = organism
tom building	t = human, animal	m = place
dob state	d = social	b = organism
dom city	d = social	m = place
dop military	d = social	p = movement
som furniture	s = thing	m = place
pot animal	p = movement	t = human, animal

Chart of 1st Group root morphemes:

bok....illness byok....pain bryok....torture byook....suffering book....fatigue	bak....health	bek....treatment byek....cure	bik....care	buk....injury bruk....mutilation
dob....state doab....fatherland doeb....federal state adob...empire edob....kingdom idob....principality udob....duchy yadob....earldom yedob....dominion yidob....viscountcy yudob....barony alodob....tribe	dab....government	deb....leader adeb...emperor edeb....king ideb....prince udeb....duke yadeb....earl yedeb....lord yideb....count yudeb....baron alodeb....tribal leader	dib....administration	dub....ministry
dom....city doam....township doem....village doim....hamlet doum....estate	dam....air field	dem....park	dim....fountain
dop....military	dap....air force	dep....army diep....marine force	dip....navy	dup....submarine forces
dot....society doyt...club	dat....friend daat....buddy	det....mate	dit....citizen	dut....sir duut....sire duyt....madam duyut....lady
job....time joob....eon joab....era joeb....period joib....epoch joub....age joyob....chron joyab....term jod....occasion	jab....year	jeb....season jeab....spring jeeb....summer jeib....autumn jeub....winter jej....course	jib....month jiab....January jieb....February jiib....March jiub....April jiyob.... May jiyab....June jiyeb....July jiyib....August jiyub....September jilob.... October jilab....November jileb....December	jub....day juab....Monday jueb....Tuesday jueb....Wednesday juub....Thursday juyob....Friday juyab....Saturday juab....Sunday jud....date
jwob....hour	jwab....minute	jweb....second
mor....universe	mar....star amar...sun	mer....planet Amer....Mercury Emer....Venus Imer....Earth Umer....Mars Yomer....Jupiter Yamer....Saturn Yemer...Uranus Yimer....Pluto	mir....world	mur....satellite amur....moon
mol....nature	mal....air maal...atmosphere mael...troposphere mail...stratosphere maul...ionosphere mayol...exosphere	mel....soil meel....terrain meil....mud	mil....water mial....steam miil....dew	mul....matter
mom....cosmos	mam....sky	mem....land meam...region meem....territory meim....countryside meum....zone myem....yard	mim....sea miam....lake miem....lagoon miim....pond mium....pool miyom....puddle	mum....underground
mog....ash mon....darkness moz....black moj....night	mag....fire man....light mak....electricity maz....white maj....daytime	meg....stone meag....marble meeg....slate meig....granite meug....clay meyog....china meyag....chalk meyeg....limestone meyig....alabaster meyug....gypsum melog...argil melag....adobe meleg....terra cotta melig....marl melug....kaolin melyog....pegmatite melyag...feldspar melyig....silica melyug....flint mealog....sandstone mek....dust miek....sand myek....powder myeik....paste		mug....metal muk....mineral
mop....orbit	map....wind maap....puff maep....breeze maip....gust maup....gale mayop....typhoon	mep....road meap....avenue meep....boulevard meip....lane meup....trail	mip....river miap....stream miep....brook miip....rivulet miup....tributary	mup....tunnel
mof....galaxy mov....smoke	maf....cloud maaf....stratus maef....nimbostratus maif....cumulus mauf....cumulonimbus mayof....stratocumulus mayaf....allocumulus mayef....allostratus mayif....cirrocumulus mayuf....cirrostratus mav....flame	mef....brick mev....porcelaine mez....crystal amez....diamond emez...topaz imez...ruby yomez....sapphire yamez....amethyst vamez....emerald		muf....rod
mob....chasm moab....gulf moeb....ravine moib....cave moub....ditch moyob....depression moyab....shaft	....	meb....mountain meab....hill meeb....knob meib....mound meub....ridge meyob....bump		mub....promontory
mos....floor	mas....wall	mes....door	mis....window	mus....stairs
som....furniture	sam....chest	sem....table	sim....chair siim....bench	sum....bed suam....cushion
nod....point	nad....line naad....rail naed....lane naid....stripe nab....rank naab....organization nap....order naap....system	ned....plane nyed....grid	nid....volume	nud....column
nog....degree	nag....measure sag....number syag....count jag....age xag....frequency	neg....level	nig....space
nox....expense noz....jewel	nax....price nas....money naz....value nam....store	nex....savings	nix....income	nux....payment nun....merchandise
nyox....waste	nyax....accumulation	nyex....storage	nyix....demand	nyux....supply
nof....fabric nov....linen	naf....cloth naaf....drape naef....canvas naif....velvet nauf....sail nayof....denim nayaf....veil	nef....knit	nif....wire niv....thread	nuf....button
nyof....film nyov....ribbon	nyaf....knot	nyef....sack nyev....bag nyem....box	nyif....cord nyiv....lace	nyuf....package
fob....vegetation	fab....tree faab....sap faob....wood fayob....bark fayeb....leaf afab....apple tree efab....pear tree ifab....cherry tree ufab....prune tree yofab....apricot tree yafab....peach tree yefab....quince tree yifab....walnut tree yufab....hazelnut tree alofab....blackberry bush defab....pine tree dyofab....cocoa plant fefab....date palm fifab....banana tree fufab....coconut palm fyofab....pomegranate tree fyifab...fig kafab....olive vine lafab....orange tree lefab....mandarin tree lifab....lemon tree lufab....grapefruit tree lyofab....lime tree rafab....acorn tree refab....beechnut tree rifab....chestnut tree safab....tea plant sefab....coffee plant sifab....pepper plant sufab....strawberry tree syofab....red current tree vafab....grape vine vefab....ivy bush	feb....treetop	fib....trunk	fub....branch fuf....pipe fuv....nail
fyob....root	fyab ....fruit afyab....apple efyab....pear ifyab....cherry ufyab....prune yofyab....apricot yafyab....peach yefyab....quince yifyab....walnut yufyab....hazelnut alofyab....blackberry defyab....pine cone dyofyab....cocoa fefyab....date fifyab....banana fufyab....coconut fyofyab....pomegranate fyifyab...fig kafyab....olive lafyab....orange lefyab....mandarin lifyab....lemon lufyab....grapefruit lyofyab....lime rafyab....acorn refyab....beechnut rifyab....chestnut safyab....tealeaf sefyab....coffee bean sifyab....pepper sufyab....strawberry syofyab....red current vafyab....grape vefyab....ivy
	sar....instrument	sir....machine		sur....motor
tob....man toyb...woman toob....male tooyb....female	tab....body taab....lymph taeb....muscle taib....bone taob....flesh taub....nerve tayob....skin tayab....fat tayeb....hair tayib....cartilege tayub....gland	teb....head teab....eye teeb....ear teib....nose teob....cheek teub....mouth teyob....neck	tib....trunk tiab....chest tiayb....breast tilab....nipple tieb....lung tiib....heart tiub....belly tiyob....kidney tiyab....bladder tiyeb....testicles tiyib....ovary tiyub....penis tiyuyb....vagina tikab....esophagus tikeb....stomach tikib....liver tikub....pancreas tikyob...bowels tikyab...large intestines tikyeb...anus	tub....arm tuab....shoulder tueb....upper arm tuib....elbow tuub....forearm tuyob....wrist tuyab....hand tuyeb....fist tuyib....palm tulob....fingernail
tyob....leg tyoab....hip tyoeb....thigh tyoib....knee tyoub....tibia tyoyob....ankle tyoyab....foot tyoyeb....heel tyoyib....sole tyoyub....toe tyolob....toenail
tof....clothes	taf....suit tayf....dress	tef....hat	tif....waist coat tilaf....brassiere	tuf....sleeve
tyof....pants tyoyf....skirt tyoyaf....shoe
tov....linen		tev....scarf teiv....handkerchief teyof....necktie teyov....collar	tiav....shirt tiayv....blouse tiuv....underwear tiuyv....panties	tuav....shawl tuyav....glove
tyoyav....sock tyoyayv....stocking
tol....nutrition	taol....meat tyal....meal	tel....food teil....soup	til....drink	tul....dish tuil....sauce
tod....family	tad....husband tayd....wife	ted....father teyd....mother	tid....uncle tiyd....aunt	tud....godfather tuyd....godmother
tyod....father-in-law tyoyd....mother-in-law	tyad.... grandfather tyayd....grandmother	tyed....relative		tyud....tutor
top....soul	tap....physique	tep....mind	tip....sentiment	tup....member
tom....building	tam....house taam....home taym....pavillion	tem....hall em....place tyem....residence yem ....enclosed space	tim....room	tum....compartment
toj....death	taj....birth	tej....life	tij....wakefulness	tuj....sleep
toz....art toyz....craft	daz....dance saz....sculpture	tez....culture teyz....cult dez....theatre drez....poetry dyez....cinema teaz spectacle teiz....perfume tyez....magic teuz....voice deuz....song seuz....tone	diz....comedy siz...painting	tuz....skill duz....music
vob....vegetable avob....wheat avob....wheat evob....rye ivob....barley ovob....cereal uvob....buckwheat yovob....millet yavob....hop yevob....rapeseed yivob....rice yuvob....oat favob....cotton fevob....flax fivob....hemp fuvob....jute gavob....sunflower gevob....corn 'givob....tobacco levob....beet luvob....carrot savob....fern sevob....thistle sivob....nettle zavob....strawberry plant zevob....basil zivob....thyme zuvob....rosemary	vab....grass	veb....tuft	vib....stem	vub....twig
	vyab....seed avyab....green bean evyab....lentil ivyab....pea ovyab....legume uvyab....broad bean yovyab....peanut 'yevyab....chickpea yivyab....soybean zavyab....strawberry
vol....legume avol....bread ovol....bran apavol....white cabbage 'bavol....tomato bevol....eggplant bivol....squash buvol....cucumber byovol....artichoke epavol....Brussels sprout favol....leek fevol....onion fivol....shallot fuvol....garlic gavol....pumpkin gevol....melon givol....watermelon lavol....potato levol....beet livol....radish luvol....carrot lyovol....turnip lyavol....Jersualem artichoke pavol....cabbage pevol....cauliflower upavol....kale vavol....lettuce vevol....spinach vivol....sorrel vuvol....dandelion vyovol....chicory vyavol....watercress zavol....parsley
vos....flower avos....lily evos....narcissus ivos....poppy lavos....lily of the valley levos....jonquil livos....geranium lovos....daisy luvos....forget-me-not uvos....rose yavos....hydrangea yevos....lilac yivos....violet yovos....cornflower yuvos....carnation voz....color avoz....white evoz....yellow favoz.... beige ivoz.... red livoz.... lemon yellow ovoza....blank uvoz....pink yavoz.... mauve yevoz.... lilac yivoz.... purple yovoz....blue	vaz....green yovaz....blue-green
pot....animal	pat....bird apat....cock, rooster epat....duck fapat....raven fepat....crow fipat....magpie fupat....owl gapat....ostrich gepat....peacock gipat....peafowl ipat....turkey rapat....eagle repat....vulture ripat....kite rupat....buzzard sapat....partridge sepat....quail sipat....woodcock supat....lark tapat....parrot tepat....parakeet upat....goose vapat....nightingale vepat....canary vipat....canary yapat....pigeon zapat....swallow zepat....swift"	pet....land animal apet....horse epet....bull fapet....camel fepet....dromedary fipet....giraffe gapet....elephant gepet....rhinoceros ipet....ass kapet....squirrel kepet....polecat kipet....badger kupet....otter sapet....hedgehog sepet....porcupine sipet....mole upet....ram vapet....hart vepet....reindeer vipet....deer vupet....chamois yapet....hog yepet....dog yipet....cat yopet....goat yupet....rabbit zapet....tortoise pelt....insect apelt....spider fapelt....ant fepelt....cockroach kapelt....louse kepelt....flea kipelt....bug kopelt....vermin	pit....fish apit....trout epit....perch gapit....whale ipit....pike rapit....shark repit....dolphin ripit....sperm whale rupit....walrus sapit....herring sepit....barbel sipit....anchovy supit....gilt-head tepit....turbot upit....carp vapit....eel yapit....gudgeon yepit....stickleback yipit....whiting yopit....tench
pyot....wild animal rapyot....lion repyot....tiger ripyot....leopard rupyot....wolf tapyot....ape tepyot....bear yapyot....boar yepyot....wolf yipyot....tiger		pyet....reptile fepyet....slug fipyet....leech gapyet....crocodile gepyet....cayman kapyet....lizard kepyet....gecko lapyet....boa lepyet....cobra lipyet....viper lopyet....snake vapyet....snail

2nd Group Root Morphemes

The vowels of 2nd Group Root Morphemes also have certain values:

• Positive-Intermediate-Negative Values:

• POSITIVE a, ya oppose NEGATIVE o, yo
• INTERMEDIATE e, ye
• POSITIVE i, yi oppose NEGATIVE u, yu

Some examples:

POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE
ag- big	eg- normal	og- small
az- strong	ez- moderate	oz- weak
va yes	ve maybe	vo no
ak- win	ek- play	ok- lose
hyas everything	hyes anything	hyos nothing
ig- fast		ug- slow
im- wet		um- dry
fi- good		fu- bad
kyi- heavy		kyu- light

• Directional Values:

VOWEL	CONTACT	DIRECTION	EXAMPLE
a-	free movement	from above onto	aber apply
-a	movement with contact	from above onto	baer lean
ya-	free movement	upward	yaper rise
-ya	movement with contact	upward	pyaser jump
o-	free movement	from below upward	ober remove
-o	movement with contact	from below onto	boer uphold
yo-	free movement	downward	yoper descend
-yo	movement with contact	fall	pyoer fall
u-	free movement	toward the center	uper come
-u	movement with contact	toward the center	buer give
yu-	free movement	near	yuber bring
-yu	movement with contact	near	byuer touch
i-	free movement	away	iper leave
-i	movement with contact	away	bier take
yi-	free movement	far away	yiper move far away
-yi	movement with contact	far away	pyier originate
e-	stop		eper intervene
-e	pause		peser wait
ye-	in		yeper enter
-ye	in		byexer contain

Special Values of Certain Vowels:

• The prefixes a-, an- have to do with one, single, singular and are opposed to:
• The prefixes ya-, yan- meaning together, plural.
• The prefix yan- contrasts with yon- meaning apart.

Some examples:

auta individual, private	yauta communal
at I, me	yat we, us
anla singular	yanla plural
yanper join	yonper separate
yanmel continent	yonmel island
hat the person	hyat everybody

Morpheme Chart

The 2nd Group root morphemes, containing roots other than nouns, come from a combination of the classifier consonant and the stem vowel (which is sometimes zero). The vowel can be pre- or post-iotated and modified with the scalar enhancer consonants r, l, and w. Here is a chart showing the principle root morphemes of this group. The root morpheme itself is in boldface, sometimes followed by derived words incorporating that root.

POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE	POSITIVE	OPPOSITE
ja before, pre- →jana previous →japer precede	je during →jena current →jeper continue	jo after, post- →jona next →joper follow	ji since	ju until
aj past →ajna old	ej present →ejna new	oj future →ojna next	ij beginning →ijna initial	uj end →ujna final
jwa early →jwaa early →jwaber prepare	jwe on time →jwea punctual →jweder prompt	jwo late →jwoa late →jwoxer retard	yij opening →yija open →yijber open	yuj closure →juja closed →yujber close
ga more →gaber add →galer multiply →gla very →gra too →gwa most	ge as →geber equate →gean equality →gle rather →gre enough →gwe average	go less →gober substract →goler divide →glo slightly →gro insufficiently →gwo least	gi- point →gin point →gia sharp	gu- angle →gun angle →gua dull
gya- fat →gyaxer fatten		gyo- thin →gyoxer emaciate	gyi- solid →gyian solidity	gyu- fragile →gyuan fragility
ag- big →agxer grow →agla huge →agra immense	eg- normal →egaxer normalize →egan normality	og- small →ogxer shrink →ogla tiny →ogra miniscule	ig- fast →igay quickly →igper rush	ug- slow →ugay slowly →ugper amble
yag- long →yagaxer lengthen		yog- short →yogaxer shorten	yig- hard →yigaxer harden	yug- soft →yugaxer soften
ka- find →kaxer find →kader reveal →kaxon solution	ke- seek →kexer seek →keder inquire →kexon issue	ko- hide →koxer hide →koder cover up →koxon problem	ki- →kia diagonal →kim slope	ku- →kua lateral →kun edge →kum side
ak- win →akun gain →akler defeat →akrer triumph	ek- play →ekun game →ekler challenge	ok- lose →okun loss →okler go down in defeat →okrer suffer disaster	ik- full →ikber fill up	uk- empty →ukber empty out
kya- variable →kyaser change	kye- random →kyeser happen	kyo- fixed →kyoser stand still	kyi- heavy →kyiaxer weigh down	kyu- light →kyuaxer lighten
yak- expect →yakwa expected	yek- try →yekwa attempted	yok- be surprised →yokwa unexpected	yik- difficult →yikan difficulty	yuk- easy →yukan ease
va- yes →vader affirm	ve- maybe →veder equivocate	vo- no →voder deny	vi- beautiful →vila gorgeous	vu- ugly →vula hideous
av- for →avon favor →avun asset	ev- neutral evan neutrality	ov- against →ovon hindrance →ovun liability	iv- happy →ivan happiness	uv- sad →uvan sadness
vya- true →vyan truth	vye- relative →vyen relation	vyo- false →vyon error	vyi- clean →vyisa pure	vyu- dirty →vyusa foul
yav- innocent →yavder acquit	yev- fair →yevder judge	yov- guilty →yovder accuse	yiv- free →yivxer release	yuv- captive →yuvxer capture
	f- want →fer want		fi- good →fider praise	fu- bad →fuder malign
fya- holy →fyader bless		fyo- profane →fyoder curse	fyi- useful →fyin worth	fyu- damaging →fyun harm
af- allow →afwa allowed	ef- need →efwa necessary	of- ban →ofwa prohibited	if- love →ifwa beloved	uf- hate →ufwa despised
yaf- able →yafer can	yef- obliged →yefer must	yof- unable →yofer cannot	yif- brave →yifer dare	yuf- afraid →yufer fear
ba- →baer lean on →baler press →barer crush →baxer shake →abaxer stroke →ablaxer pat →abraxer rub	b- →ber put be at →beser stay →bexer hold →beler keep	bo- →boxer carry →boler support →oboler drop	bi from →bier take →bixer pull →blixer yank →brixer uproot	bu to →buer give →buxer push →bluxer shove →bruxer kick
bay with	bey by	boy without
ab on →aber put on →abem top	eb between →eber block →ebem gap	ob off →ober take off →obem bottom	ib away →iber receive →ilber obtain	ub toward →uber send →ulber deliver
yab up →yaber raise →yalber lift →yaper rise →yarper climb	yeb in →yeber introduce →yelber insert →yeper enter	yob down →yober lower →yolber down →yoper descend →yorper plummet	yib far →yiber remove →yilber banish →yiper flee →yirper escape	yub near →yuber bring near →yolber abduct →yuper come →yurper intrude
bya- →byaser stand	bye- →byeser behave →byen manner	byo- →byoser hang	byi since →byiser spring from	byu up to →byuser reach
pa- motion →paser move →paxer move (tr.) →plaxer shake →aplaxer swipe	p- →per go →peser wait →pexer trap	po- rest →poyser pause →poser stop →poxer stop (tr.)	pi- motion away →pier leave →piser withdraw →pixer catch →plixer capture →prixer rape	pu- motion toward →puer arrive →puser jump →puxer throw →pluser lunge →pruxer shoot
pya- strong upward motion →pyaser jump up →pyaxer launch	pye- strong inward motion →pyeser bump into →pyexer strike →apyexer bang →yonpryexer explode	pyo- strong downward motion →pyoser plunge →pyoxer knock down	pyi- strong motion away →pyiser spring →pyixer snatch	pyu- strong motion toward →pyuser pounce →pyuxer ram
za in front of →zaper get ahead	ze in the middle of →zeber balance	zo behind →zoper lag behind	zi- right →zituyaba right-handed	zu- left →zutuyaba left-handed
zay forward →zayper advance	zey across →transit	zoy back →zoyper recede
az- strong →aza strong	ez- medium →eza medium	oz- weak →oza weak	iz- straight →izper go straight	uz- curved →uzper turn
zya- wide →zyaber spread	zye through →zyeper transit	zyo- narrow →zyober restrict	zyi- flat →zyixer flatten	zyu- round →zyuper rotate
yaz- vertical →yazber stand upright	yez- horizontal →yezber lay flat	yoz- perpendicular →yoza perpendicular	yiz- beyond →yizper surpass	yuz- around →yuzper surround
da- →daler talk	d- →der say →drer write →dryer print de- →deler declare	do- →doler be silent	di- →dier ask →dider question →diler request →direr demand →din story	du- →duer suggest →duder answer →duler insist →durer prod →dun word
	dye- →dyeder read →dyen book		dyi- →dyier phone	dyu- →dyuer call →dyun name
ta- →taxer remember →tajer be born	t- know →ter know te- →texer think →teser mean →tejer live	to- →toxer forget →tojer die	ti- learn →tier learn →tider understand →tixer study →tin doctrine, -ism →titam school →tijer wake	tu- teach →tuer teach →tuder explain →tuxer instruct →tun science, -ology →tutam institute →tujer sleep
tya- →tyan race	tye- →tyen craft, occupation →tyeer be familiar with →tryen industry		tyi- →tyier get acquainted	tyu- →tyuer acquaint
sa- →san form →saxer make →saun kind	s- →ser be →son thing (abstract) →sat being se- →sexer build	so- →soer undergo	si- →sin image →siun sign	su- thing →sun thing
sya- →syan type	sye- →syen style		syi- →syin subject	syu- →syun object
as- →aser become	es- →eser exist	os- →oser vanish	is- →iser be the result	us- →user be the cause
xa- →xaer execute →xaler accomplish	x- →xer do xe- →xen action →xeler conduct		xi- →xier result	xu- →xuer bring about →xuler provoke
	xye- →xyen practice →xyel exercise	xyi- →xyier wear out	xyu- →xyuer proceed
ax- →axer act →alxer operate	ex- →exer function	ox- →oxer be idle	ix- →ixen effect	ux- →uxer cause
yax- →yaxer accomplish	yex- →yexer work →yelx labor →yerx drudgery	yox- →yoxer fail	yix- →yixer use →yilxer hire →yirxer exploit	yux- →yuxer help →yulxer serve →yurxer slave
na- →nax cost →nas money →naz value →nam shop	ne- →nex thrift →nes savings	no- →nox spending →nos expense →noz jewel	ni- →nix earning →nizer deserve	nu- →nux payment →nuz award →nun merchandise →nunam market
nya- →nyaxer accumulate →nyan stack	nye- →nyexer store →nyem box →nyef bag	nyo- →nyoxer waste →nyos surplus	nyi- →nyixer order →nyixut client	nyu- →nyuxer deliver →nyuxut supplier →nyus package
hav so that	hev whether	hov lest
hay hi	hey hey	hoy bye	hiy voici	huy voila
hyay bravo	hyey thanks	hyoy what a shame
ha- the	he- some	ho- which?	hi- this	hu- that
hya- every	hye- any	hyo- no	hyi- same	hyu- other

Vowel Patterns

Note that that in 2nd Group core words there is a three-way contrast with the root vowels a, e, o and a two-way contrast with the root vowels i and u, as in the chart below, where the root vowels are underlined:

PATTERN TYPE	POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE
3-WAY (a-e-o)	aza strong	eza medium	oza weak
2-WAY (i-u)	fia good	--	fua bad

Meaning of the Classifier Consonant

Most human qualities are presented in the 2nd Group root morphemes that contain the consonants f or v.

Root morphemes relating to time all have the letter j.

The letters g and k relate mostly to physical qualities, measurements, and actions.

Parallelism in Root Morphemes

Root morphemes exhibit both vertical and horizontal parallelism in meaning as shown in some sample charts below:

aza	za	va	vyaa	yava
strong	front	yes	true	innocent
eza	ze	ve	vyea	yeva
moderate	middle	maybe	relative	fair
oza	zo	vo	vyoa	yova
weak	back	no	false	guilty

ja	jwa	aja	kaer	aker
before	early	past	find	win
je	jwe	eja	keer	eker
during	on time	present	seek	play
jo	jwo	oja	koer	oker
after	late	future	hide	lose

fia	via	vyia	fyia	iva	yiva	ifer
good	beautiful	clean	proud	happy	free	to love
fua	vua	vyua	fyua	uva	yuva	ufer
bad	ugly	dirty	ashamed	sad	bound	to hate

tab	tib	tub	tyob	tayob	tayeb	tyab
body	trunk	arm	foot	skin	hair	ovary
fab	fib	fub	fyob	fayob	fayeb	fyab
tree	tree trunk	branch	root	bark	leaf	fruit
vab	vib	vub	vyob	vayob	vayeb	vyab
plant	stem	twig	root	peel	leaf	seed

Ordered List of Root Morphemes

O	A	E	I	U
bo- support byo- hang boy without	ba- lean on bya- stand bay with bax- gesture	b- put be- have be at bel- carry bex- hold byex- strike	bi from bi- take bix- pull byi since	bu to bu- give bux- push byu as far as byux- touch
bok illness byok pain	bak health	bek treatment byek cure	bik care	buk wound bruk- mutilate
do- be silent	dal- speak -ad (language)	d- say del- declare dyed- read dr- write drye- print deu- voice	di- ask did question dil- request dir- demand	du- suggest dud answer dul- insist dur- prod
dob state -ob regime	dab government	deb leader -eb leader xeb boss	dib administration	dub minister
dom city	dam airport	dem park deym garden	dim fountain	dum well
dop military	dap air force	dep army	dip marine
dot society	dat friend	det mate	dit citizen	dut gentleman
	daz dance	dez theatre dyez cinema drez poetry	diz comedy	duz music
f- want			fi- good fiz honor	fu- bad fuz shame
fob plant fyob root	fab tree fayeb leaf fayob bark faob wood	feb fruit	fib trunk	fub branch fuf pipe fuv nail
fyo- profane	fya- holy		fyi- worth	fyu- waste
go less glo few gro insufficiently gwo least gyo- thin	ga more gla very gra too gwa most gya- thick	ge equal gle quite gre enough gwe average	gin point	gun angle
gyo- thin	gya thick		gyi- solid	gyu- delicate
ho- which hyo- no hov don't hoy! bye! hyoy! boo!	ha the hya- every hav that hay! hello! hyay! hurrah!	he some hye- any hev if hey! hey! hyey! thanks!	hi this hyi- same hiy... voici...	hu- that hyu- other huy...voila...
jo after jwo late joy then	ja before jwa early jay already	je during jwe on time jey still	ji since jiy ago	ju until juy hence
job time jwob hour	jab year jwab minute	jeb season jweb second	jib month	jub day
jod occasion				jud date
jog- young	jag- old
ko- hide	ka- find	ke- seek	ki- slant	ku- side
kyo- fixed	kya- mobile	kye- random	kyi- heavy	kyu- light
lo- (dis-)	-l- (tens marker)	-ml- (millions marker)	-l- (intensifier)
mon dark	man light
mob cliff		meb mountain		mub promontory
mof galaxy	maf cloud	mef brick		muf pole
mog ash	mag fire	meg stone		mug metal
moj night	maj day
mok cosmic dust	mak electricity	mek dust		muk mineral
mol nature	mal air	mel soil	mil water	mul matter
mom space	mam sky	mem land	mim sea	mum underground
mop orbit	map wind	mep road	mip river	mup tunnel
mor universe	mar star	mer planet	mir world	mur satellite
mos floor	mas wall	mes door	mis window	mus stairs
mov smoke	mav flame	mev porcelain		muv rod
moz- black	maz- white	mez- crystal
no- spend noz jewel	na- money naz value nya- stack	ne- save nye- store	ni- consume nyi- order	nu- supply nyu- deliver
nod point	nad line nab row nap order	ned plane	nid volume	nud column
nof textile nov linen nyov ribbon nyof film	naf cloth	nef web nyev bag nyef sack	nif thread niv strand nyiv lace nyif rope	nuf leash nyuf knob
nog grade nok degree	nag measure nak meter sag number syag count jag age xag frequency	neg level	nig space nik liter
	nam shop -am building	nem place -em place nyem box -yem enclosure	-im room
o zero o- un- yo- non- yon apart	a one an- mono- ayn whole yan together	e two en- bi- ey(n)- half	i three in- tri- iyn- terci-	u four un- tetra- uyn- quarti-
-o (future tense)	-a (past tense) -a (adjective) -ay (adverb)	-e (present tense)	-i (plural)	-u (hypothetical mode)
ob off	ab on	eb between	ib away	ub toward
of- must not	af- may	ef- need to	if- love	uf- hate
og- small	ag- big	eg- normal	ig- fast	ug- slow
oj future	aj past	ej present	ij beginning	uj end
ok- lose	ak- win	ek- play	ik- full	uk- empty
om- cold yom ice	am- hot yam fire		im- wet	um- dry
-om building	-am house	-em place	-im room
-on (issue)	-an (abstract quality	-en (present gerund)	-in (-ism)	-un (thing)
op- get off	ap- get on	ep- stay	ip- go away	up- come
os- be absent	as- become	es- exist	is- be the result	us- be the cause
ot one	at I	et you	it he	ut self ut self -ut one who
ov against	av for	ev- neutral	iv- happy	uv- sad
ox- be idle	ax- act	ex- operate	ix- result	ux- cause
oy but	ay and	ey or
-oy -less	-ay -ful
oz- weak	az- strong	ez- moderate	iz- straight	uz- curved
po- stop pyo- fall	pa- move pya- jump	p- go pyex- attack	pi- leave pix- catch	pu- arrive pux- throw pyux- bump
pop- travel	pap- fly	pep- drive	pip- sail	pup- burrow
pot animal pyot wild beast	pat bird	pet land animal pelt insect peit amphibian	pit fish piit shellfish	put worm
-r- (thousands marker)	-mr- (billions marker)	-r- (intensifier)	-er (infinitive)
som furniture	sam armoire	sem table	sim chair	sum bed
son matter syoz fantasy	san form saz sculpture	s- be	sin image syin subject siz painting	sun thing syun object suz artifact
	sar instrument -ar instrument		sir machine -ir machine	sur motor -ur motor
syob base	syab summit	syeb container
tob human tyob leg-t person	tab body tayob skin tayeb hair tayib cartilege	teb head tyeb brain	tib trunk	tub arm
tod family	tad spouse	ted parent	tid sibling	tud child
tof clothing tov linen tyof pants tyoyaf shoe tyoyav sock	taf suit tav robe	tef hat	tif vest	tuf sleeve tuyaf glove
toj death	taj birth	tej life	tij- awake	tuj sleep
tol nourishment -ol substance	tyal meal -al gas -yal juice	tel food -el food -yel oil	til drink -il liquid	tul dish
tom building	tam house -am house	tem hall -em place	tim room -im room	tum cell
top spirit	tap physique	tep mind	tip sentiment	tup member
tos- feel	tas-	t- know tes- mean tye- recognize tea- see tee- hear tei- smell teu- taste teud- shout	ti- learn	tu- inform
tox- forget	tax- remember	tex- think	tix- study	tux- teach
toz- skin color	taz- scupture	tez- culture tyez- magic		tuz- art
vo no voy not	va yes vay indeed	ve maybe vey possibly	vi- beautiful	vu- ugly
vob plant vol vegetable voz color	vab grass vaz- green	veb bean	vib stem	vub twig
vyo- false	vya- true	vye- relative	vyi- clean	vyu- dirty
-w- (passive voice)	wa (counter)
xo-	xa- execute	x- do xey- behave	xi- result	xu- affect
yo five yoon- penta- yoyn- quint-	ya six yaon- hexa- yayn- sex-	ye seven yeon- hepta- yeyn- sept-	yi eight yin- octo- yiyn- oct-	yu nine yun- nona- yuyn- novi-
yob down	yab up	yeb in	yib far away	yub near
yof- cannot	yaf- can	yef- should	yif- dare	yuf- fear
yog- short	yag- long		yig- hard	yug- soft
			yij- open	yuj- close
yok- surprise	yak- expect	yek- try	yik- difficult	yuk- easy
yon- apart	yan- together	-yen manner
yop- descend	yap- ascend	yep- enter	yip- move away	yup- approach
yot they	yat we	yet you (all)	yit they	yut selves
yov- guilty	yav- innocent	yev- just	yiv- free	yuv- bound
yox- be idle		yex- work	yix- use	yux- serve
yoz- concave	yaz- convex	yez- horizontal	yiz beyond	yuz around
zo behind	za before	ze middle	zi right	zu left
zoy back	zay ahead	zey across
zyo- narrow	zya- wide	zye through	zyi- flat	zyu- round

Rules for Deriving New Words

Derived words, that is, words that are built from root morphemes and other words, are formed following certain very simple rules of vocabulary-building:

These word-building rules govern:

1. Combining whole words
2. Affixation
3. Scaling Words through numerically-ordered Vowels
4. Combining partial words
5. Word-building by adding ordinal vowels
6. Swapping endings
7. Scientific word-building
8. Feminizing words
9. Geophysical vowel codification
10. Directional and positional vowel codification
11. Mnemonic markers
12. Creating nuances of meaning

Rule #1: Combining Whole Words

Compound words are formed by the combination of two or more words. When compounding, the determining word is placed very simply in front of the determined word.

• mar star + tun science → martun astronomy
• mag fire + meb mountain → magmeb volcano
• tul meal + dras writeup → tuldren menu
• nax cost + aga big → naxaga expensive
• nax cost + oga small → naxoga cheap
• amar sun + yap ascent → amaryap sunrise
• amar sun + yop descent → amaryop sunset
• mam sky + par vehicle → mampar airplane
• map wind + yaf power → mapyaf windpower
• dom city + teas view → domteas cityscape
• tej life + tun science → tejtun biology
• man light + tam house → mantam lighthouse

Such compounds sometimes consist of more than two agglutinated words, for example:

• mam sky + pur vehicle + tam house → hangar

Rule #2: Affixation

Affixes can be prefixed or suffixed to verbs, nouns, and other parts of speech.

Prefixes

Adverbs and prepositions can serve as prefixes, especially for forming new verbs, eg.:

PREFIX	BASE VERB	COMPOUNDED VERB
go less	ber put	gober subtract
yeb in	ber put	yeber* introduce
oyeb out	ber put	oyeber* oust
yuz around	ber put	yuzber surround
ob off	ber put	ober* remove
ig fast	xer do	igxer accelerate
ug slow	xer do	ugxer brake
ja before	xer do	jaxer prepare
je during	xer do	jexer continue
oj future	xer do	ojxer plan
ab on	per go	aper1 get on
yeb in	per go	yeper* enter
oyeb out	per go	oyeper* exit
zay ahead	per go	zayper advance
zoy back	per go	zayper retreat
ja before	per go	japer precede
jo after	per go	joper follow
yuz around	per go	yuzper circulate
va yes	der say	vader affirm
vo no	der say	voder deny
fi good	der say	fider praise
fu bad	der say	fuder malign
ja before	der say	jader predict
ja before	dren writing	jadren preface
jo after	dren writing	jodren postscript

*Note: If the prefix is an adverb or preposition ending in b and is being affixed to the verb per go or ber put, then the b of the prefix is dropped. See the next section for this:

Prefixes Ending in b with Verbs per and ber

Prepositional prefixes ending in b lose the b before verbal elements based on per (go) and ber (put), as shown in the following chart:

PREFIX	BASE VERB	NEW VERB
yab up	ber put	yaber raise (NOT: yabber)
yab up	per go	yaper rise (NOT: yabper)
ab on	ber put	aber put on, apply
ab on	per go	aper get on, mount
yob down	ber put	yober take down
yob down	per go	yoper descend
ob off	ber put	ober take off, remove
ob on	per go	oper get off, dismount
yeb in	bux a push	yebux impulse
yeb in	pyoser fall	yepyoser collapse

Prefixing with Whole or Clipped Words

The two or three first letters of a root morpheme can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending a is often dropped¹, as is the er or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped.

PREFIX	BASE VERB	COMPOUND VERB
oza weak	der say	ozder whisper
yaga long	der say	yagder ramble
aja past	der say	ajder evoke
yoga short	der say	yogder summarize
tyoyab foot	per go	tyoyaper walk
dreer write	sar tool	dresar pencil
tuyob hand	dren writing	tuyodren manuscript
mam sky	mil water	mamil rain

¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending a is retained when an adjective is compounded with xer or ser. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs.

Prefixing with Prefixes Per Se

PREFIX	MEANING	EXAMPLES
o-	un-, expresses negation, opposition, opposite meaning	data friendly → odata unfriendly
lo-	un-, same as o but used where o is not clear	gla many → logla rare
yo-	un-, same as o but more intense	dat friend → yodat enemy
av-	pro-	fyatin religion → avfyatina pro-religious
ov-	anti-, counter-	dropek war → ovdropeka anti-war
hyas-	all-, pan-, omni-	tea aware → hyastea omniscient, all-knowing
ja-	before, ante-, pre-, fore-	taj birth → jataja pre-natal
jo-	after, post-	judrer to date → jojudrer post-date
yiz-	beyond, meta-	tapa physical → yiztapa metaphysical
ey(n)-	semi-, hemi-, half-	eyseuz demi-tone, eylevelbaya semi-sweet, eyntepa half-wit
e(n)-	bi-, duo-, two-	ejaba biennial, entyoba biped, enteba two-headed
i(n)-	tri-, three-	invoza tricolor, ijib trimester, inzyun tricycle
u(n)-	quadri-, four-	untyoba quadriped, unkuma quadrilateral, ungona quadripartite
a(n)-	uni-, singular	anxer unite, asana special, auta individual, private
ya(n)-	multi-, together, plural	yanxer assemble, yasana general, yauta common, public
yo(n)-	dis-, se-, apart	yonxer separate, yoniler unstick, youta alone, isolate
eg-	re-, again	eganxer reunite, egder repeat, egvader reaffirm

Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad

Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad:

ENGLISH PREFIX	MEANING	ORIGIN	ENGLISH EXAMPLE	MIRAD EXAMPLE
a-, an-	without, un-, -less	GREEK	atonal	oseuza
ab-	away	LATIN	absence	ibsen
ab-	not, un-	LATIN	abnormal	olega, ozeta
ad-	to, toward	LATIN	advent	upen < ub-
after-	after	GERMANIC	aftermath	joxwas
anti-	against	GREEK	antidote	ovbokil
arch-	chief, first	GREEK	archangel	aatat
auto-	self	GREEK	autocracy	utdab
back-	back	GERMANIC	backstairs	zomus
bene-	well	LATIN	benefactor	fixut
bi-	two	GREEK	bicameral	entima
by-	beyond	GERMANIC	bypass	yizper
cent(i)-	hundred	LATIN	century	sojab
circ(um)-	around	LATIN	circulate	yuzper
co-	together	LATIN	cooperate	yanexer
con-, com-, cor-, col-	with	LATIN	convene	yanuper
counter-, contra-	against	LATIN	contradict	ovder
cross-	across	GERMANIC	crosswind	zeymep
de-	un-, reverse	LATIN	desalinate	omimolxer, mimolober
de-	down	LATIN	descend	yo(b)per < yob + per
deci-	ten	LATIN	decimeter	alonag
di-	two	GREEK	diode	enmep
dia-	throughout	GREEK	diachronic	zyajoba
dicho-	double	GREEK	dichotomy	engorbun
di(s)-	apart, un-	LATIN	disappear	oteaser
dys-	bad	GREEK	dysfunction	fuexen
ec(to)-	out	GREEK	ectomorph	oyebsan
en-, em-	in	GREEK	endemic	yebdita
endo-	within	GREEK	endomorphic	yebsana
equi-	equal	LATIN	equilateral	gekuma
eu-	good, nice	GREEK	euphemism	vidun
ex-, e-	out	LATIN	extract	oye(b)bixer
extra-	outside	LATIN	extraordinary	yizega
fellow-	fellow	LATIN	fellow-traveler	yanpoput, dat-
fore-	front	GERMANIC	foreskin	zatayob
gyro-	round, wheel	LATIN	gyroscope	zyunzebar
half-	half	GERMANIC	half-dead	eyntoja
hemi-	half	GREEK	hemisphere	eynzyunid
hect(o)-	hundred	GREEK	hectometer	asonak
hept(o)-	seven	GREEK	heptogonal	yeguna
hetero-	different	GREEK	heterogeneous	hyusauna
hexa-	six	GREEK	hexagongal	yaunguna
high-	high	GERMANIC	high-flying	yabpapea
homo-	same	GREEK	homogeneous	hyisauna
hyper-	over, too much	GREEK	hyperactive	graaxeya
hypo-	under, too little	GREEK	hypothermia	groaman
idio-	peculiar	GREEK	idiopath	asanbak
ill-	poorly	GERMANIC	ill-mannered	fubyena
in-	in	LATIN/GERMANIC	incoming	yebupea
in-	not, un-	LATIN	inadequate	ogrea
infra-	below	LATIN	infrared	oybivoza
inter-	between	LATIN	international	ebdooba
intra-	amid	LATIN	intramural	eybmasa
intro-	into	LATIN	introduce	yebber
iso-	equal	GREEK	isometric	genaga
kilo-	thousand	GREEK	kilogram	arokyik
macro-	big	GREEK	macrometer	agnagar
magn(i)-	big	LATIN	magnify	agaxer
mal-	badly	LATIN	malformed	fusana
many-	many	GERMANIC	many-hued	glavoza
maxi(m)-	biggest	LATIN	maximize	gyaxer
mega(lo)-	big	GREEK	megacephalic	agteba
meso-	middle	GREEK	mesomorph	zesanat
meta-	beyond	GREEK	metaphysical	yizmula
micro-	little	GREEK	microcosm	ogmir
mid-	middle	LATIN	midday	zejub
milli-	thousand	LATIN	milligram	arokyik
mini(m)-	tiny	LATIN	miniskirt	gyotyoyf
mis-	wrongly	LATIN	misunderstand	vyotider
multi-	many	LATIN	multilateral	glakuma
neo-	new	GREEK	neophyte	jogagsat
non-	not	LATIN	nonentity	oseas
nona-	nine	GREEK	nonagon	yuungun
oct(a)-	eight	GREEK	octagon	yigun
omni-	all	LATIN	omniscient	hyastea
ortho-	correct	GREEK	orthodontist	izteupibtut
out-	better	GERMANIC	outplay	gafieker
over-	too much	GERMANIC	overeat	grateler
pan-	all	GREEK	pantheon	hyastotyan
para-	alongside	GREEK	paraphrase	yeztesder
penta-	five	GREEK	pentagon	yoongun
per-	through	LATIN/GREEK	perpendicular	zyepyonada
poly-	many	GREEK	polyandry	glatadan
post-	after	LATIN	postscript	jodren
pre-	before	LATIN	preview	jateaxer, za-
pro	for	LATIN	pro-life	avtejina
pro-	forward	LATIN	progress	zaynogper
pseudo-	falsely	GREEK	pseudonym	vyodyun
quadri-	four	LATIN	quadrilateral	unkuma
quasi-	resembling, nearly	LATIN	quasi-scientific	yubtuna
quint-	five	LATIN	quintet	younatyan
re-	again	LATIN	redo	eejxer
rect(i)-	straight	LATIN	rectilinear	iznada
retro-	backwards	LATIN	retrogress	zoynogser
semi-	half	LATIN	semi-sweet	eynlevelaya
sept-	seven	LATIN	septempartite	yegona
sext-	six	LATIN	sextuplicate	yaungeyxwas
sub-, sup-, sur-	below	LATIN	submarine	oybmimpar
super-, supra-	above	LATIN	superscript	aybdren
syn-, sym-, syl-	with	GREEK	symphony	yanduzutyan
tele-	far	GREEK	telephone	yibdalar
tetra-	four	GREEK	tetragon	ungun
trans-	across	LATIN	transfer	zeyber
tri-	three	GREEK/LATIN	trigram	indresin
ultra-	beyond, extremely	GREEK	ultranationalist	gwadoobina
un-	not	LATIN	untie	oyanxer
under-	below	LATIN	underarm	oybtub
under-	not enough	LATIN	underactive	groaxeya
uni-	one	LATIN	unicycle	anzyus

Suffixes

Mirad has semantic suffixes, grammatical suffixes, and part-of-speech-changing suffixes

• Semantic Suffixes

Semantic suffixes are generally formed from the two last letters of a root morpheme. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material.

ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIX	SUFFIXED DERIVATIONS
mil water	-il liquid	teabil tear < teab eye
		teubil saliva < teub mouth
		tayebil sweat < tayeb skin
		mamil rain < mam sky
tam house	-am house	apatam chicken coop < apat chicken
		apelatam beehive < apelat bee
		melyexam farmhouse < melyex agriculture
		datibam hostel < datib guest-reception
nem place	-em place	vobyexem plantation, farm < vob plant + yex work
		vabem field < vab grass
		abem top, surface < ab above, upper
		obem bottom < ob below
nof cloth	-of material	tof clothes < t- human
		misof curtain < mis window
		faof wood < fa(b)- tree
		tayof leather < tayo(b) skin
sar tool	-ar instrument	par vehicle < p- motion
		zyupar rotor < zyup turn
		gorbar knife < gorb cut
		syaagar computer < syaag computation
sun thing	-un thing	dun word < d- utter, say
		gorfun piece, scrap < gorfer rip, shread, tear
		zyiun plaque, plate < zyia flat
		vyun spot < vyua dirty
tin doctrine	-in -ism	totin theism, religion < tot- god
		Kristin Christianity < Krist Christ
		vyisatin puritanism < vysiat puritan, clean person
		otofin nudism < otofa nude
fuf pipe	-uf cylinder object	manuf candle < man light
		tiibuf artery < tiib heart
		miluf toilet < mil water
		movuf cheminee < mov smoke
yel oil	-yel oil, gel, wax, pulp	kafyel olive oil < kaf olive
		apelatyel wax < apelat bee
		levyel jam, jelly, confiture < leve sugar, sweet
		bekyel salve < bek care, treatment
		megyel cement < meg stone
		yanyel paste < yan together

• Grammatical Suffixes

Mirad has only a few grammatical or derivational (non-inflexional*) suffixes:

DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX	BASE WORD → SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-er (verb infinitive)	sag- cipher → sager to count nab rank → naber to rank yex work → yexer to work
-n (deverbal or deadjectival noun)	yexe works → yexen working via beautiful → vian beauty yuba near → yuban proximity, nearness
-a (adjective)	yib- far away → yiba remote mor universe → mora universal ake wins → akea winning
-y (deadjectival adverb)	iga- quick → igay quickly yiba remote → yibay remotely

*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker -i fall under the latter category.

• Augmentative Suffixes

AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX	ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-ag (augmentative)	tam house	tamag mansion
-ayg (affectionate augmentative)	sem chair	semayg big old chair
-yag (pejorative augmentative)	apet horse	apetyag nag

• Diminutive Suffixes

DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX	ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-og (diminutive)	tam house	tamog hut
-oyg (affectionate diminutive)	tam house	tamoyg cottage
-yog (pejorative diminutive)	tam house	tamyog shack

• Suffixes Forming Nuanced Adjectives

ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-aya	full of, -ous, -y	miek dust	miekaya dusty
-oya	empty of, -less, -free	vyun spot	vyunoya spotless
-ika	full of, -ous, -y	miek dust	miekika dusty
-uka	empty of, -less, -free	miek dust	miekuka dust-free
-ea (present active particple)	doing X, -ing, -ant, -ent	ilp flow	ilpea flowing, fluent
-yea	given to doing X, -ive	vyod lie	vyodyea mendacious, given to lying
-wea (present passive participle)	being Xed	vyixer to clean	vyixwea being cleaned
-yena	like, -ly, -ic	tat angel	tatyena angelic
-(a)wa (past passive participle)	Xed	oter to ignore	otwa or otawa unknown
-uwa (potential passive participle)	-able, liable to be Xed	teater to see	teatuwa visible

• Other Suffixes

SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-an	abstract quality, -ness, -hood, -ity	iva happy	ivan happiness
		via beautiful	vian beauty
		ama hot	aman heat
-at	person who has the quality of	yova guilty	yovat guilty party
		oga little	ogat little person
-ut	agent, practitioner, one who does X, -er, -ant, -ent	yuxer to help	yuxut helper, assistant
		vyoder lie	vyodut liar
-eat	one who does X	vyixeat cleaning person
-(a)wat	one who has been Xed	tujber to kill	tujbwat or tujbawat murder victim
-(a)was	what is/was Xed	ter to know	twas or tawas what is known, fact
-et	a person a level down	ted father	tedet son
		tid uncle	tidet cousin
		tad spouse	tadet brother
-es	item of lesser importance	nas money	nases change, coin
-ob	child of, offspring	tob man	tobob infant
		apet horse	apetob foal
-un < sun	concrete thing	viber decorate	vibun ornament
-on < son	abstract thing	kyiser weight down	kyison problem
		ifer to love	ifon love
-tun	science, ...ology	tej life	tejtun biology
		tob man	tobtun anthropology
-in < tin	doctrine, -ism	tot god	totin theism, religion
		dot society	dotin socialism
-yan	collection, aggregate	fab tree	fabyan forest
		mar star	maryan constellation
-ar < sar	instrument, tool, device	per go	par vehicle
		teab eye	teabar eyeglasses
-ur < sur	machine	yalb lift	yalbur elevator

Many of the above suffixes and prefixes can be combined as in the following example:

• ov- against, anti- + dot society + -in ism + -at person having the quality of + -yena like, -ish → ovdotinatyena anti-socialistic

Rule #3: Scaling Words through Numerically-ordered Vowels

Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to root morphemes of the 1st group. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the root morpheme stem as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called first-level ordinal scaling.

• First-level Ordinal Scaling

t...b	m...r	j...b	m...s	t...m	d...b	f...b	s...m
tob man	mor universe	job time	mos floor (1st,2nd,etc.)	tom building	dob state	fob plant	som furniture
tab body	mar sun	jab year	mas wall	tam house	dab government	fab tree	sam armoire
teb head	mer planet	jeb season	mes door	tem hall	deb leader	feb treetop	sem table
tib trunk	mir earth	jib month	mis window	tim room	dib office	fib tree trunk	sim chair
tub arm	mur moon	jub day	mus stairs	tum cell	dub ministry	fub branch	sum bed
tyob leg		jyob* hour				fyob root
		jyab* minute
		jyeb* second

* Easier to pronounce as jwob, jwab, and jweb.

• Second-level Ordinal Scaling

A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem.

Examples:

mi...p	me...p	tu...b	tyo...b
mip river	mep way	tub arm	tyob leg
miap stream	meap road	tuab shoulder	tyoab hip
miep brook	meep path	tueb upper arm	tyoeb thigh
miip rivulet	meip trail	tuib elbow	tyoib knee
miup torrent	meup track	tuub forearm	tyoub shin
miyop trickle		tuyob wrist	tyoyob ankle
		tuyab hand	tyoyab foot
		tuyeb fist	tyoyeb heel
		tuyib palm	tyoyib sole
		tuyub finger	tyoyub toe
		tulob fingernail	tyolob toenail

• Third-level Ordinal Scaling

A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word.

Example:

...tuyub
tuyub finger
atuyub thumb
etuyub index
ituyub middle finger
utuyub ring finger
yotuyub pinky

So, to sum up, we have:

t...b	tob = man
FIRST-LEVEL	tub arm
SECOND-LEVEL	tuyub finger
THIRD-LEVEL	atuyub thumb

• Scaling with Prefixed Numbering

We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering.

Example:

...dob	...pet	...mer
dob state	pet animal	mer planet
adob empire	apet horse	Amer Mercury
edob kingdom	epet bull	Emer Venus
idob principality	ipet ass	Imer Earth
udob duchy	upet ram	Umer Mars
yodob marquisate	yopet goat	Yomer Jupiter'
yadob county	yapet pig	Yamer Saturn
yedob dominion	yepet dog	Yemer Pluto

Rule #4: Portmanteau Compouding

When forming a compound word, the generic consonant (the last one) of the determinant (first word) is the same as the classifier consonant (first) of the determined (2nd word), the generic consonant is suppressed so as to avoid two of the same consonants in a row. This is also called portmanteau compounding.

• dom city + mep way → domep boulevard
• pat bird + teub mouth → pateub beak
• pat bird + tub arm → patub wing
• teb head + bok illness → tebok headache

When forming a compound word, the principal word has one or two prefixed vowels, this vowel or these vowels come at the beginning of the compound word.

Examples:

• tuyub finger → atuyub thumb → iatuyub right thumb

Codifying the Negative and Opposite Senses

In the codification of core words and derived words of the 1st group, the negative sense or opposite sense is obtained by adding the prefixes o and yo, the latter being more intense.

• mola natural → omola unnatural, artificial
• tobyena humane → otobyena inhumane
• data friendly → yodata inimical
• poos peace → yopoos turmoil

In the codification of core words and derived words of the 2nd group, the opposite sense is obtained by prefixing lo dis-, un-, de- if followed by a consonant, or ol if followed by a vowel, eg.:

• fwa wanted → lofwa unwanted
• yuvxer to tie up → loyuvxer to untie
• axaxer to activate → olaxaxer to deactivate
• afwa allowable → olafwa disallowed

Rule #5: Codification by the Addition of Ordinal Vowels

a) When you wish to form a compound word with words from a same family of vowels, if the ordinal vowel is an o, you replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word.

NUMERAL PREFIX	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	ORDINAL VOWEL	GENERIC CONSONANT	MEANING
a	d	o	b	republic
	d	e	b	leader
a	d	e	b	president

NUMERAL PREFIX	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	ORDINAL VOWEL	GENERIC CONSONANT	MEANING
i	d	o	b	kingdom
	d	e	b	leader
i	d	e	b	king

b) If, on the other hand, the two words are already subordinate, then the vowel of the determinant is placed between the ordinal vowel of the determined and the generic consonant.

Examples:

• mil water ↗ mal air ⇒ mial steam, vapor
• mel soil ↗ mil water ⇒ meil mud
• tul meal ↗ til drink ⇒ tuil soup

c) You can also form new compound words by applying the Rule # 6 above (a and b).

Examples:

• adob republic ↘ dab government ⇒ adab government of the republic
• adab government of the republic ↘ deb leader ⇒ adaeb president of the republic
• (Applying Rule #8 on feminizing words by post-iotation) ⇒ adaeyb Madam President of the Republic

Rule #6: Swapping Endings

When the generic consonant of a core word is replaced by that of another core word, all of the vowels of this latter word undergo the transformation required by the new generic consonant.

Examples:

TOB

man ↘

TOF

clothing

NOF ↗

cloth

TYOYAB

foot ↘

TYOYAV

sock

NOV ↗

linen

BODY PART	APPAREL	CLOTH/LINEN
tob man	tof clothes	tov lingerie
tab body	taf suit	tav robe
teb head	tef hat	tev scarf
teab eye	teaf blinder	teav eye patch
teeb ear	teef ear phone	teev ear muff
teib nose	teif noseguard	teiv handkerchief
teub mouth	teuf muzzle	teuv mask
teyob neck	teyof necktie	teyov collar
tib trunk	tif waistcoat	tiv sweater
tiab chest	tiaf vest	tiav shirt
tyob leg	tyof pants	tyov underwear
tyoyab foot	tyoyaf shoe	tyoyav sock
tyoyib knee	tyoyif knee pad	tyoyiv knee sock
tyoyob ankle	tyoyof ankle bracelet	tyoyov ankle sock
tuyob wrist	tuyof cuff	tuyov wristband
tuyab hand	tuyaf glove	tuyav mitten

Rule #7: Scientific Vocabulary-building

Chemical Elements

The names of chemical elements are formed from a number representing the element's atomic number (number of electrons), followed by a letter combination indicating whether it is a metal or metalloid, and followed, if pertinent, by a combination of letters indicating whether it is a gas or liquid. The table that follows shows how this composition works:

ELEMENT	ELECTRON COUNT	METAL GENERIC = m
silver	47 = ulye	ulyem
aluminum	13 = ali	alim
iron	46 = elya	elyam
gold	79 = yelyum	yelyum
copper	29 = elyu	elyum
tin	50 = yolo	yolom
		METALLOID GENERIC = ms
phosophorus	15 = alyo	alyoms
carbon	6 = ya	yams
		GAS = al LIQUID = il
hydrogen	1 = a	amsal
nitrogen	7 = ye	yemsal
oxygen	8 = yi	yimsal
mercury	80 = yilo	yilomsil

The words amsal, yemsal, and yimsal each carry three pieces of information.

The first letter indicates their classification by number of electrons.

The two following letters: mc indicates metalloids; The two last letters: al indicates that they are a gas.

The word yilomil also carries three pieces of information:

The three first letters: yi-l-o show classification by number of electrons.

The fourth letter, m, indicates that it's a metal.

The two last letters, il, indicates that it's a liquid.

Other Non-elemental Substances

Non-elemental natural and man-made substances and alloys are formed using mnemonic components.

• steel = elyamyig < elyam iron + yig(a) hard
• plastic = sanyel < san- shape + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• rubber = yugyel < yug- soft + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• cement = megyel < meg stone + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• glass = zyev < zy(e) (see) through + (m)ev porcelain
• bronze = elyumyig < elyum copper + yig(a) hard
• paint = vozil < voz color + -il liquid
• ink = dril < dr(er) write + -il liquid
• coal = yamsun < yams carbon + -un substance
• glue = yanil < yan together + -il liquid
• paste = yanyel < yan together + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• resin = defabyel < defab pine tree + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• wood = faof < fa(b) tree + (n)of material, tissue
• leather = tayof < tayo(b) skin + (n)of material, tissue
• cement = megyel < meg stone + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• concrete = megyelyig < meg stone + -yel viscous matter + yig hard
• tar = movgyin < mov smoke + gyin solid
• lava = magmebil < mag fire + meb mountain + -il liquid
• fuel = magil < mag fire + -il liquid
• shampoo = tayel < taye(b) hair + -(y)el oil, wax, gel, gum
• detergent = vyunobil < vyu(a) dirty + -(u)n substance + ob(er) remove + -il liquid
• soap = vyil < vyi(a) clean + -(i)l liquid
• cheese = bilyig < bil milk + yig(a) hard
• butter = bilyug < bil milk + yug(a) soft
• syrup = gyalevil < gya extremely + lev(el) sugar, sweet + -il liquid
• gravy = taobil < taob flesh, meat + -il liquid
• alcohol = fil < (levaf) ferment + -il liquid
• wax = apelatyel < apelat bee + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• honey = apelatil < apelat bee + -il liquid
• brick = mef < m(el) earthen + (no)f hard material
• porcelain = mev < m(el) earthen + (no)v soft material
• gem = mez < m(el) earthen + (no)z value, precious

Atomic and Subatomic Particles

From the word mul matter, substance, stuff, we get the following derivatives:

• mul matter, substance, stuff

• mula material, substantial, physical

• omula immaterial, unsubstantial, non-physical

• ovmul anti-matter
• omul nothingness, void, nihil

• omulxer anihilate

• moza mul black matter
• multun physics

• multuna physics-related
• multut physics scientist

• mulog particle

• muloga particulate
• mulogxer crush, crumble, pulverize
• vamulog proton
• omulog neutron
• vomulog electron

• vomuloga electronic
• vomulp electricity

• vomulpa electric, electrical

• vomulpaxer electrify

• mules element

• mulesa elemental
• mulesyan compound

• yanmul mix, mixture, chemical

• yanmula chemical
• yanmultun chemistry

• yanmultuna chemical
• yanmultut chemist

• gwomul atom

• gwomula atomic

• obgwomula subatomic

• zemul nucleus

• zemula nuclear

Rule #8: The Feminization of Words

To form the feminine of a word or to indicate that an object or thing belongs to females, post-iotate (append a y) to the ordinal vowel of the word.

Examples:

MALE-RELATED	FEMALE-RELATED
tob man	toyb woman
tad spouse, husband	tayd wife
tadet brother	taydet sister
ted father	teyd mother
tedet son	teydet daughter
tid uncle	tiyd aunt
tidet cousin	tiydet female cousin
apet horse	apeyt mare
epet bull	epeyt cow
tiav shirt	tiayv blouse
tyof pants	tyoyf skirt
tulyuxut waiter	tulyuxuyt waitress

Note that personal pronouns can be feminized as well. The unfeminized form is either masculine or neutral with respect to gender.

MASCULINE	FEMININE
at I / me	ayt we / us women
et you	eyt you gals
it he / him	iyt she / her
yat we / us	yayt we females / us women
yet you guys	yeyt you gals
yit they / them	yiyt they / them (f.)

This process works for the possessive adjective derivatives of these pronouns:

• iyta her
• yeyta you gals'

The animate demonstrative pronouns (animate deictic determiners) can also be feminized:

• huyt that female person, she, her
• huyti these females, they, them

The generic pronouns ot one, yot they (generic) and (y)ut are not normally feminized.

Rule #9: Geophysical Vowel Coding

Geophysical vowel coding, as it's name indicates, occurs on vowels by giving them a particular geophysical meaning.

• a = air, gas, skyward
• e = soil, ground
• i = water, liquid, juice, etc.
• u = concrete thing, material, mineral, underground
• o = abstract thing, initial item, outer space

This codification occurs on the ordinal vowel of 1st Group core words only.

Examples:

m...m	m...p	d...p	p...t	m...l	p...p
mom outer space	mop galaxy	dop military	pot animal	mol nature	pop travel
mam sky	map wind	dap air force	pat bird	mal air	pap flight
mem land	mep way	dep army	pet (land) animal	mel soil	pep ride
mim sea	mip river	dip navy	pit fish	mil water	pip sea voyage
mum underground	mup tunnel	dup submarine force		mul mineral	pup tunneling

Vowel coding also allows for arriving at other combined-concept word categories by placing a vowel having the value ascribed to it by Rule # 9 just a before the generic consonant of the initial word. (See Rule #5)

Examples:

COMBINED-CONCEPT WORD	CODIFICATION
pait aquatic bird	pat bird + liquid / sea
piat flying fish	pit fish + skyward / air
diap naval aviation	dip navy + skyward / air
meil mud	mel soil + liquid / sea

Rule #10: Directional and Positional Vowel Coding

Directional and positional vowel coding works along lines of the charts below. Those vowels preceded by a y (iotated vowels) are, for this analysis, considered to be vowels pure and simple. Those vowels that are capitalized are positional in nature and serve as prefixes to 1st group words. Those vowels that are italicized are directional as prefixes to 2nd group words. The vowels that are underlined are directional in nature and are infixed just after the classifying consonant of 2nd group words, mostly verbs.

	A a a ya ya
U u u yu u	E e e ye ye	I i i yi yi
	O o o yo yo

VOWEL	FUNCTION	ATTACHMENT	MEANING	EXAMPLE
A	positional	1st group prefix	above, north	zamer north
a	directional	2nd group prefix	on, onto	aber put on, ab on
a	directional	2nd group infix	on, onto	baer lean on
ya	directional	2nd group prefix	up	yaber lift up, yab up
ya	directional	2nd group infix	upward	pyaser jump up
O	positional	1st group prefix	under, south	zomer south
o	directional	2nd group prefix	off, under, below	ober take off, ob off
o	directional	2nd group infix	from below, downward	boer support
yo	directional	2nd group prefix	down	yober lower, yob down
yo	directional	2nd group infix	down with contact	pyoser fall down
U	positional	1st group prefix	left, west	zumer west, utuyab left hand
u	directional	2nd group prefix	toward	uper come, ub toward
u	directional	2nd group infix	to, toward with contact	puer arrive, bu to
yu	directional	2nd group prefix	near	yuber bring, yub near
yu	directional	2nd group infix	up to, as far as	byuer touch, byu up to, as far as
I	positional	1st group prefix	right, east	zimer east, ituyab right hand
i	directional	2nd group prefix	away	iper go away, ib away from
i	directional	2nd group infix	away with contact	pier depart, bi to
yi	directional	2nd group prefix	far away, far from	yiper go far away, yib far
yi	directional	2nd group infix	since, starting from	byier originate, byi since
E	positional	1st group prefix	center, middle equator	zemer equator, eb between
e	directional	2nd group prefix	staying in the middle, between	eper stay
e	directional	2nd group infix	stopped in the middle, at	beer hold, be at
ye	directional	2nd group prefix	inside	yeber contain, yeb in
ye	directional	2nd group infix	inside	byeer keep

Examples of verbs undergoing the rules of directional coding:

With ber put (transitive):

aber put on	eber hold	ober take off	iber receive	uber send
yaber raise	yeber contain	yober lower	yiber put away	yuber bring
baer lean on	beer have	boer hold up	bier take	buer give
byaer lift	byeer keep	byoer hang	byier obtain	byuer reach for

With per go (intransitive):

aper get on	eper stay	oper get off	iper go away	uper come
yaper rise	yeper enter	yoper descend	yiper put away	yuper bring
paer stand	peer wait	poer fall	pier depart	puer arrive
pyaer get up	pyeer stick around	pyoer get down	pyier originate	pyuer reach

Rule #11: Codifying Mnemonic Markers

By changing the classifying or generic consonant of a derived word, a new, but related meaning can be obtained. Also, the classifying consonant can be replaced with an entire or partial word. The relationship among the altered word forms is therefore mnemonic. Here are some examples:

teub mouth → teud cry     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ teuz voice     (z = precious, art, etc.)

→ deuz song     (d = communicate, utter, social)

tayab fat → fayab vegetable fat     (f = vegetable)

→ mayab mineral fat     (m = nature, mineral)

tub arm → fub branch     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vub twig     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ dub minister     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ xub department     (x = do, work)

→ patub wing     (pat = bird)

→ pitub fin     (pit = fish)

tayob skin → fayob bark     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vayob peel     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ piyetayob shell     (piyet = mollusk)

→ pitayob scale     (pit = fish)

→ epeytayob cowhide     (epeyt = cow)

tayeb hair → fayeb leaf     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ pitayeb scale     (pit = fish)

→ potayeb fur     (pot = animal)

→ patayeb feather     (pat = bird)

→ vosayeb petal     (vos = flower)

→ mayeb foil     (m = nature, mineral)

→ gorbayeb blade     (gorb = cut)

taob flesh, meat → faob wood     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vaob hay     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ epeytaob beef     (epeyt = cow)

→ kovaob thatch     (ko = cover + v = plant)

→ fyaob pulp     (fy(ab) = fruit )

→ faof board, plank     (f = vegetable, tree, etc. )

teater see → teaxer look     (x = do, teab = eye)

→ teaper visit     (p = go)

→ teaser seem     (s = be)

→ teader testify     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ izeader indicate     (iz = direct )

→ izteaxer aim     (x = do)

→ beaxer watch     (b(eer) = keep)

→ abeaxer survey     (ab = over)

→ yoneater discern     (yon = apart, t = know )

→ vyaleaxer check     (vyal = accurate )

→ yageaxer stare     (yag = long )

Suppressing Syllables for Brevity

Sometimes, syllables of longish words can be omitted for brevity as long as no confusion of meaning results. Here are some examples:

• vafil wine < vafyabil (vafyab grape + -il liquid)
• bil milk < tilabil (tilab breast + -il liquid)
• ateuder neigh < apeteuder (apet horse + (t)euder emit a cry)
• iteuder bray < ipeteuder (ipet donkey + (t)euder emit a cry)
• bilyig cheese < tilabilyig (tilab breast + -il liquid + yig(a) hard)

Rule #12: Creating Nuances of Meaning

Words following Rule #12 are those that relate to one another through similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances indicated by phonetic devices that activate these nuances.

These nuances are obtained by:

a) Adding a sub-ordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal:

a for a and ya

e for e and ye

i for i and yi

o for o and yo

u for u and yu

Examples:

NORMAL	NUANCED
valay surely	vaalay assuredly
nad line	naad rail
dab government	daab administration
dob state	doob nation
tam house	taam home
vyab rule	vyaab regime, system
job time	joob era, time period

b) Post-iotating ordinal vowels and subordinal vowels. Often, the meaning of the word with the post-iotated vowel is a mitigated nuance of the word without the iotated vowel:

NORMAL	DIMINISHED NUANCE
nad line	nayd ray
vua ugly	vuya plain
ifer love	iyfer like
iva happy	iyva content
tam house	taym cottage
ab on	ayb over
ob off	oyb under
en- two-	eyn- half-
ud that	uyd such
ama hot	ayma warm

c) Adding the sense-augmenting consonants l and r, the latter being the stronger.

NORMAL	AUGMENTED NUANCE	FURTHER-AUGMENTED NUANCE
iva happy	ivla glad	ivra delighted
via beautiful	vila magnificent	vira marvelous
yifa brave	yilfa courageous	yirfa heroic
fua bad	fula awful	fura horrendous
alo hundred	aro thousand	amso million
yufxer intimidate	yulfxer frighten	yurfxer terrorize
aga big	agla huge	agra tremendous

Note: Sometimes the l or r nuance-enhancing consonants come after the generic consonant.

d) Adding consonants other than l and r as generic consonants. Sometimes, more than one nuance-altering consonant is added in the same word:

vala = sure

valta = safe

---

fua = bad

futa = evil [t usually refers to people or animals]

---

vyaa = true

vyala = authentic

vyafa = precise

vyama = real [m usually refers to nature, minerals, etc.]

vyava = exact [v usually refers to veracity]

vyalva = right

vyaba = regular [b usually refers to an organization or organism]

vyada = frank [d usually refers to communicating, talking, writing, etc.]

vyata = reliable

vyasma = concrete

Forming Adjectives

You can form an adjective by adding the suffix a to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized.

Examples:

NOUN	ADJECTIVE
taam home	taama domestic
doob nation	dooba national
tej life	teja vital
tyoyapyaf ability to walk	tyoyapyafa ambulatory
martun astronomy	martuna astronomical
PRONOUN	ADJECTIVE
at I, me	ata my
etut yourself	etuta your own
hiyen this kind	hiyena this kind of
hot? who?	hota? whose?
GERUND	ADJECTIVE
ifeken recreation	ifekena recreational
VERB FORM	ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE)
teje (he) lives	tejea living
tojo will die	tojoa moribund, about to die
tojbu would kill	tojbua lethal
twe is known	twa known

Adjectival Suffixes

Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just a.

Examples:

SUFFIX	MEANING	NOUN	ADJECTIVE
-aya	full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly
		voz color	vozaya colorful
		futax resentment	futaxaya resentful
		tiibil blood	tiibilaya bloody
		yilf courage	yilfaya courageous
-oya	bereft of, -less, un-
		voz color	vozoya colorless, pale
		tajyaf talent	tajyafoya untalented
-ika	full of, -ous, -ful, -y (same as -aya)
		map wind	mapika windy
-uka	bereft of, without, -less (same as -oya)
		nas money	nasuka broke, penniless
-yena	-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of
		tobob child	tobobyena childish, infantile
		tot god	totyena divine, godly
		pit fish	pityena fish-like, fishy
-wa or -awa	-ed, past passive participle (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
		t- know	twa or tawa known
		dal- speak	dalwa or dalawa spoken, oral
		nisbu- sell	nisbuwa sold
-ea	-ing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
		ot- not know	otea ignorant
		tej- live	tejea living, alive
		tuj- die	tujea dying
-yea	-ive, prone to Xing, given to X (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
		tujb- kill	tujbyea murderous
		tex- think	texyea pensive, thoughtful
		tox- forget	toxyea forgetful
		ax- act	axyea active
-uwa	-able, apt to be Xed (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
		ex- operate	exuwa operable
		tos feel	tosuwa palpable
		tex- think	texuwa conceivable
		tel- eat	teluwa edible
-yafa	-able, capable of Xing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyafa sightful, able to see
		dyed- read	dyedyafa literate
-yafwa	-able, possible to be Xed (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyafwa visible
		tax- remember	taxyafwa memorable
		teet- hear	teetyafwa audible
		tel- eat	telyafwa edible
-yofa	incapable of Xing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyofa blind
		tyoyap- walk	tyoyapyofa lame
		teet- hear	teetyofa deaf
		dal- speak	dalyofa dumb, incapable of speaking
-yofwa	un-X-able (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyofwa invisible
		teet- hear	teetyofa inaudible
		tox- forget	toxyofa unforgetable
		dal- speak	dalyofa unspeakable
-ifa	fond of, -phile (	NOUN STEM	ADJECTIVE
		pot animal	potifa pet-friendly
		hyitoob- same-gender	hyitoobifa homophile
		tobot child	tobotifa pedophile
		fitel food	fitelifa gourmand
		doob nation	doobifa patriotic
-ufa	adverse to, hating, miso-	NOUN STEM	ADJECTIVE
		tob human	tobufa misanthropic
		hyut- other person	hyutufa xenophobic
		toyb- woman	toybufa misogynist

Negating Adjectives

The sense of an adjective can be negated with the prefix o or the more intensive yo.

Examples:

• vlea probable → ovlea improbable
• vyafa perfect → ovyafa imperfect
• twa known → otwa unknown
• bosa calm → yobosa worried

Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes

As in English, the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin. Here are the most common:

ENGLISH PREFIX	MIRAD	ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES
un-, a(n)-, in-, non-	o-	obaka unhealthy, oyezyebeya incontinent, oyelpea non-invasive, ototina atheist
anti-, counter-	ov-	ovzuina anti-leftist, oviztida counter-intuitive
pseudo-	kovyo-	kovyotepina pseudo-intellectual
all-, pan-, omni-	hyas-	yadtea all-knowing, omniscient
re-	yeg-	yegtajbwa re-born
mis-	vyo-	vyoseudwa mispronounced
semi-, half-	eyn-	eynlevelaya semi-sweet, eyntija half-awake
ultra-, super-	yiz-, gwa-	gwadoobina ultra-nationalist, yizmola supernatural
under-, hypo-	gro-	grojaga under-aged
over-, hyper-, uber-	gra-	graagxwa overgrown, gratoseya hypersensitive
miso- [see suffixes]
multi-, many-, poly-	gla-	glakuma multilateral, glatadaya polygamous
mal-, ill-	fu-	futeyenxwa ill-conceived, fusanxwa malformed
well-	fi-	fitofabwa well-dressed
quasi-	yuyb-	yuybdaba quasi-governmental
pre-, (a)fore-, pro-	ja-	jateyenxwa pre-conceived, jaigdawa aformentioned
post-	jo-	jodropeka post-war

English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison

Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts:

ENGLISH SUFFIX	MEANING	MIRAD SUFFIX	ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES
-ful	full of	-aya, -ika	vozaya colorful, tuzika skillful
-ous	full of	-aya, -ika	nazika precious, milaya aqueous
-filled	full of	-aya, -ika	movika / movaya smoke-filled
-y	full of	-aya, -ika	movika / movaya smoky,
-ous	of, like	-a	totina religious, vyosa erroneous
-ly	like	-yena	totyena godly, toybyena womanly
-like	like	-yena	patyena bird-like
-ish	like	-yena	tobobyena childish
-y	like	-yena	fyabyena fruity
-ic	like	-yena	tuzyena artistic, silyena acidic
-ic	of, related to	-a	tuna scientific, , beka therapeutic
-ical	of, related to	-a	zyunida spherical, iztexa logical
-ological	pertaining to the study of	-tuna	tejtuna biological
-ist(ic)	pertaining to the doctrine of	-ina	doparina militarist(ic), nasyanina capitalist(ic)
-ophobic (and miso- prefix)	hating, fearful of	-ufa	yudatufa xenophonic, tobyanufa misanthropic
-ophilic (and philo- prefix)	loving	-ifa	tobobifa pedophilic, tobifa philanthropic
-al	like	-yena	pyotyena bestial
-al	of, pertaining to	-a	teja vital, amana thermal
-less	without, empty of	-oya, -uka	tejuka lifeless, toboboya childless
-free	without, empty of	-oya, -uka	yomuka ice-free, vyosoya, error-free

Forming Adverbs

Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-iotating the adjectival suffix a, in other words, by adding a y to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Examples:

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
fia good	fiay well
vyaa true	vyaay truly
gyua easy	gyuay easily
iga quick	igay quickly
auta personal	autay personally

For brevity's sake, the stem of deadjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example:

• It tyoyape ig. He walks fast.
• Yit xa ad fi. They did it well.

Special Adverbs

Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in -ay.

Here are the principal such adverbs:

SPECIAL ADVERB
vay.... indeed, really, certainly, do (cf. va.... yes)
vey.... possibly, may, might (cf. ve.... maybe)
voy.... not (cf. vo.... no)
ga.... more (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
gay.... also, moreover, further, still
ge.... as, equally (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
gey.... even
go.... less (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
goy.... no longer, no more
gla.... very
glay.... quite, rather, so
gle.... so
glo.... not very, not so
gra.... too
gre.... enough, sufficiently, over-
gro.... not...enough, inadequately, under-
gwa.... most, super-
gwe.... average
gwo.... least, sub-

The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow:

• AFFIRMATIVE: Va, at vay se tadsa..... Yes, I am indeed married.
• DUBITIVE: Iyta dud se vey vyosa..... Her response is possibly wrong.
• NEGATIVE: At voy se eta yurxut..... I am not your slave.

The adverbs above beginning with g are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb:

• Et se gla via.....You are very beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].
• Et peya gra ig.'.... You were going too fast [=ADVERB].
• It gra dale.'.... He talks [=VERB] too much.

Other special adverbs, which do not end in -ay, include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions:

SPECIAL ADVERB	EXAMPLES
yab up	Ad pat papa yab bu ha mam. The bird flew up to the sky.
yob down	Teaxu yob bu ha mel. Look down to the ground.
yub near	Pesu yub bi ha mas. Stay near the wall.
yib far	Ad tobi igpia yib bi ha yovbyokam. The men fled far from the prison.
ib away	Teaxu ib, diwe. Look away, please.
ub this way	Tyoyapu ub. Walk toward this way.
yeb in, inward, inside	Kyedu hot ogja tyoyapa yeb! Guess who just walked in!
oyeb out, outside	It tyoyapa oyeb zye ha zama mes. He walked out through the front door.
yuz around	Yit daza yuz bi yat. They danced around us.
yiz beyond	Et yefe teaxer yiz bi hia titam av yux. You must look beyond this school for help.
iz....directly, straight	Pu iz bu hat. Go right up to him.
zi....right	Uzpu zi! Turn right!
zu....left	Hat uzpa zu. He turned left.

Pro-adverbs

There are also adverbial expressions that are agglutinated with deictic and quantitative morphemes to produce what are known as pro-adverbs. These include interrogative pro-verbs like hom? (where?), hoyen? (how?), hoj? (when?), hogla (to what extent?), and their answers, such as hum (there), heyen (somehow), and hyoj (never), hugla (so, to that extent). These words are discussed under the chapter on Determiners in Deictic Pro-adverbs.

Forming Verbs

Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech.

Forming Verbs from Nouns

Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix er:

NOUN	VERB
syag count	syager to count
tof clothes	tofer to dress
tam house	tamer to dwell, live, reside
dyun name	dyuner to name, call
teud cry, shout	teuder to cry, shout, exclaim
taj birth	tajer to be born
tej life	tejer to live
toj house	tojer to die
ej present	ejer to continue
ij beginning	ijer to begin
uj end	ijer to end
yuj sleep	tujer to sleep

Verb Formants

Sometimes an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such verb formants are in this chart:

• -ser to be usually intransitive and stative (unite = become one)
• -xer to do/make usually transitive and dynamic (unite = make one)
• -per to go usually intransitive and a verb of motion (mount = get onto)
• -ber to put usually transitive and a verb of gesture (apply = put onto)
• -ier a stub from the verb to take, usually an action verb benefitting the agent (eat = take food)
• -uer a stub from the verb to give, usually an action verb benefitting the patient (feed = give food)
• -der to say, a verb of communication (affirm = say yes)
• -ter to know, verbs of the perception and knowledge (teater = see_

NOUN	AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB	VERB
yav innocence	der to say	yavder to acquit
yov shame, guilt	aber to apply, put on	yovaber to shame, accuse
yov shame, guilt	ober to remove, take off	yovober to excuse, exculpate
tof clothes	aber to apply, put on	tofaber to dress, don
tof clothes	ober to remove, take off	tofober to undress, strip
det associate	ser to be, become	detser to associate
dat friend	xer to do, make	datxer to befriend
san form	ser to be, become	sanser to form (intransitive)
san form	xer to do, make	sanxer to form (transitive)
tel food	(b)ier to take	telier to eat, consume
tel food	(b)uer to give	teluer to feed, nourish
if pleasure	(b)ier to take	ifier to enjoy
if pleasure	(b)uer to give	ifuer to please
taj birth	(b)uer to give	tajuer to give birth
tej life	(b)ier to take	tejier to come alive
tej life	(b)uer to give	tejuer to bring to life
toj death	(b)ier to take	tojier to drop dead
toj death	(b)uer to give	tojuer to kill
tij wakefulness	(b)ier to take	tijier to wake up
tij wakefulness	(b)uer to give	tijuer to awaken
tuj sleep	(b)ier to take	tujier to fall asleep
tuj sleep	(b)uer to give	tujuer to put to sleep
tax memory	(b)ier to take	taxier to recall
tax memory	(b)uer to give	taxuer to remind
yev justice	der to say, tell	yevder to judge
vyan truth	der to say, tell	vyander to tell the truth
vyon falsehood	der to say, tell	vyonder to tell a lie
il liquid	aker to gain	ilaker to take on liquid
il liquid	oker to lose	iloker to leak, lose liquid
il liquid	(b)ier to take	ilier to soak up
il liquid	(b)uer to give	iluer to pour, water
il liquid	ikser to get full	ilikser to be soaked (intransitive)
il liquid	ikxer to fill up	ilikxer to flood, soak (transitive)
il liquid	ukser to become empty	ilukser to drain (intransitive)
il liquid	ukxer to empty	ilukxer to flush (transitive)
il liquid	ser to be, become	ilser to liquify, melt (intransitive)
il liquid	xer to do, make	ilxer to liquify, melt (transitive)
il liquid	aber to apply, put on	ilaber to wash (transitive)
il liquid	aper to get on	ilaper to float (intransitive)
il liquid	per to go	ilper to flow (intransitive)
il liquid	zyaber to spread	ilzyaber to spray, shower (transitive)
il liquid	zyober to squeeze	ilzyober to squirt (transitive)
il liquid	pyexer to strike	ilpyexer to splash (with liquid)
il liquid	yujer to close	ilyujer to plug

Note that verbs ending in -ser and -ier are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in -xer and -uer are transitive. Also, -ier verbs are inchoative, while -uer verbs are causative (making someone do something).

Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser

The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with -xer to do, make, cause, and the intransitive group with -ser to be, become.

The following chart shows how these verbs are formed:

ADJECTIVE	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
aza strong	azaxer fortify, strengthen, make strong	azaser get strong
oza week	ozaxer weaken	ozaser grow weaker
kyia heavy	kyiaxer weigh down	kyiaser grow heavy
kyua light	kyuaxer lighten, make lighter	kyiaser get lighter
yana together	yanaxer bring together	yanaser get together

The final adjective ending a is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the a makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart:

ADJECTIVE	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
aga big	agaxer magnify	agaser get big
	agxer grow	agxer grow up, mature
iga fast	igaxer accelerate	igaser speed up
	igxer rush	igser hurry up
baka healthy	bakaxer make healthy	bakaser get healthy
	bakxer heal	bakser heal
sana formal	sanaxer formalize	sanaser become formal
	sanxer form, shape	sanser form, take shape

Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per

Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb ber to put, while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb per to go. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in b, the b is dropped. Here are some examples:

PREPOSITON BASE	TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB	INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB
ab on	aber apply, put on	aper mount, get on
eb between	eber block	eper intervene
ob off	ober remove, take off	oper dismount, get off
ib away	iber receive	iper leave
ub toward	uber send	uper come
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise
yeb in oyeb out	yeber insert oyebertake out	yeper enter oyeper exit
yob down	yober lower	yoper descend
yib far	yiber take away	yiper move away
yub near	yuber bring	yuper approach
zay forward	zayber advance	zayper advance, go forward
zey across	zeyber take across, transfer	zeyper cross, go over, transit
zoy back	zoyber set back, return	zoyper retreat, go back, return
iz straight	izber guide	izper aim for
uz crooked	uzber divert	uzper turn, diverge
yiz beyond	yizber take beyond	yizper pass by
yuz around	yuzber take around	yuzper go around

More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of ser and xer, plus the intensifiers y, l and r. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: s for intransitive and x for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions.

GESTURE VERB	GESTURE VERB	MOTION VERB	MOTION VERB
INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE	INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE
	ber put beer have byeer keep beler carry bexer hold	per go
baer lean on	baler press yanbaler compress yobaler depress, suppress yuzbaler hug zoybaler repress barer crush
baser gesticulate	baxer make a gesture abaxer caress, pat	paser move	paxer move
byaser stand up	byaxer set up, erect	pyaser jump up	pyaxer shoot, launch
balser budge	balxer rouse abalxer massage	palser get excited	palxer excite apalxer sweep
barser shake	balxer shake abarxer rub		aparxer brush
beser stay	bexer hold zoybexer restrain yobexer detain, hold down	peser wait	pexer trap
byeser behave	byexer hit	pyeser run into, bump into	pyexer strike, knock yonpyexer break yopyexer knock down yanpyexer fight apyexer attack ovpyexer offend kunpyexer sideswipe tuyapyexer slap
balser adhere	balxer retain		pelxer pound, beat apelxer assault yonpelxer shatter, burst
		yanperser implode yonperser explode	perxer blast, bomb
boser calm down boyser rest	boxer quieten, quell	poser stop poyser pause	poxer stop
byoser hang	byoxer hang	pyoser fall yonpyoser decay	pyoxer drop, throw down yopyoxer topple
biser originate	bixer pull yanbixer contract yonbixer distract yubixer attract yibixer distract oyebixer extract yebixer push in		pixer catch
bilser spring	bilxer yank		pilxer snag, capture yipilxer abduct
buser be destined	buxer push, drive zyobuxer squeeze yebuxer expel abuxer impose	apuser assault	puxer throw, thrust
byuser bump into	byuxer touch yanbyuxer contact	pyuser run into	pyuxer crash
bulser swoop	bulxer shove	pulser lunge, pounce	pulxer thrust zyapulxer splatter

Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb baxer (and its intransitive partner baser) as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart:

PREFIX	VERB
	baxer gesture, make a bodily motion
ab on	abaxer caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub
iz straight	izbaxer point
teb head	tebaxer nod
va yes	vatebaxer nod yes
vo no	votebaxer nod no
ve maybe	vetebaxer shrug
tuyab hand	tuyabaxer wave
tub arm	tubaxer flail, swing
teubab tongue	teubabaxer lick
teab eye	teubaxer wink
patub wing	patubaxer flap
tiyub tail	tiyubaxer wag
	baser gesticulate
ig- fast	igbaser jerk
zay forward	igzaybaser lurch
zoy back	zoybaser recoil
yob down	yobaser bow, bend down
ku- side	kubaser slide
ig- fast	igkubaser slip
iz straight + uz curved	izuzbaser sway, swagger, swish
zi right + zu left	zizubaser wiggle, wobble, totter

Forming Frequentative Verbs

A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by affixing the syllable eg to the verb stem. Here are some examples:

REGULAR VERB	FREQUENTATIVE VERB
paser move	paseger shake, shudder
pyaser jump	pyaseger bounce
paper fly	papeger flutter, flit
braser shake	braseger shudder, quivver, vibrate
teupixer bite	teupixeger nibble
ilzyaber spray	ilzyabeger sprinkle

Forming Verbs and Other Words with Alternating Component Expressions

Expressions with alternating components like back-and-forth, up-and-down, etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs:

ALTERNATING COMPONENTS	HYBRID EXPRESSION	EXAMPLES
yab up + yob down	yao(b)- up-and-down	yaoper fluctuate, yaopuser bounce
zay forth + zoy back	zayo(b)- back-and-forth	zayobaser swing
za front/north + zo back/south	zao(b)- front-back/north-to-south	zaonada vertical, zaobaser rock
bu to + bi from	bui- to-and-from	buipar shuttle, buipop round-trip
ab on + ob off	ao(b)- on-and-off	aoper get on and off
yuj- closed + yij- open	yuij- open-and-shut	yuijbar switch, igyuijer blink
uj- stop + ij- start	uij- stop-and-start	uijparpan stop-and-go traffic
yeb in + oyeb out	yeo(b)- in-and-out	igyeoper run in-and-out
yub near + yib far	yui(b)- near-and-far	yuipoper travel near-and-far
ub toward + ib away	ui(b)- toward-and-away	uipen coming and going
hum there + him here	huim here-and-there	huimkexer search high-and-low (here-and-there)
hus that + his this	huis this-and-that	huisyexer do odd jobs, work at this-or-that
hyut other person + hyit same person	hyuit one another	hyuitifer love one another, hyuita mutual, reciprocal

Word Families

The core words serve as nuclei for the word families. The nuclei represent an idea, an element, a type, a gesture, a movement that can be categorized or classified. Thus, the word families formed according to word-building rules represent large word groups that have meaningful relationships among them.

This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word teub mouth:

ceux sound

xeus noise

xeuz tune

teuz voice

deuz song

seuz tone

deus accent

Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum:

teb head	deb leader	xeb boss	feb treetop
tub limb	dub minister	xub subsidiary	fub branch	vub twig	patub wing	petub paw	pitub fin
teub mouth	pateub beak	peteub muzzle
tayeb hair	patayeb feather	pitayeb scale	fayeb leaf	vosayeb petal	potayeb mane
tayob skin	tayof leather	petayob hide	fayob bark	vayob peel
tyob leg	fyob root	vyob plant root
tib trunk	fib tree trunk	vib stem
tulob nail	petulob claw	fulob thorn	defulob needle	mulob pin, prick
tiibuf artery	fuf pipe	muf stick, rod	movuf cheminee	fauf log	manuf candle
til drink	teabil tear	teubil saliva	dril ink	mil water	mamil rain	tayobil sweat	bil milk

The xer (Do) Family

The verb xer means to do. Many words are built from this core word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in xer contrast with those ending in ser, in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object).

Core Words

This chart shows the core verbs in the xer family:

axer act	exer function	oxer abstain	ixer effect	uxer cause
axler perform	exler operate	oxler fail	ixler react	uxler influence
axrer execute				uxrer provoke
xaer execute	xeer exercise	xoer undergo, submit	xier result	xuer affect
	xeyer behave
xaler accomplish	xeler practice	xoler fail	xiler undertake	xuler achieve
	yexer work	yoxer be idle	yixer use	yuxer help
	yexler labor	yoxler resign yoxluer fire	yixler hire, employ	yuxler serve
	yexrer toil		yixrer exploit	yuxrer slave yuxruer enslave

Creating Derived xer Words with Prefixes

Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words:

Keep in mind that xer can mean do, make, or cause in the following derived terms:

PREFIX  +  BASE	DERIVATION
ana single  +  xer make	anaxer unify
an- one-  +  xer make	anxer unite
yan together  +  exer operate	yanexer cooperate
yan together  +  yexer work	yanyexer collaborate
yon apart  +  xer make	yonxer split
ge equal  +  xer make	gexer copy
ja before  +  xer make	jaxer prepare
je while  +  xer do	jexer continue
ig- fast  +  xer do	igxer rush
ug- slow  +  xer do	ugxer delay
oj future  +  xer do	ojxer plan
eej- re-  +  xer do	eejxer redo
sa(n) shape  +  xer make	saxer create
se(n) being  +  xer make	sexer build
lo- un-  +  sexer build	losexer destroy
mel soil  +  yexer work	melyexer plough
tea(b) eye  +  xer do	teaxer look
o- un-  +  yirxer hire	oyirxer fire
mag fire  +  xer cause	magxer burn
yuf fear  +  xer cause	yufxer frighten
dofun crime  +  xer do	dofunxer commit a crime
gra too much  +  xer do	graxer exaggerate
eg- re-  +  axer act	egaxer react
fu- bad  +  xeyer behave	fuxeyer misbehave

Using xer to Build Verbs from Adjectives

Unlimited transitive verbs can be created with adjectives and xer as a suffix like -ify, -ate, -ize in English.

ADJECTIVE	VERB
aga.... big	agaxer.... magnify
goa.... lesser	goaxer.... diminish
fia.... good	fiaxer.... improve
jwoa.... late	jwoaxer.... retard
uva.... sad	uvaxer.... sadden
via.... beautiful	viaxer.... beautify
ebdooba.... international	ebdoobaxer.... internationalize

Note: Sometimes, the adjectival ending -a is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, agaxer means to magnify, make bigger, but agxer is more idiomatic and means to grow.

The passive of xer, xwer to be done can be used to mean to happen or to become. For example:

• Hoj hus xwa? When did that happen?
• At uvaxwa ham hu at teata ha tobob. I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.

Using xer for All-Purpose Idioms

The verb xer can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example:

• xer deuz.... to perform a song
• xer ifpop.... to take a cruise
• xer ebdid.... to conduct an interview
• xer yagigpek.... to run a marathon
• xer dazun.... to do a dance number
• xer dezekgon.... to play a role
• xer dovyabdras.... to enact a piece of legislation

The ser (Be) Family

Core Words

The core verb ser means to be and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in ser are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in xer, which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in ser often are stative, i.e. linking verbs.

Summary:

aser become

eser exist, there to be

oser cease to be

iser start out

user end up

Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives

The core verb ser can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning become X, and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in xer. If the adjectival ending a is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense.

ADJECTIVE	STATIVE VERB
aga.... big	agaser.... get big
aga.... big	agser.... grow
uza.... curved	uzaser.... curve, bend, bow
kyaa.... mobile	kyaser.... change, vary
mayna.... clear	maynaser.... clear up
iga.... fast	igaser.... become fast, accelerate
iga.... fast	igser.... rush, hurry

Stative verbs in -ser are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in -xer. Here are some comparative examples:

• It agxe vafyabi..... He grows grapes. (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC)
• Vafyabi voy agse fiay him..... Grapes do not grow well here. (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE)

• His kyaxa yata teji..... This changed our lives.
• Yata teji kyasa hujub..... Our lives changed on that day.

• Ha mapi uzaxa ha fabi..... The winds bent the trees.
• Ha fabi uzasa je ha mapilag..... The trees bowed during the storm.

• Hov igxu at..... Don't rush me. (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC)
• Igsu!.... Hurry up! (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE)

Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns

The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning to become X

NOUN	STATIVE VERB
meg.... stone	megser.... petrify, become rock
abnod.... peak	abnodser.... peak, climax
mus.... scale, stair	musser.... escalate
yom.... ice	yomser.... freeze
maf.... cloud	mafser.... cloud over
il.... liquid	ilser.... liquefy, melt

Creating Dynamic Verbs from Inherently Stative Verbs

Some verbs with stems ending in -j are inherently stative. Their dynamic counterparts end in -ber for transitive verbs and in -per for intransitive verbs. There is a table showing this:

STATIVE-INTRANSITIVE	DYNAMIC-TRANSITIVE	DYNAMIC-INTRANSITIVE
tojer.... die	tojber.... kill	tojper.... drop dead
tajer.... be born	tajber.... give birth (to), bear	tajper.... spring up
tejer.... live	tejber.... bring to life	tejper.... come to life
tijer.... be awake	tijber.... awaken	tijper.... wake up
tujer.... sleep	tujber.... put to sleep	tujper.... fall asleep
ijer.... begin	ijber.... begin (something)	ijper.... start up
ujer.... end	ujber.... finish, put an end to	ujper.... come to an end
yijer.... open up	yijber.... open up (something)	yijper.... come open
yujer.... close	yujber.... close, bring to a close	yujper.... come to a close

The ber (Put) and per (Go) Families

The core words ber to put and per to go, combined with positional/directional prefixes and various nuance-creating consonants, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in ber are transitive verbs, while those ending in per are mostly intransitive.

Common ber/per Verbs Built from Postional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels

PREFIX	TRANSITIVE GESTURE	INTRANSITIVE MOTION		PREFIX	TRANSITIVE GESTURE	INTRANSITIVE MOTION
ab on	aber put on	aper get on			baer lean	paer stand
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise			byaer lift	pyaer jump
ob off	ober remove	oper dismount			boer hold up	poer hang
yob down	yober lower	yoper descend			byoer hang	pyoer fall
ub toward	uber send	uper come		bu to	buer give	puer arrive
ib away	iber receive	iper go away		bi from	bier take	pier leave
yub near	yuber bring	yuper approach		byu up to	byuer touch	pyuer reach
yib far	yiber take away	yiper move far away		byi since	byier emanate	pyier originate
eb between	eber block	eper intervene		yeb in oyeb out	yeber inject oyeber eject	yeper enter oyeper exit
za front	zaber advance	zaper advance		zay forward	zayber promote	zayper proceed
zo behind	zober put behind	zoper follow		zoy back	zoyber put back	zayper return
ze middle	zeber balance	zeper mediate		zey across	zeyber transfer	zeyper cross
zu left	zuber put to the left	zuper go left		uz curve	uzber deviate	uzper turn
zi right	ziber put to the right	ziper go right		iz straight	ziber guide	izper head
zya all over	zyaber spread	zyaper tour		zye through	zyeber interject	zyeper permeate
zyu round	zyuber rotate	zyuper roll		yuz around	yuzber turn	yuzper circulate
yiz beyond	yizber take beyond	yizper surpass		zyag stretched out	zyagber stretch	zyagper stretch out
ja before	jaber prepare	japer precede		aj past	ajber pass	ajper pass
jo after	jober delay	joper follow		oj future	ojber postpone	ojper wait?
je during	jeber continue	jeper continue		ej present	ejber present	ejper present oneself
yan together	yanber assemble	yanper join		bay with	bayber impart	bayper accompany
yon apart	yonber take apart	yonper separate		boy without	boyber deprive	boyper go without
kia oblique	kiber bend	kiper slant		ika full	ikber fill	ikper become full
kua lateral	kuber set aside	kuper avoid		uka empty	ukber empty	ukper become empty

The der (Say) Family

Summary

Words ending in der have to do with communicating, thus saying, talking, writing, reading.

daler speak	der say deler announce	doler be silent	dier ask diler request direr demand	duer suggest duler urge durer instigate
	drer write dryener print	droer erase
	dyeder read dyes book		dider ask	duder answer
	deser pronounce drez verse		din story	dun word dyun name drun phrase
draf card	dref paper dryef notebook	drof cardboard		dyuf sheet dyuv page

Saying Verbs

Many saying verbs are created by prefixing elements to der to say, tell, eg:

va yes	vader affirm
vo no	voder deny
ve maybe	veder guess
vyaa true	vyader swear
vyoa false	vyoder lie
fyaa holy	fyader bless
fyoa profane	fyoder curse
oza weak	ozder hint
eej re-	eejder repeat
ve maybe + yova guilty	veyovder indict
va yes + yova guility	vayovder convict
ja before	jader predict
vao yes/no	vaoder decide
yev justice	yevder judge
fia good	fider praise
fua bad	fuder disparage
af permission	afder authorize
of prohibition	ofder ban
naz value	nazder evaluate
yov guilt	yovder blame
zyaa wide	zyader broadcast
yaga long	yagder elaborate
vyoa wrong + via beautiful	vyovider flatter
vyea relative	vyeder relate
va yes + oj future	vaojder promise
ut self + fia good	utfider boast
uv sorrow + tax memory	uvtaxder regret
tes meaning	tesder mean
ov against	ovder object
kyia heavy	kyider emphasize
jwa early	jwader warn
ja before + vo no	javoder preclude
yuj close	yujder conclude
ja before + nap order	janapder preordain
hyay hurrah	hyayder congratulate
hyey thanks	hyeyder thank
gra too much	grader exaggerate
diz comedy	dizder joke
dre- write	dreder spell
eb between	ebder communicate
eb between + di- ask	ebdider interview
eb between + tes meaning	ebtesder interpret
eb between + tex thought	ebtexder decide
ek- play	ekder pretend

Animal Sounds

Animal noise verbs are created by replacing the final -t of an animal name with der:

yepet dog	yepeder bark
yipet cat	yipeder mew
epeyt cow	epeyder moo
epat duck	epader quack
ipat turkey	ipader gobble

Speaking in Languages

Names of languages can be formed by replacing the final -m of the country name with -d. Then, the verb meaning to say in x language or speak in x language can be formed by adding -der or -daler, eg:

Anglam England	Anglad English	Anglader say in English	Angladaler speak in English
Fransam France	Fransad French (language)	Fransader say in French	Fransadaler speak French

The name of the language discussed in this book is Mirad, which comes from mira, meaning global, world. Thus, say in Mirad is Mirader and speak Mirad is Miradaler. A speaker of Mirad is a Miradut or Miradalut. Duhev et Mirade? Do you speak Mirad?. Hey Miraduti, ansu! Hey, speakers of Mirad, unite!

Communication Arts

Words for various communication art forms begin d- and end in -z, eg:

daz...dance vidaz...ballet	dazun....a dance	dazut....dancer vidazuyt....ballerina dazutyan....dance troupe	dazim....ballroom vidazim....ballet studio
dez....theater	dezun....a play	dezut....stage actor dezutyan....cast	dezam....theater dezyem....stage dezmisof....curtain
diz....comedy	dizun....a sketch	dizut....comedian dizutyan....comedy cast	dizam....comedy club dizyem....stage
drez....poetry	drezun....a poem	drezut....poet	drezim....poetry salon
duz....music duzdinag....opera duzdinog....operetta, musical	duzun....a musical piece	duzut....musician duzutyan....orchestra	duzam....music arena duzdinagam....opera house duzar musical instrument
dyez....cinema	dyezun....a movie	dyezut....screen actor dyezutyan....cast	dyezam....movie theater dyezim....movie salon
deuz....song	deuzun....a song	deuzut....singer	duzam....auditorium dyezmis screen

The ter (Know) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with t, meaning human and mental states and activities like knowing, thinking, feeling, etc.:

Summary:

	tep mind, intellect teptija conscious teptuja unconscious tepaza smart tepoza stupid tepiga witty tepsin imagination	top soul toptun psychology	tip sentiment tipaga generous tigoga stingy tipifa kind tipufa mean tipyija tolerant tipyiva liberal tipyiga stern tipyuga lenient
taxer remember taxier memorize taxuer remind	texer think vatexer believe vatexuer persuade vetexer suspect votexer doubt votexuer dissuade vyatex reason ter know oter ignore ten knowledge twas datum tyer1 recognize tyier get acquainted tyuer acquaint tez culture tyez magic ten knowledge tyen technique tyenyan technology tyenier train (oneself) tyenuer train teyen idea teyentun philosophy teyenyan ideology teyenier conceptualize	toxer forget	tixer study	tuxer teach
tayoter feel	teser mean tesier infer tesuer imply tester understand tesder explain testier realize testun semantics	toser feel	tier learn tin doctrine iztis intuition vyatis wisdom	tuer inform tun science tuin theory tuz art

1. Note that tyer recognize, know, be familiar with is used instead of ter know when referring to a person, much like Fr. connaître be familiar with (a person) vs. savoir know (a fact, how to), eg. It voy te hav at tye it. He doesn't know that I know him.

Suffixing -tun science to words forms many -ology terms. An -ologist is rendered with -tut, eg:

tep mind	teptun psychology	teptut psychologist
tieb lung	tiebtun pneumology	tiebtut pneumologist
toj death	tejtun thanatology	tejtut thanatologist
pat bird	pattun ornithology	pattut ornithologist
pit fish	pittun ichthyology	pittut ichthyologist
pot animal	pottun zoology	pottut zoologist
mul matter	multun chemistry ("materiology?")	multut chemist
ko- hidden, dren writing	kodrentun cryptology	kodrentut cryptologist

Some -ology words in English refer to theories or pseudo-science and are translated into Mirad with the ending -tuin:

mar star	martuin astrology (cf. martun astronomy)	martuit astrologist
sag number	sagtuin numerology (cf. sagtun mathematics)	sagtuit numerologist
nif string	niftuin string theory	niftuit string theoretician

Words in English referring to doctrines, dogmas, or -isms are translated into Mirad with the ending -tin, eg:

dot society	dotin socialism
Buda Buddha	Budatin Bhuddism
gwa most, fis good thing	gwafistin optimism
vyaa true	vyatin orthodoxy, truism
an- one, fyaat god	anfyaatin monotheism

The general word for school is titam (house of learning). The various levels of schools are translated with this word scalarized numerically.

atitam	primary school
etitam	secondary school, high school, lycee
ititam	college
utitam	university

The word pre-school, kindergarten is represented with jatitam (lit. pre-school), while post-graduate school is rendered with joutitam (lit. pre-university).

Some other, related terms:

• enjab ititam two-year college
• dovyap titam law school
• yexyen titam trade school, vocational school
• zetitam middle school
• tutam academy
• tiut pupil
• tixut student
• tixutyan student body
• tuxut teacher
• tuut educator
• tuen education
• tut professor, scholar
• tit disciple, learner
• titameb principal
• ititameb dean
• tuxutyan faculty
• tuxim lecture hall, classroom
• tixim study hall
• tityan class
• tiun lesson
• tiundyes lesson book
• aa tinag first grade
• ea tinag second grade

The job (Time) Family

Here are the most important words derived from job time. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for time. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by job in Mirad, and the other refers to a point in time, an instance or occasion, i.e. a countable noun concerning frequency, translated by jod in Mirad.

Calendar Time Units

TIME	SEASONS	MONTHS	DAYS OF THE WEEK
job time	jeab spring	jiab January	juab Monday
jab year	jeeb summer	jieb February	jueb Tuesday
jeb season	jeib autumn	jiib March	juib Wednesday
jib month	jeub winter	jiub April	juub Thursday
jub day		jiyob May	juyob Friday
jwob* hour		jiyab June	yuyab Saturday
jwab* minute		jiyeb July	juyeb Sunday
jweb* minute		jiyib August
		jiyub September
		jilob October
		jilab November
		jileb December
OTHER
yejab week	asojab century	amlojab millennium

* These would normally be jyob, jyab, and jyeb, but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the y is replaced by a w.

Times of Day

TIMES OF DAY
maj daytime
ijmaj dawn
imaj morning
eymaj noon
joeymaj afternoon
ujmaj dusk
umaj evening
moj night
eymoj midnight

General Time Words

GENERAL TIME WORDS
job time
jod time, instance, occasion
xag frequency
jud date
jag age

Scalar Time Periods

SCALAR TIME PERIODS
joob eon
joab era
joeb period
joib epoch
joub age
joyob chron
joyab term

Some Parallel Time Terms

taj birth	aj past	ja before	jana previous	ajna former, old	jaga old	jwa early	jwana pre-mature
tej life	ej present	je during	jena current	ejna new		jwe on time	jwana mature, ripe
toj death	oj future	jo after	jona next	ojna future	joga young	jwo late	jwona stale
tij wakefulness	ij beginning	ji since		ijna initial	jiga fresh, vibrant
tuj sleep	uj end	ju until		ujna final	juga tired, jaded

Time, Frequency, and Age Questions

WHEN	HOW OFTEN	HOW OLD
hoj? when?	hoxag how often?	hojaga? how old?
haj hu when	haxag hu as often as	hajaga hu as old as
hej sometime	hexag sometimes	hejaga of a certain age
hij now	hixag this often	hijaga this old
huj then	huxag that often	hujaga that old
huyj at such a time	huyxag so often	huyjaga so old
hyoj never	hyoxag not once	glejaga rather old
hyaj always	hyaxag at all times	grajaga too old
hyej anytime	hyexag however often	grojaga underaged
hyij (vyel) at the same time (as)	gexag (vyel) as often (as)	gejaga (vyel) of the same age (as)
hyuj (vyel) some other time (then)	ogexag (vyel) not as often (as)	ogejaga (vyel) not as old (as)
be jobi at times	awa jod once	awa (jab) jaga one year old
be hujobi in those times	ewa jodi twice	ewa (jabi) jaga two years old
byu jobuj forever	gla jodi many time	alo (jabi) jaga ten years old
byi huj since then	aloni bi jodi hundreds of times	gajaga (vyel) older (than)

How old are you? is expressed as Hojaga se et?. A typical response is At se ali (jabi) jaga. I am thirteen (years old). If the quantity of time is months, than the answer would be like the following: Iyt sa ewa jibi (jaga). She was two months (old).

Age Classes

MALE	FEMALE
awajagat....one-year-old boy	awajagayt....one-year-old girl
alojagat....ten-year-old boy	alojagayt....ten-year-old girl
jogat....boy, youngster, youth	jogayt....girl, damsel
gwajogat....youngest boy/person	gwajogayt....youngest girl
gojagat....younger boy, cadet	gojagayt....younger girl
aloyjagat....teenager, teenaged boy	aloyjagayt....teenaged girl
grajogat....minor, boy too young	grajogayt....minor female, girl too young
grojagat / jwot.... minor, immature person/boy	grojagayt / jwoyt....minor girl
grejagseat / jwet.... adolescent (boy)	grejagseayt / jweyt.... adolescent (girl)
grejagat / jwat.... adult male, boy of age	grejagayt / jwayt.... adult female, girl of age
zejagat.... middle-aged person/man	zejagayt.... middle-aged female/woman
gajagat.... older person/man, elder, superior	gajagayt.... older female/woman, elder, superior
grajagat.... over-aged person/man, person/man too old	grajagayt.... over-aged female/woman, woman too old
jaygat.... youngish individual, youngish man	jaygayt.... youngish female, youngish woman
yiloyagat.... octogenarian	yiloyagayt.... octogenarian woman, woman in her eighties
yuloyagat.... nonagenarian	yuloyagayt.... nonagenarian woman, woman in her nineties
asoyagat.... centenarian	asoyagayt.... centenarian woman, 100-year-old woman
jagat.... oldster, veteran, old person, old man, elder	jagayt.... old woman, old lady
jaygat.... oldish person	jaygayt.... oldish woman
gwajagat.... oldest/senior-most/eldest person/man	gwajagayt.... oldest/senior-most/eldest woman
gwojagat.... the least young person/man	gwojagat.... the least young woman

The sag (Number), xag (Frequency), nog (Measure), nod (Point) Families

The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc.

Summary:

...AG WORDS	N..[DBP] WORDS
ag.... size	nod.... point
sag.... number	nad.... line
syag.... count	ned.... plane
syaag.... calculation	nid.... volume
nog.... degree	nab.... rank
nag.... measure	nap.... order
neg.... level	naab.... organization
nig.... space	naap.... system
jag.... age	nyap.... rule
xag.... frequency	nyed.... grid
yag.... length

Shapes

Summary:

zyus.... circle

zyuys.... oval

zyunid.... sphere

zyuk....wheel

unizgun.... rectangle

ungekun.... square

ungun.... quadrangle

unoizgun.... rhombus

ingun.... triangle

yoongun.... pentagon

ginid.... cone

yagunid.... cube

inguginid.... pyramid

fufnid.... cylinder

amezsan.... diamond

tosan.... cross

uznad.... arc

ilpsan.... wave

gunsan.... wedge

amarsan star

The tom (Building), em (Place) Families

The stems in this family end mostly in -m, meaning place. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers.

Summary:

FULL WORDS	ENDINGS
tom building	-em general place
tam house	-am indoor place
tem hall	-yem enclosed space
tim room	-im room
tum cell	-yeb container

Common Spaces with -(e)m

The words in the following table refer to spaces or open places:

PLACE	ROOT
abem....top	ab....on
obem....bottom	ob....base
ebem....interval	eb....between
oyebem....outdoors	oyeb....out
yebem....indoors	yeb....in
yubem....vicinity	yub....'near
yibem....distance	yib....far
yabem....upstairs	yab....up
yobem....downstairs	yob....down
hom?....where?	ho-....which
zem....middle	ze-....middle
zam....front	za....before
zom....back	zo....after
kum....side	kua....lateral
kim....slope	kia....diagonal
byim....source	byi....since
byum....destination	byu....up to
bem....position	be....at
dem....park	d(o)-....social
dopekem....battleground	dopek....battle
melyexem....farm	mel....soil + yex...work
goynem....sector	goyn....cut
ijem....origin	ij....start
kosem....hideout	kos-....hide
kyosem....settlement	kyos-....stay
mem....country	m-...natural things
mimpuem....dock	mim....sea + pu-....arrive
obdobem....colony	ob....off + dob....regime
apem....wharf	ap-....embark
sexem....construction site	sex....construction
tojmelukem....cemetery	toj....death + mel....soil + uk...vacuum
tom....building	to-....human
ujem....terminus	uj....end
vobem....planation	vob....plant
xem....office	x-....do
yomyuglapem....iceskating rink	yom....ice + yugla...smooth + p-....go

Common Places with -am

These words refer to houses and buildings:

BUILDING	ROOT
nam....shop	n-....commercial
aajasnam....antique store	aajas....antique
apelatam....beehive	apelat....bee
apetigpekam....(horse) racetrack	apet....horse + ig-....fast + pek....competition
tam....house	t-....human
bektam....hospice	bek....treatment
bextam....castle	bex-....keep
bekilnam....pharmacy	bekil....medecine + nam....store
saxam....factory	sax-....make
bilunsaxam....dairy	bil....milk + -un....product + sax-...make
datibam....hotel	dat....friend + ib-....receive
tistam....school	tis....learn
doyevam....court	do-....public + yev....justice
doptam....barracks	dop....military
dresam....bureau	dres-....write
bokam....hospital	bok....sickness
mamparam....hangar	mam....sky + par....vehicle
mogxam....crematorium	mog....ash + x-....make
posam....station	pos-....stop
taolgolbam....butcher shop	taol....meat + golb-....cleave
tilam....bar	til-....drink
yibdubam....embassy	yib....far + dub....minister

Common Containers and Enclosed Spaces with -yem

CONTAINER	ROOT
apetyem....corral	apet....horse
nyem....box	n-....commercial
syem....institution	s-....exist
milpyem....swimming pool	milp-....swim
nunyem....package	nun....merchandise
ponyem....suitcase	po-....travel
tebnyem....skull	teb....head
tuyabyem....pocket	tuyab....hand
vabijyem....pod	vabij....seed
tyem....residence	t-....human
tobijyem....ovary	tobij....embryo
tojnyem....casket	toj....death
ukyem....slot	uk-....empty
myem....plot of ground	m-....natural things
magilyem....fuel tank	magil....fuel
koyem....shelter	ko-....hide

Common Rooms with -(t)im

These words describe type of rooms (tim):

ROOM	ROOT
tim....room	t-....human
aybmostim....attic	ayb-....upper + mos....floor
oybmostim....basement	oyb-....lower + mos....floor
ebmostim....mezzanine	eb....between + mos....floor
avoliim....pantry	avol....bread
apetim....stall	apet....horse
beaxim....ward	beax-....watch
azla bikim....intensive care unit	azla....intensive + bik....care
belunim....cargo bay	belun....cargo
biktim....clinic	bik....care
datibim....lobby	dat....friend + ib-....receive
dyezim....screening room	dyez....cinema
doebdalim....conference room	do-....public + eb....between + dal-....speak
ebtim....corridor	eb....between
fyadilim....chapel	fya-....holy + dil....request
dokebidim....voting booth	do-....public + kebi-....choice
fyatim....sanctuary	fya-....holy
milufim....toilet	mil....water + -uf....pipe
movim....smoking den	mov....smoke
novim....linen closet	nov....linen
saxim....studio	sax-....create
sumtim....bedroom	sum....bed
teexutim....auditorium	teexut....listener
tulim....dining room	tul....cuisine
vaobim....hayloft	vaob....hay
vyakexim....laboratory	vyakex....test
zatim....antechamber	za....front
zyutim....rotunda	zyu-....round
yexim....office	yex-....work

Locative Deictic Adverbs

The locative deictic adverbs use the -m suffix of place, eg:

hom?	where?
ham hu	the place where, where
hem	somewhere
him	here
hum	there
hyom	nowhere
hyam	everywhere
hyem	anywhere, wherever
hyim	(at) the same place
hyum	elsewhere, somewhere else

The a (One) yan (Together) Families

The stems in this family are based on a one, and yan together and their opposites, o zero and yon apart.

Summary:

SINGLE	NULL
a- one	o- zero, un-
awa one	owa zero
an- uni-, mono-	on- non-
yan- together, con-	yon- apart, dis-
hya- all	hyo- none
-aya -ful	-oya -less
ay and	oy but

Collective Nouns

The suffix -yan is used to form collective nouns. Here are some examples:

SINGLETON	COLLECTION
fab tree	fabyan forest
vyap rule	vyapyan regimen, system
vos flower	vosyan bouquet
uzun ring	uzunyan chain
ut person	utyan group
toom apartment	toomyan apartment complex
teyen idea	teyenyan ideology
tyen technique	tyenyan technology
tixut student	tixutyan student body
tit pupil	tityan class
telar eating utensil	telaryan cutlery
sir machine	siryan machinery
pat bird	patyan flock

An extension of yan is nyan, meaning stack, pile, accumulation, crowd, and so is a bit more intensive:

SINGLETON	COLLECTION
pet land animal	petnyan herd
ut person	utnyan crowd
dit citizen	ditnyan populace
taib bone	taibnyan skeleton
yaut public persona	yautnyan commune
dun word	dunnyan list
vaob hay	vaobnyan haystack

The following confusing terms should be kept distinct:

NOUN	VERB
aut individual, person	auta personal
anut private individual	anuta private
utyan group	utyana collective
autyan people	autyana popular
autyanin populism	autyanina populist
autyandab republic, democracy	autyandaba republican, democratic
yaut constituent, commoner	yauta common, collective, public
yautyan community, constituency, public	yautyana communitarian
yautnyan commune, collective	yautnyana communal, collective
yautin communism	yautina communist
dot society	dota societal
dotin socialism	dotina socialist
dit citizen	dita civilian, civic
dityan citizenry, population	dityana of the citizenry, populational
ditnyan populace	ditnyana popular
ditnyanin populism	ditnyanina populist
yanav party (political)	yanava partisan
yaniv party (fun)	yaniva festive
yanut associate	yanuta general, public
yanutyan association	yanutyana associational

The tob (Human) Family

The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant t, designating human, and end in b, meaning organism, body, or organ or p, having to do with the non-corporeal aspects of man, such as mind and emotion.

Summary

-B	-P
tob human, man	top soul, psyche
tab body	tap physique
teb head	tep mind
tib trunk	tip sentiment, emotion
tub arm	tup limb
tyob leg

All the names of the parts of the body are derived from these core words in a hiearchical fashion using stem vowel scalarization, as can be seen from the sample chart below of the body parts relating to arm and leg (not the parallelism):

tub arm	tuab shoulder	tueb upper arm	tuib elbow	tuub forearm	tuyob wrist	tuyab hand	tuyeb fist	tuyib palm	tuyub finger	tulob fingernail
tyob leg	tyoab hip	tyoeb thigh	tyoib knee	tyoub tibia	tyoyob ankle	tyoyab foot	tyoyeb heel	tyoyib sole	tyoyub toe	tyolob toenail

Bodily Functions and Gestures

The following chart shows how gestural and bodily movements and functions are derived from body parts:

ORGANISM	GESTURES, MOVEMENTS, FUNCTIONS
tob human twob man toyb woman	tobser become human, tobxer humanize, tobtojber murder
tobij embryo	tobijier conceive, tobijuer impregnate, tobijer ovulate, tobijbeler gestate
tab body	tabazaxer work out, tabmelukxer entomb, tabteaxer autopsy
tayeb hair	tayebarer comb, tayeboker go bald, tayefarer brush, tayeborber shave, tayelber shampoo, tayevarer mop
tayob skin	tayobiler sweat, tayobober flay, tayoboser itch, tayoser feel like, tayoter feel, tayoxer palpate, tayobdriler tattoo, tayotyofxer numb
teb head tebabun scalp tebzan face	tebabunober scalp, tebbaxer nod, tebober decapitate, tebzaner face
teab eye teababun eyelid teabyeb eyelash teabil tear	teaser seem, teater see, teatyofxer blind, teaxer look, teaxuer show, teazuer amaze, teabizer aim, teaper visit, teabyujiger blink teababuner blink teababyexer bat an eyelash teabiler tear up
teeb ear	teeter hear, teeser sound like, teeper attend, teeder rumor, teeyofxer deafen, teexer listen
teib nose	teiter smell, teiser smell like, teitier take a whiff of, teituer reek, teixer smell, teseuxer snore, teizber perfume, teipulxer sneeze, teibalier sniff, teibalegier sniffle, teibiler run at the nose, teibukxer blow the nose
teub mouth teubil saliva teubsin expression deuz song seux sound seuz tone teuz voice toleuz taste teuv mask teuf muzzle	teubier swallow, yijteuber yawn, teuser taste like, teuter taste, teutier sample, teutuer offer a taste, teuxer taste, teuder shout, ivteuder laugh, uvteuder groan, ivteuber smile, uvteuber frown,vyoivteuder mock, ufteuber scowl, uvseuxer grumble teubiler salivate, teubiloker drool, teubilokeger dribble, teubiloyeber expectorate, teubilpuxer spew, teubiluer spit, teubilier slurp teubsiner grimace deuzer sing, yandeuzer harmonize, yagdeuzer chant seuxer ring seuxder pronounce, voyseuxder mispronounce zoyteuzer echo, uvseuzer sigh teuzuer vote, teuzier poll, teuzibarer telephone toleuser taste like, toleuter taste, toleuxer savor, fitoleuser taste good, futoleuser taste bad teuvuer mask teufuer muzzle
teubab tongue	teubaxer wag the tongue, teubabaxer lick
teubib gum	teubixer chew, teubixeger ruminate
teupib tooth	teupixer bite, teupixeger nibble, yebteupixer crunch
teubob lip	teuboxer kiss, teuboxeger smooch, teubobaxer smack the lips
teyob neck	teyobabaxer neck, teyopixer collar, teyozyober choke , teyopyoxer hang
tib trunk	tibuzer bow
tibuj tail tibuf train	tibujbarxer wag tibufer trail
tieb lung tiebal breath tiebbok cold	tiexer breath, tiebyujber suffocate, teibukxer cough tiebalier inhale, tiebaluer exhale, tiebaloker belch tiebbokier catch a cold
tiib heart tiibil blood	tiibiler bleed tiibiloker bleed out, tiibilglalser clot, tiibilier suck blood, tiibiluer let blood
tikeb stomach tikebil chyme	tikebier digest, tikebukxer vomit
tikyeb anus tikyebal flatulence tikyebil feces	tikyebaler fart tikyebiler defecate
tikyob bowels	tikyobier ingest, tikyobober disembowel
tub arm	yantubier embrace, tubbaxer wave
tuyab hand	tuyaxer handle, tuyaber handle, tuyabalxer shake hand, tuyabexer manipulate, tuyabier grab, tuyabirer wrestle, tuyasiuner wave, tuyabuer hand out, tuyadrer write out longhand, tuyapixer clasp tuyapyexer clap
tuyeb fist	tuyepeker fistfight, tuyebalxer shake one's fist, tuyepyelxuer pound, tuyepyexer box
tuyib palm	tuyibabaxer pat, tuyibaber palm, tuyibuer palm off, tuyipyexer slap
tuyob wrist	tuyoxer wave
tuyub finger	tuyubarxer wag one's finger, tuyubifeker fiddle, tuyubizder point out, tuyuibeaxer indicate, tuyugiber poke, tuyupyexer tap, tuyuxer palpate
tulob fingernail paltulob claw	tuloxer scratch, tuloxefer itch patuloxer claw, patulober grip
tyoib knee	tyoixer kneel, tyoiper crawl
tyoyab foot	tyoyabarer stomp, tyoyakyeper hobble, tyoyapyexer kick
tyoyeb heel	tyoyeber spurn
tyoyib sole	tyoyiber supplant
tyoyub toe	tyoyubaxeger wiggle one's toe, tyoyuzyuper pirouette

The bak (Health) Family

Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine:

Summary:

NOUNS	VERBS
bak health baak hygiene	bakxer heal, bakser heal
bek treatment byek cure	bekuer treat, bekier get treated byekser heal, byekxer cure
bok illness book fatigue	bokser get sick, bokxer sicken bookser grow tired, bokxer tire out
bik care	bikuer care for, bikier take care
buk injury bruk mutilation	bukser be injured, bukxer injure brukxer mutilate
byok pain byork torture	byokuer inflict pain, byokier ache byorkuer torture, byorkier agonize

The tod (Family) Family

Stems in this family begin with t for human and end in d for society and have to do with families and family relationships.

Core words:

Notice that kinship terms are gender-neutral unless there is a w before the root syllable vowel (indicating male-specific) or a y following the root syllable vowel (indicating female-specific).

tod....family	MALE	FEMALE
tad....spouse	twad husband	tayd....wife
ted....parent	twed father	teyd....mother
tid....sibling	twid brother	tiyd....sister
tud....child	twud son	tuyd....daughter

Prefixes or word elements used to modify the above core words:

to-....god- (as in godson)

ta-....-in-law, through marriage

te-....father's

ti-....sibling's

tu-....child's

taj-....birth-, real

otaj-, ifbi-....foster, adopted

ij-....first, original

aj-....ex-, former

ej-....current, step-, half-

oj-....future, -to-be

aa....first

ea....second

yiba....distant

aa yiba....first-removed

ea yiba....second-removed

ota-....out-of-wedlock, bastard

oyted-....orphan(ed), without parents

oytad-....unmarried, without spouse

oytud-....childless, without child, barren

tiibil-....blood-

Kinship Terms Formed from the Above Core Words and Prefixed Elements

GENDER-NEUTRAL	MALE	FEMALE
tad....spouse ajtad....ex-spouse ijtad....first spouse ejtad....current spouse, step spouse ojtad....spouse-to-be, fiance oytadat....bachelor	twad....husband ajtwad....ex-husband ijtwad....first husband ejtwad....current husband, step husband ojtwad....husband-to-be, fiance oytwadat....bachelor	tayd....wife ajtayd....ex-wife ijtayd....first wife ejtayd...current wife, step-wife ojtayd....wife-to-be, fiancee oytadayt....spinster
ted....parent tajted....birth parent ejted....step parent, foster parent ojted....parent-to-be teted....grand-parent teteted....great-grandparent tated....parent-in-law toted....godparent oytedat....orphan	twed....father tajtwed....birth father ejtwed....step-father, foster father ojtwed....father-to-be tetwed....grand-father tetetwed....great-grandfather tatwed....father-in-law totwed....godfather oytwedat....male orphan	teyd....mother tajteyd....birth mother ejteyd....stepmother, foster mother ojted....mother-to-be teteyd....grandmother teteteyd....great-grandmother tateyd...mother-in-law toteyd....godmother oytedayt....female orphan
tid....sibling ejtid....step-sibling tatid...sibling-in-law tetid....parent's sibling tetetid....great parent's sibling	twid....brother ejtwid....step-brother tatwid...brother-in-law tetwid....uncle tetetwid....great uncle	tiyd....sister ejtiyd....stepsister tatiyd...sister-in-law tetiyd....aunt tetetiyd....great aunt
tud....child tatud....child-in-law ijtud....first-born child ejtud....stepchild otada tud....bastard child titud....sibling's child totud....godchild tutud....grandchild titutud....sibling's grandchild tetitud....cousin aa tetitud....first cousin ea tetitud....second cousin aa yiba tetitud....cousin first removed	twud....son tatwud....son-in-law ijtwud....first-born son ejtwud....stepson otada twud....bastard son titud....nephew totwud....godson tutwud....grandson titutwud....grandnewphew tetitwud....cousin aa tetitwud....first male cousin ea tetitwud....second male cousin aa yiba tetitwud....male cousin first removed	tuyd....daughter tatuyd....daughter-in-law ijtuyd....first-born-daughter ejtuyd....stepdaughter otada tuyd....bastard daughter tituyd....niece totuyd....goddaughter tutuyd....granddaughter titutuyd...grandniece tetituyd....(female) cousin aa tetituyd....first female cousin ea tetituyd....second female cousin aa yiba tetituyd....female cousin first removed

Suffixed -if gives you affectionate equivalents:

• twadif....hubby
• taydif....darling wife, wifey-poo
• twedif....daddy, papa
• teydif....mommy, mama
• twidif....bro
• tiydif....sis
• twudif....sonny, kid
• tuydif....darling daughter

Other terms:

• todat....relative, sib
• tiibil todat....blood relative
• todatan....kinship
• todatyan....kinfolk, clan
• todeb....pater familias
• todeyb....mater familias
• otatud....bastard, bastard son, bastard child
• otatuyd....bastard daughter
• oytetwud....orphan, orphan son
• oytetuyd....orphan daughter
• oytwadat....bachelor, unmarried man'
• oytadayt....spinster, unmarried woman, bachelorette
• oytudayt....childless woman
• glatidat....person with many siblings
• oytidat....person with no siblings
• tadat....in-law
• otajted, ifbited....foster parent, adopting parent
• otajtud, ifbitud....foster child, adopted child
• otajteder, ifbiteder....foster, adopt
• otajtedwa, ifbitedwa....adopted
• teder....parent, raise
• tadier....get married, take on a spouse
• taduer....marry, preside over a marriage
• todtun....genealogy
• tood....ethnos, tribe, clan, race
• toodtun....folklore
• tooddin....folk story
• toos....gender, sex
• hyitoosifa....homosexual
• hyutoosifa....heterosexual
• entoosifa....bisexual
• hyatoosifa....pansexual
• hyotoosifa....asexual
• hyitoosa tadan....same-sex marriage
• tadyan....married couple
• jwaa tadien....shotgun wedding

⇒== The dot (Society) Family==

The stems of the words in this family begin with d for society and end in t for human.

Summary:

dot society

dat friend ⇒dwat male friend ⇒dayt female friend

det comrade, mate ⇒dwet boyfriend ⇒deyt girlfriend

dit citizen

dut gentleperson ⇒dwut gentleman, sir, lord ⇒duyt lady, madame

dout bourgeois

The prefix do- can be used to form words that are public in nature, eg:

COMBINED FORM	SUFFIX
dovyab.... law	vyab....rule
doyev.... justice	yev-....just
doyov.... crime	yov....shame
doyiv.... (civil) right	yiv....license
dobien.... coup d'etat	bien....taking
dodres....bulletin	dres....document
dokex.... (public) inquiry	kex....search
doval.... public safety	val....safety
dovaldib.... police	dib....administration
dotojben.... execution	tojben....putting to death
dosyag....census	syag....count

The tof (Clothes) and nof (Textile)

The stems in this family of words begin with t for human and end in f or v, which are reminiscent of nof cloth and nov lingerie. The words have to do with clothing. Post-iotating the root vowel produces something that relates to women.

Summary:

BODY PART	CLOTHING ITEM
tob man	tof clothing
tab body	taf suit, tayf dress
teb head	tef hat
teyob neck	teyof necktie
tuab shoulder	tuaf shawl
tib trunk	tif vest
zetib waist	zetif belt
tiab chest	tiav shirt, tiayv blouse
tilab breast	tilav bra
tuyab hand	tuyaf glove
tyob leg	tyof pants, tyoyf skirt

The nof family words begin with n meaning commercial and end in f meaning textile. Here is a summary:

BASIC WORD	DERIVATIVES
nof textile, tissue nov linen	nofur loom, nofxer weave nofyank stitch, nofyanker sew, nofyankut seamster nofyonk rip, nofyonker rip, nofyonkar scissors, shears nofyuj pleat, nofyujber fold nofzyiar iron, nofzyiarer iron novyan lingerie, novim linen closet  misof curtain, obmasof carpet yebof sack favof cotton, favoyf cotton wool fevof flax fivof hemp fuvof jute tayof leather
naf material, cloth, fabric naaf drape naef canvas naif velvet nauf veil nayaf cordoroy
nef knit neof stitch neaf net, mesh, web neef lace neif braid neuf wicker neyof loop neyaf wale neyef strip, band neyif plait nayuf lattice	nefxer knit, neofxer stitch, neifxer braid neyofxer loop nefar knitting needle nefiaf sweater vinef embroidery yotayef goat's hair, wool tayef bristle utayef wool zyef pane of glass, zyev glass nyef bag, sack yebeaf mesh bag yebeuf wicker basket
nif yarn, fiber niv thread niyf filament, string niif twine	nifur spinner, nifxer spin, nifun spider's web nifar needle nivar pin mugnif wire apeyetif silk
nuf button	nufyujber button nufyijber unbutton nufzyeg buttonhole nufag knob
nyaf knot	nyafer tie, onyafer untie, unravel mugnyaf clasp, buckle
nyef bag, sack	zotibnyef backpack tolnyef grocery bag yignyef basket
nyif rope	mugnyif cable nyifog lace, cord
nyuf package	nyufag crate

The mos (Floor) Family

The stems in this family begin with m, meaning place and end in s, meaning thing. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. masonry.

Summary:

MASONRY ROOT WORD	DERIVATIVES
mos floor	omos ground floor amos first floor abmos attic ebmos mezzanine obmos basement
mas wall	abmas roof aybmas ceiling obmas foundation oybmas floor masof carpet abzamas balcony obzamas porch ebmas partition
mes door	zames front door zomes back door mesnufag door knob mesyuznad door frame mestuyar door handle
mis window	miszyef window pane eymis shutter misof curtain
mus stairs	musnog step, stair rung musim starwell magmus fire escape musabnod climax muys ladder pasmus escalator

The som (Furniture) Family

The stems in this family begin with s, meaning thing, and end in m, meaning place. The words all have to do with furniture.

Summary:

FURNITURE	DERIVATIVES
som.... furniture	somber.... furnish somxut.... carpenter milsom.... sink milufsom ....toilet maksom.... appliance mansom.... light fixture somyan.... furnishings milamsom.... water heater malomsom.... air-conditioner
sam.... armoire, chest	telarsam.... china cabinet telsam.... cupboard tovsam.... chest of drawers samnyem.... drawer avolsom.... pantry
sem.... table	semof.... table cloth tilsem.... bar yagsem.... countertop yuzsem.... round table dresem.... desk dalsem.... pulpit tabsem.... bier fyasem.... altar tularsem.... buffet dyedsem.... lectern syagsem.... counter (cashier stand)
sim.... chair	zaopsim.... rocking chair yagyugsim.... couch zyupsim.... swivel chair eynsim.... stool edebsim.... throne yagyigsim.... bench tobobsim.... high chair apetsim.... saddle fyadilsim.... pew maksim..... electric chair teadutsim.... witness box tujyagsim.... sleep sofa zopsim.... recliner yigsim.... hard chair agsim.... arm chair simber....to seat simper....to sit
sum.... bed	suam.... cushion suaym.... pillow suav.... pillow case suem.... mattress suev.... sheet suef.... blanket absuef.... bedspread obsuev.... liner suim.... box spring summuf.... bedpost eonsum.... twin bed eynsum.... day bed igsum.... cot suym ....couch nyanxwa sum.... bunk bed milsum.... waterbed tabsum.... sleeping bag pyoxwa sum.... hammock malsum.... airbed summanar.... bed lamp sumber....put to bed sumper....go to bed

The sar (Tool) and par (Vehicle) Family

Stems having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in s for thing and end in r for tool. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with p for mobile.

Summary:

STANDALONE WORD	SUFFIX	MEANING
sar	-ar	instrument, tool, device (default)
sir	-ir	apparatus, hand-driven machine
sor	-or	machine, powered machine
sur	-ur	motor, engine

Note: the words and suffixes other than sar, -ar (the default) are used only to distinguish words like bicycle and motorcycle or needle and loom, etc.

Vehicles

Vehicle words end in par, where the initial p signifies going and the final ar indicates instrument, unless there is a need for further distinction, in which case, the ending may be -ir, -or, or -ur.

VEHICLES
par cart por carriage pur motorcar, car
mampur airplane
mempur automobile, land vehicle
mimpar boat mimpor ship mimpur motorboat
mumpur subway
mompur spaceship
kyinpur truck kyinpir cart, wagon
naadpur train
yautpur bus
enzyuspar bicycle enzyuspor scooter enzyuspur motorcycle
inzyuspar tricycle
yuglapar skate yuglapir sled yuglapor sleigh

Tools and Machines

TOOLS AND MACHINES
drar pencil drir typewriter dror printer
syaagar calculator syagir computer
vyixar brush vyixir sweeper vyixur vacuum cleaner

The tol (Food) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with t for human and l for liquid or in this case, drinkable or edible substances. The words have to do with food, food preparation, eating and drinking.

Summary:

WORD	DERIVATIVES
tol nutrition	tolnam grocery store toltun dietetics tolvyaab diet toluer feed toyl nutrition toyles nutrient toyluer nourish tolsam food buffet toleus taste toleusgab relish tolmek spice tolsyeb casserole
tel food	telier eat teluer feed telam restaurant telar fork telyeb plate telefa hungry telifut gourmet gratelut glutton teltun gastronomy oteliwas leftover
til- drink	tilsem bar tilier drink tilef thirst tilgronag drought gratilut drunk tilyeb glass tilar spoon tilarog teaspoon tilarag ladle tilsyeb cup teilsyeb soup bowl kyitilsyeb mug, stein
tul dish	jatul appetizer jotul dessert agtul main dish, entree ogtul tapa igtul snack atulyan first course etulyan second course tular dish tularsam china cabinet tularvyixar dishwasher tuler dine tamtuler dine at home tulur stove tultuna culinary tulxeb chef tulxim kitchen tulim dining room tulagim banquet hall vitultun gastronomy tuldras menu tulyuxut waiter tulyeb platter
tyal meal	atyal breakfast etyal lunch ityal dinner utyal supper etyalier have lunch etyaluer serve lunch tyalag banquet vabemtyal picnic yomxwa tyal frozen dinner

STUB	EXAMPLES
-il liquid, drink	teil soup til beverage bil milk mil water gyalevil syrup aybil cream bilyig cheese bilyug butter mekil gruel gyalevabil pudding taobiil gravy tuil sauce tuilyeb saucer fil alcohol vafil wine vafiltun oenology grafiliut alcoholic filxer ferment filvyunober distill levafil liquour teabil tear teubil saliva ilyeb bottle yavil beer magiler boil dril ink ilneyeb tank, reservoir ilsyeb carafe, beaker, flask apelatil honey bavuil ketchup
-yal juice	sefyal coffee safyal tea vafyal grape juice
-el food	level sugar yapel pork vipel venison eopel beef mageler cook movelwa smoked ummagelar oven elsyeb pot, pan
-yel gel, oil	dofyel chocolate megyel cement myel plastic tayel shampoo tulyel cooking oil magyel fuel yugyel rubber fyel wax magyeler fry magyelsyeb frying pan leveyel jam, confiture yiglevyel candy kafyel olive oil gevyel corn oil tulyel cooking oil gavyel sunflower oil
-eil soup	teil soup yagteil stew
-ol food	avol bread taol meat umleavol biscuit sifyol pepper mimol salt ovol bran zyuavol roll zyiavol flatbread, pita yuzavol wrap, gyro, taco uzavol twist, croissant ebavol sandwich toleusgabol condiment leavol pasta
-ul substance	mul matter bekul medecine bukul poison zemul yolk vemul neutron vamul proton vomul electron gwomul atom vyul slime zemul nucleus

The mor (universe) and mom (outer space) Family

The stems of the words in this family are characterized by the letter m nature. The words, thus, have to do with nature, the sky, ground, water, planets, etc. The stem vowel indicates whether the term applies to the sky, ground, water, etc.

Summary:

mor....universe	mom....cosmos	mol....nature	mop....orbit	moj....evening mon....darkness	mof....nebula mov....smoke	mok....dark matter mog....ash	mob....abyss
mar....star amar....sun	mam....sky	mal....air	map....wind	maj....day man...light	maf....cloud mav....flame	mak....electricty mag....fire
mer....planet imer....earth	mem....land	mel....soil	mep....road		mef....brick mev....porcelain	mek....dust meg....rock mez...gem	meb....mountain
mir....world	mim....sea	mil....water	mip....river
mur....satellite amur....moon	mum...underground	mul....matter	mup....tunnel			muk....mineral mug....metal	mub....cave, pit

A few important derivations:

• amar....sun  ("number one star")

• amarnaap....solar system  (the "sun system")
• amaryap....sunrise  ("sun rise")
• amaryop....sunset  ("sun descent")
• amarnad....sunbeam  ("sun line")
• amarmap....solar wind  ("sun wind")
• amarman....sunlight  ("sun light")

• amur....moon   ("number one satellite)

• amurned....lunar surface   ("moon surface")
• amurmoyb....lunar crater   ("moon depression")

• Imer....Earth   ("third planet from the sun"

• imertun....geology   ("earthscience"
• imerzyunad....earth's axis   ("earth turn line"
• imermop....earth's orbit   ("earth's orbit"

• marmaf....galaxy   ("star cloud")

• Amarmaf....Milky Way   ("number one galaxy")

• maryan....constellation   ("collection of stars")
• marmeg....comet   ("star rock")
• mommeg....meteor   ("space rock")
• mammeg....meteorite   ("sky rock")

The following are vehicles and derivatives that are specific to one of the above physical spheres:

mompur....spaceship	momper.... travel through space	momput....cosmonaut, astronaut
mampur....airplane	mamper....fly	mamput....flyer, pilot
mempur....automobile	memper....ride, drive	memput....rider, driver
mimpur....ship obmimpar....submarine	mimper sail, navigate	mimput sailor, navigator obmimput....submariner
mumpur....subway	mumper.... tunnel, go by metro	mumput....metro rider

Names of the Planets

Here are the names of the planets in our solar system. Notice that Earth is the "third planet" from the sun.

mer....planet
Amer.... Mercury
Emer.... Venus
Imer.... Earth
Umer.... Mars
Yomer.... Jupiter
Yamer.... Saturn
Yemer.... Uranus
Yimer.... Pluto

Polar Directions

DIRECTIONS	mer....planet
za....front	zamer.... north
zo....behind	zomer....south
zi....right	zimer....east
zu....left	zumer....west

Related terms:

• zamernod....north pole (nod = point)
• zomernod....south pole
• zaomernad....longitude (zao = north-south, nad = line)
• zuimernad....latitude (zui = east-west)
• zemernad....equator (ze = middle)
• merzyun....globe, sphere (planet-ball)
• eymerzyun....hemisphere (half-planet-ball)

Types of Clouds

maf....cloud
maaf.... stratus
maef.... nimbostratus
maif.... cumulus
mauf.... cumulonimbus
mayof.... stratocumulus
mayaf.... allocumulus
mayef.... allostratus
mayif.... cirrocumulus
mayuf.... cirrostratus
malof.... cirrus

Types of Roads and Paths

mep.... way, road, route   →  zeymep.... bridge, crossing   →  aybmep.... overpass, bridge   →  oybmep.... underpass   →  zyemep.... tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare   →  kumep.... side path   →  zomep.... back way   →  ebmep.... aisle   →  tyoyamep.... sidewalk, walkway   →  omep....impasse   →  gunmep....dogleg   →  dinmep....plot   →  pomep....itinerary   →  eynmep....half-way   →  homep?'....which way?   →  yilpmep....escape route   →  yexmep....career   →  yuzmep....circuit   →  tyenmep....career   →  puxmep....trajectory   →  vyamep....right way   →  vyomep....wrong way   →  musmep....stairway   →  izmep.... direct route, straight path, vector   →  yebmep.... entryway, entrance   →  oyebmep.... exit, way out   →  mummep.... subway   →  mammep.... air route   →  elyamep.... railroad, railway   →  mimmep.... sealane

domep.... street   →  agdomep.... highway   →  aagdomep.... main street   →  zyadomep.... broadway   →  igdomep.... expressway   →  uzmep.... byway, detour   →  yuzdomep.... beltway, loop   →  zyudomep.... roundabout, circle, rotary   →  ebdomep....alley   →  anizona domep....one-way street

meap.... avenue

meep.... boulevard

meip.... lane   →  zimeip....right lane   →  zumeip....left lane   →  zemeip....median, middle lane   →  anmeip.... single lane   →  enmeip....double lane

meup.... trail   →  mebmeup....mountain trail

meyp.... path   →  tyoyameyp.... footpath

Types of Stones, Gems, etc.

STONE	GEM	OTHER EARTH SUBSTANCES
meg .... stone	mez .... gem	mek .... dust
meag .... marble	amez .... diamond	miek .... sand
meeg ....slate	emez .... topaz	myek .... powder
meig ....gramote	imez .... ruby	mel .... soil
meug ....clay	vamez .... emerald	meil .... mud
meyag ....chalk	yamez .... amethyst	megil .... cement
meyeg ....limestone	yomez .... sapphire	myel .... plastic
meyig ....alabaster		mil .... water
meyog .... china		mial .... vapor
meyug .... gypsum		miil .... dew
melag .... adobe		mimol .... salt
meleg .... terra cotta		mamil .... rain
melig .... marl		mal .... air
melug .... kaolin		mayl .... gas
melyag .... feldspar		magil .... petroleum
melyeg .... petunse		mug .... metal
melyig .... silica		muk .... mineral
melyog .... pegmatite		mul .... matter
melyug .... flint		mag .... fire
mieg .... coral		mog .... ash
		mav .... flame
		mov .... smoke

Thermal Conditions

am....heat	ama .... hot	ayma .... warm
om....cold	oma .... cold	oyma .... cool
im....moisture	ima .... wet	iyma .... humid
um....draught	uma .... dry	uyma .... arid
yom....ice	yoma .... frozen	yoyma .... chilly
yam....fire	yama .... burning	yayma....fiery

Weather Phenomena

mamyen .... weather
mamil .... rain
mamyom .... sleet
mamyoym .... snow
yoym .... frost
yom .... ice
mial .... steam
miil .... dew
maf .... cloud
miaf .... fog
mapil .... storm, windstorm
xeusmapil .... thunderstorm
mapilag .... tempest
mimmapil .... hurricane
map .... wind maap .... puff maep .... breeze maip .... gust maup .... gale mayop .... typhoon
mapulz .... tornado, twister, cyclone
mammanig .... lightning
mamxeus .... thunder
mamiluz .... rainbow
jibim .... monsoon
graim .... flood, deluge

Atmospheric Layers

mal .... air
maal .... atmosphere
mael .... troposphere
mail .... stratosphere
maul .... ionosphere
mayol .... exosphere

Rivers and Streams

mip .... river
miap .... stream
miep .... brook
miip .... rivulet
miup .... tributary
miyop .... creek
miyap .... rill
mipuj .... estuary
mipkum .... river bank

Bodies of Water

mim .... sea
mimag .... ocean
miam .... lake
miem .... lagoon
miim .... pond
mium .... pool, basin
miumog .... puddle
immem .... swamp
ebmim .... strait
zyomip .... canal

Land Features

mem .... land
meam .... region meem .... territory meim .... countryside meum .... zone, district meyom .... tract, parcel, acre
meb .... mountain meyb .... mount meab .... hill meeb .... knob meib .... mound meub .... ridge meyob .... bump
mimeib ... cape
yabmimeib .... promontory, headland, bluff
zyimeb .... plateau
magmeb .... volcano
mub .... chasm, precipice, cliff muab .... gulf, gulch mueb .... ravine, valley, dale muib .... cave muyob .... ditch
mimuib .... cove
mimkum .... beach, seaside, coast
uzmimkum .... bay
zyimem .... plain
ummem .... desert
immem .... wetland, swamp
zomem .... hinterland
zyamem ....prairie
memsin .... landscape
yonmel .... island
eynyonmel .... peninsula
yanmel .... continent
zyoebmel .... isthmus
yijmem .... field, meadow

Different Worlds

mir .... world, realm, domain
jomir.... here-after, after-world, metasphere fyajomir....heaven, paradise ebjomir....limbo zejomir....purgatory fyojomir....hell
yizmir....world beyond, spirit world yizmirat....spirit, sprite
fyamir.... sacred world, paradise fyamirat....angel
fyomir....wicked world, hell fyomirat....demon
obmir....nether world
komir....secret realms
mor .... universe
moreb....god moreyb....goddess

The pot (Animal) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with the letter p, denoting movement, and end in the letter t, denoting a living creature. Thus, the words have to do with animals.

Summary:

	pot animal pyot wild animal
IN THE AIR	pat bird
ON LAND	pet land animal pelt insect pyet reptile
IN WATER	pit fish plit crustacean
ON LAND AND IN WATER	pyeit amphibian

Note that the vowels in the word stem indicates geo-spatial properties like a for in the air, e for on land, i for in the sea, u for underground, and ei for on land and sea (amphibian). Pre-iotation of the stem vowel creates a set of less domestic animals, while the letter l preceding or following the stem vowels is used similarly to divide animals into new groups. The initial ordinal vowels create a taxonomy, while initial consonants increase the taxonomic levels.

Principal Domestic Land Animals

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pet	(land) animal
apet	horse
epet	ox
ipet	ass
upet	ram
yopet	goat
yapet	pig
yepet	dog
yipet	cat
yupet	rabbit

Principal Wild Land Animals

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pyot	wild animal, beast
rapyot	lion
repyot	tiger
ripyot	leopard
rupyot	wolf
ryapyot	hyena
tepyot	bear
tapyot	orang-utan
yapyot	boar

Principal Birds

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pat	bird
apat	cock
epat	duck
ipat	turkey
upat	goose
yopat	guinea fowl
yapat	pigeon
rapat	eagle
repat	vulture
fapat	crow

Principal Marine Animals

• -it water only
• -iet water and land

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pit	fish
apit	trout
epit	lobster
ipit	prawn
upit	crawfish
lipit	salmon
ryepit	tuna
rapit	shark
repit	dolphin
fapit	whale
apiet	seal
epiet	sea lion

Principal Reptiles

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pyet	reptile
gapyet	crocodile
gepyet	alligator
kapyet	lizard
lopyet	snake
lapyet	boa
lepyet	cobra
fapyet	grass snake
fepyet	slug
fipyet	leech
vapyet	snail

Principal Insects

• -elt non-flying insects
• -elat flying insects

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pelt	insect
apelt	spider
kapelt	louse
kopelt	vermin
kepelt	flea
kipelt	bug
lepelt	cobra
apelat	bee
epelat	wasp
ipelat	horsefly
upelat	fly
yopelat	mosquito
lapelat	cockchafer
lepelat	beetle
tapelat	cicada
gapelat	butterfly
fapelt	ant
fepelt	cockroach
fapelt	ant

Principal Ambphibians and Worms

MIRAD	ENGLISH
apyeit	toad
epyeit	frog
apyeat	bat
peyet	worm
apeyet	silkworm

Animal Sounds

The animal noise verbs are formed by replacing the final t of the animal's name to der (communicate, utter), as in the following chart:

ANIMAL	SOUND VERB
apet horse	apeder neigh, whinny
epet bull	epeder bellow
eopetob veal	eopetoder bleat
eopet ox	eopeder low, moo, bellow
epeyt cow	epeyder moo
ipet ass	ipeder bray, hehaw
ilapet llama	ilapeder growl
upet sheep	upeder bleat
yopet goat	yopeder bray
yapet hog	yapeder grunt, snort, oink
yepet dog	yepeder bark
yepyot wolf	yepyoder howl
yeypyot vixen	yeypyoder yelp
yipet cat	yipeder mew, purr, meow
yipyot tiger	yipyoder growl
yupet rabbit	yupeder drum
kapet squirrel	kapeder squeak
kyipet raccoon	kyipeder chitter
klepet mouse	klepeder squeak
eplet koala	epleder wail
rapyot lion	rapyoder roar
ryapyot hyena	ryapyoder laugh
ryaapyot jackal	ryaapyoder howl
tapyot ape	tapyoder gibber
tepyot bear	tepyoder growl
gapet elephant	gapeder trumpet
vepet reindeer	vepeder bellow
vyipet moose	vyipeder bellow
fapet camel	fapeder grunt
fipet giraffe	fipeder bleat
kepyet gecko	kepyeder go to-key, make a gecko noise
lepyet cobra	lepyeder hiss
apyeat bat	apyeader screech
epyeit frog	epyeider rivet, make a frog noise
apelat bee	apelader buzz
lepelat beetle	lepelader drone
tepelat cricket	tepelader chirp
pat bird	pader chirp, tweet, coo, sing
apat rooster	apader crow, cockadoodle-doo
apayt hen	apayder cluck
apatog chicken	apatoder cheep
epat duck	epader quack
ipat turkey	ipader gobble
yapat pigeon	yapader coo
rapat eagle	rapader squawk
repat vulture	repader scream
fapat raven	fapader croak
fepat crow	fepader craw
fipat chatter	fipader chatter
fupat hoot	fupader hoot
fyipat jay	fyipader chatter
gapat ostrich	gapader bleep
dapat swan	dapader cry
zapat swallow	zapader squeal
tapat parrot	tapader parrot
vapat nightingale	vapader pipe
fepat warbler	fepader warble
gapait penguin	gapaider honk
ipiet platypus	ipieder chitter
rupit walrus	rupider groan
ryopit porpoise	ryopider whistle

Animal Habitats

By suffixing the final t of the animal name with tam house, you get corresponding animal's living quarters:

ANIMAL	LIVING SPACE
apet horse	apetam stable
epet ox	epetam cowshed
yapet pig	yapetam pigpen, pigsty
yepet dog	yepetam doghouse
rapyot lion	rapyotam den, lion's den
fapelt ant	fapeltam anthill
apelat bee	apelatam beehive
pat bird	patam nest, bird's nest
apat hen	apatam henhouse, chicken coop
rupyot bear	rupyotam lair
pyot wild animal	pyotam cage

Animal Meats

By changing the final letter of the animal's name to an l, you get the meat eaten from that animal:

ANIMAL	MEAT
eopet ox	eopel beef
vipet deer	vipel venison
yapet hog	yapel pork
yapetyoab hog's thigh	yapetyoal ham
uopet sheep	uopel mutton
eopetob calf	eopetol veal
vapyet snail	vapyel escargot

Animal Groupings

By adding yan aggregate or nyan crowd to the name of an animal, you get the animal grouping:

ANIMAL	GROUPING
pat bird	patyan flock
eopet ox	eopetyan cattle
pit fish	pityan school
pelt insect	peltyan swarm
pit fish	pityan school
apat hen	apatyan poultry
pot animal	potnyan herd
yopet goat	yopetyan goatherd

Animals' Babies

The baby of an animal ends in ob offspring:

ANIMAL	BABY
pat bird	patob chick
apet horse	apetob foal
eopet ox	eopetob calf
yepet dog	yepetob pup
yipet cat	yipetob kitten
apat hen	apatob chick
rapat eagle	rapatob eaglet
upat goose	upatob gosling
upet ram	upetob lamb
yopet goat	yopetob kid

Animals' Hair

The hair of an animal ends in tayeb hair:

ANIMAL	HAIR
pat bird	patayeb feather
apet horse	apetayeb horsehair, mane
yipet cat	yipetayeb fur
fapet camel	fapetayeb camelhair
pit fish	pitayeb scale
upat goose	upatayeb down
tepyot bear	tepyotayeb fuzz
uopet sheep	uopetayeb wool, fleece

Female Counterparts of Animals

The word for the female counterpart of an animal is created by post-iotated (i.e. adding a y to) the last vowel of the male animal's name:

ANIMAL	FEMALE
epet bull	epeyt cow
apet horse	apeyt mare
ipet ass	ipeyt she-ass
yopet goat	yopeyt nanny goat
yapet hog	yapeyt sow
yepet dog	yepeyt bitch
yepyot wolf	yepyoyt wolverine
yeypyot fox	yeypyoyt vixen
gapet elephant	gapeyt cow elephant
vipet buck	vipeyt deer
apat rooster	apayt hen

Interesting Parallels in Animal Vocabulary

teub mouth	pateub beak	poteub mug	mimeub bay
teib nose	poteib snout	gapeteib elephant trunk	meib promontory
tayeb hair	patayeb feather	pitayeb scale	petayeb fur	fayeb leaf	vosayeb petal	uopetayeb wool, fleece
tulob nail	patulob claw	apelatulob stinger		fulob prick	vulob thorn
tyoyab foot	apetyoyab hoof	potyoyab paw	meboyab foothills	fyoyab stump	vyoyab stub
tayob skin	potayob hide	piyetayob shell	mayob crust	fayob bark	vayob peel	patijayob eggshell

The fob (Vegetation)and vob (Plant) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with f for vegetation or v for plant and end in b for organism. These words have to do with trees, fruits, nuts, vegetables, plants, grasses, and grains, as shown in this chart:

Summary:

TREES, FRUITS, VEGETABLES	PLANTS, GRAINS, LEGUMES
fob vegetable	vob plant
fab tree	vab grass
feb fruit, nut	veb tuft veeb seed veeyb grain
fib trunk	vib stem
fub branch	vub twig
fayeb leaf	vayeb bud
fyob root	vyob tendril

The vol (Edible Vegetable), vos (Flower), and voz (Color Family

Summary:

vol edible vegetable

vos flower

voz color

Colors (voz)

The names of common colors in Mirad are mnemonically based on flowers and other natural products that have distinctive colors. In the summary chart below, the mnemonic origin is given for each color term.

Summary:

COLOR	MNEMONIC ORIGIN
voz color	vos flower
ovoza plain, blank	o zero
avoza white	avos lily
evoza yellow	evos narcissus
ivoza red	ivos poppy
uvoza pink	uvos rose
yovoza blue	yovos blueberry
yavoza mauve	yavos hydrangea
yevoza lilac	yevos lilac
yivoza violet, purple	yivos violet
lafeza orange	lafeb orange
vaza green	vab grass
moza black	mon dark
maza white	man light
maoza gray	man + mon
meza brown	mel soil

The common colors consist of a mnemonic stub for a flower, plant, fruit, or other natural item exhibiting most vividly the color in question, followed by the suffix -za (reminiscent of voz color, itself reminiscent of vos flower), eg. va- (from vab grass) + z = vaza green.

The most exotic or rare colors can be expressed by the numerical position in the alphabetized Wikipedia list of colors + -za. For example, the color Alabama Crimson is the tenth color in that list when alphabetized, so it's name is aloza.

A color referring to one's skin or race is suffixed with -ata-, eg. mozata black-skinned, black, while the person of that skin color ends in -at, eg. mazat white person, a white. A person of mixed color is a eyvozat ('ey- half). A non-white is expressed with omazat.

A color referring to one's hair is a combination of toz, preceded by the first vowel of the color, eg. i from ivoza red + toz yields itoza auburn, red-headed.

• If the stem vowel of the color term is post-iotated, then the meaning is the lighter version of the color, eg. ivoyza light red.
• If the stem vowel of the color term is pre-iotated, then the meaning is the darker or deeper version of the color, eg. ivyoza deep red.
• If the stem vowel of the color term is doubled, then the meaning is the brighter version of the color, eg. ivooza bright red.
• If the syllable yen is inserted between the stem and the adjectival ending a, then the meaning is -ish, eg. avozyena reddish.
• If the color word is preceded by gwa, it is of maximum intensity, eg. gwaivoza as red as can be.

The tuz (Art) Family

This family includes words having to do with the arts, such as theater, sculpture, music, poetry, etc. Word stems ending in -z refer to something that is precious or artful. Stems with eu are mnemonic for teub mouth and refer to sound, singing, noises, etc.

Summary:

THE ARTS
tuz art taz statue tez culture
siz painting saz sculpture voz color
daz dance dez theater diz comedy, circus duz music dyez cinema drez poetry
teuz voice deuz song seux sound xeus noise seuz tone

The dob (State) Family

The stems of the words in this family start with d for society and end with b for organization.

Summary:

dob state, regime

dab government

deb leader

dib administration

dub minister

Regimes and Rulers

REGIME=dob	GENDER-NEUTRAL RULER=deb	MALE FULE=dweb	FEMALE RULER=deyb
adob empire	adeb emperor	adweb emperor	adeyb empress
edob kingdom	edeb monarch	edweb king	edeyb queen
idob principality	ideb prince	idweb prince	ideyb princess
udob duchy	udeb duke	udweb duke	udeyb duchess
yodob marquisate	yodeb marquis	yodweb marquis	yodeyb marquise
yadob count	yadeb count	yadweb count	yadeyb countess
yedob domain	yedeb lord	yedweb lord	yedeyb lady, dominatrix
yidob barony	yideb baron	yidweb baron	yideyb baroness
alodob tribe, chiefdom, clan	alodeb chief, tribal chief, chieftain	alodweb male chief	alodeyb chieftaine

City Entitites

dom....city debdom....capital mimdom....port domab...municipality domeb....mayor yizdom....suburb domgon....district domep...street domyem....plaza

dam....airfield

dem....park deym....garden domdeym....square

dim....fountain

Governments and Leaders

GOVERNMENT=dab	LEADER=deb
ditdab republic, democracy	ditdeb president
andab autocracy	andeb autocrat
anadab dictatorship	anadeb dictator
nasdab plutocracy	nasdeb plutocrat
yabdab aristocracy	yabdeb aristocrat
fyaatdab theocracy	fyaatdeb theocrat
abdab dominion, fiefdom	abdeb overlord, feudal lord, master
obdab protectorate, subject state	obdeb protector, subjugator
yibdab colony	yibdeb colonial master

Regional Administrations

REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION
doob nation
doab fatherland
doeb state, Bund
doib county
domem province, state
domeam department, county, prefecture
domeem sub-prefecture
domeim canton
domeum commune

The nas (Money) Family

The stems of the words in this family all begin with n for merchandise. All the words have to do with money, business, trade, and merchandise.

Summary:

MONEY NOUNS	MONEY VERBS
nas.... money nax.... price nayx....cost naz.... value, worth nasyig....cash nasmug....coin nases....change nasgon....stock nastun....finance donastun....economy nasyan....capital nasdrev....paper money nasdref....check nasam....bank nasak....windfall nasok....deficit	naxer.... cost nasbuer.... allocate nasaker.... profit naseker.... gamble nasyefer.... owe nasyefier ....borrow nasyefuer.... lend naxter.... appreciate nazer.... be worth nazder.... assess nazbuer.... reward nasyiguer.... cash
nex.... savings nexak....interest	nexer.... save neuner.... reserve
nix.... income, revenue yexnix....salary tutnix....honorarium jonix....debt nixak....profit dobnix....pension dotnix.... welfare jabnix....annuity nixgab....dividend	nixer.... earn nizer.... deserve nier.... consume nixbuer.... sell jobnier.... rent
nux.... payment, outlay yovnux....penalty nuxyef....duty jonux...credit yufnux....blackmail dobnux....tax nuz.... award nuxgax....pay raise	nuxer.... pay nuzuer.... award nuer.... supply jobnuxer.... lease
nox.... expenditure finox....thrift noz.... jewelry	noxer.... spend funoxer.... waste
nun....product nunyan....merchandise nunsag....inventory nunek....negotiation nundel....ad nundyun....brand nunem....market n(un)am....shop nunut....merchant nunyeb....package	nuneker.... deal nunier.... buy nunuer.... sell nunuier.... trade namper.... shop nundeler.... advertise nunsager.... inventory nunyember.... package
nyan.... stack nyandras....list nyaz....wealth	nyaser....accumulate nyaxer.... stack
nyen.... stores, stock nyeb....container nyem....box, case nyef....bag, sack nyeyf....purse yignyef....basket	nyexer.... stock nyember.... box up
nyix.... order nyixdref....order form nyixut....client, customer	nyixer.... demand, order
nyox.... waste	nyoxer.... waste
nyux.... delivery nyuxun....cargo, freight, shipment nyuxdref....receipt nyuxpur....delivery truck	nyuxer.... supply, deliver, ship

The dop (Military) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with d social and end in p mobile and have to do with the military and war.

Summary:

MILITARY	SOME DERIVATIONS
dop military	dopeb commander of the armed forces dopof uniform dopnab military rank dopbier conquer dopizper march dopyaf military power dopar weapon doparobel armistice dopek combat dopekem battleground dopekut combat soldier odopeker defend dopembier deploy dopektof battle attire dropek war dropekut warrier dropekpos armistice dopteud battle cry dopdeuz battle hymn dopnad battle line dopepem battle station dopzanad battlefront ditdoyp militia dopyena militant
dap air force	dapeb air force commander dapat airman dapur fighter jet
dep ground force, army	depeb army commander depet enlisted soldier depur tank
dip navy	dipeb navy commander dipat ensign oybdipur submarine dipur battleship adipur aircraft carrier edipur dreadnaught idipur frigate udipur destroyer yadipur corvette yedipur gunboat yodipur cruiser
diep marine	diepeb marine commander diepat marine soldier dieput ambphibious warship

Weapons

WEAPONS
dopar weapon doparier take up arms doparuer arm
adopar gun tuyab adopar handgun, pistol zyup adopar revolver
edopar rifle
idopar shotgun
udopar musket
dopir artillery
adopir cannon
edopir bazooka
idopir howitzer
dopur machine gun
dopyonar bayonet zyidopyonar sword mimdopyonar cutlass zyadopyonar battle-ax
dopuz-izmuf bow-and-arrow

Ranks

ARMY dep	NAVY dip	AIR FORCE dap	MARINE FORCE diep
depat soldier	dipat ensign	dapat airman	diepat private
adepat private	adipat seaman recruit	adapat airman basic	adiepat private
edepat private 2	edipat seaman apprentice	edapat airman	ediepat private 1st class
idepat private first class	idipat seaman	idapat airman first class	idiepat lance corporal
udepat army specialist	udipat petty officer 3rd class	udapat senior airman	udiepat corporal
	yodipat petty officer 2nd class	yodapat staff sergeant	yodiepat sergeant
	yadipat petty officer 3rd class	yadapat technical sergeant	yadiepat staff sergeant
	yedipat chief petty officer	obyedapat master sergeant	yediepat gunnery sergeant
		abyedapat master sergeant with diamond
	yidipat senior chief petty officer	obyidapat senior master sergeant	yidiepat master sergeant
		abyidapat senior master sergeant with diamond
	obyudipat master chief petty officer	obyudapat chief master sergeant	yudiepat first sergeant
	ebyudipat fleet master chief petty officer		alodiepat master gunnery sergeant
	abyudipat master chief petty officer of the navy	abyudapat chief master sergeant with diamond	aladiepat sergeant major
adeplat warrant officer	adiplat ensign	adaplat 2nd lieutenant	adieplat warrant officer
edeplat chief warrant officer 2	ediplat lieutenant junior grade	edaplat 1st lieutenant	edieplat chief warrant officer 2
ideplat chief warrant officer 3	idiplat lieutenant	idaplat captain	idieplat chief warrant officer 3
udeplat chief warrant officer 4	udiplat lieutenant commander	udaplat major	udieplat chief warrant officer 4
yodeplat chief warrant officer 5	yodiplat commander	yodaplat lieutenant colonel	yodieplat chief warrant officer 5
yadeplat second lieutenant	yadiplat captain	yadaplat colonel	yadieplat second lieutenant
yedeplat first lieutenant			yedieplat first lieutenant
yideplat captain	yidiplat ensign		yidieplat captain
yudeplat major			yudieplat major
adeprat brigadier general	adiprat rear admiral lower half	adaprat brigadier general	adieprat lieutenant general
edeprat major general	ediprat rear admiral upper half	edaprat major general	edieprat colonel
ideprat lieutenant general	idiprat vice admiral	idaprat lieutenant general	idieprat brigadier general
udeprat 4 star general	udiprat commandant	udaprat general air force chief of staff	udieprat major general
yodeprat 5-star general	yodiprat fleet admiral	yodaprat general of the AF	yodieprat lieutenant general
			yadieprat general

The ab (On), yab (Up) Family

Summary:

ab....on aber....put on aper....get on aba....superior abem....top ayb....above	eb....between eber....block eper....intervene eba....in-between ebem....interval eyb....among	ob....off ober....remove oper....get off oba....inferior obem bottom oyb....below
yab....up yaber....raise yaper....rise yaba.... high yabem....upstairs	yeb....in yeber....put in yeper....get in yeba....inner yebem....interior	yob....down yober....lower yoper....descend yoba....lower yobem....downstairs
	oyeb....out oyeber....put out oyeper....get out oyeba...outer oyebem....exterior

The af (Permission), yaf (Ability) Family

Summary:

afer.... may afa....allowed afwa...permissable afxer....allow	efer.... need efa....in need of efwa....necessary efxer....necessitate	ofer.... be prohibited ofa....not allowed ofwa....prohibited ofxer....prohibit
yafer.... can yafa....able yafwa....possible yafxer....enable	yefer.... must yefa....obliged yefwa....obligatory yefxer....oblige	yofer.... cannot yofa....unable yofwa....impossible yofxer....incapacite

The aga (Big), yaga (Long) Family

Summary:

aga....big agan....size agaxer....magnify agser....grow	ega....normal egan....normalcy egaxer....normalize	oga....little ogan....smallness ogaxer....minimize ogser....shrink
yaga....long yagan....length yagaxer....lengthen yagser....stretch		yoga....short yogan....shortness yogaxer....abbreviate yogser....contract

The aj (Past), taj (Birth) Family

Summary:

aj....past ajna....old ajyena....old-fashioned	ej....present ejna....new ejyena....modern	oj....future ojna....to-be ojyena....futuristic
taj....birth tajer....be born tajber....give birth taja....natal	tej....life tejer....live tejber....bring to life teja....vital	toj....death tojer....die tojber....kill toja....mortal

The ak- (Win), yak- (Expect) Family

Summary:

aker....win akut....winner akun....win akler....defeat akrer....triumph akuj....success akbun....award nasak....windfall aknas....profit	eker....play, risk ekut....player ekun....game ifek...play dopek...battle dropek....war tapek....sport nasek....gamble yanek....competition ovek....contest dalovek....debate dunek....pun	oker....lose okut....loser okun....loss okuj....failure tejok....loss of life nasok....bankrupty oknas....deficit
yaker....expect fiyak....hope fuyak....despair fiyakuer....inspire fuyakuer....discourage	yeker....try finyeker....test aayeker....experiment yekuer....challenge fuyekuer....tempt yekun...goal doyevyek....trial	yoker....be surprised yokdun....exclamation yokxeus...sudden noise, boom yoktoj....sudden death yokay....unexpectedly

The av (For), yav- (Innocent) Family

Summary:

av....for ava....favorable avan....behalf, behest avon....asset, advantage avun....favor, benefit avder....advocate avejter....represent yanav....party	eva....neutral evan....neutrality evder....equivocate evaxer....neutralize	ov....against ova....contrary ovon....liability, handicap, disadvantage ovun...obstacle yanov....opposition
yava....innocent yavder....acquit	yeva....fair yevder....judge doyevan.... justice doyevon....court case doyevam....court finyevut....critic	yova....guilty yovder....indict, accuse vayovder....convict doyov....crime yovbyok....penalty yovbyokam....prison yovober....pardon

The az- (Strong), yaz- (Convex) Family

Summary:

aza strong	eza moderate	oza weak
yaza convex	yeza flush	yoza concave

The fya- (Holy) Family

Summary:

fyaa holy	fyoa profane
fyamir heaven	fyomir hell
fyaat god	fyoat devil
fyaet angel	fyoet demon
afyaet archangel	afyoet archdemon
fyait saint	fyoit evil person
fyaut priest
fyax sacrament	fyox sacrilege
fyaz miracle	fyoz witchcraft
fyaxin religion
fyaxam church
fyadab church hierarchy
fyadeb church elder, clergyman
afyadeb pope
efyadeb cardinal
ifyadeb archbishop
obifyadeb bishop
ufyadeb parish priest
obufydeb deacon
fyad blessing	fyod curse
fyadil prayer
fyaxel ritual, mass	fyoxel occult

The fi- (Good), fyi- (Useful) Family

Summary:

fia....good fila....delightful fira....excellent fiva ....ok fiza....honorable fizta....noble fizda....honest firza....ideal firxa....perfect flia....superb fria....glorious	fua....bad fusa....flawed fula....malignant fura...wicked fuza....dishonorable fuzta....ignoble fuzda....dishonest flua....horrible
fin....virtue dofin....morality	fun....vice dofun....crime
fider....praise	fuder....malign
fyia....useful fyin....value	fyua....harmful fyun....harm

The ga (More), gla (Much), gra (Too Much), gwa (Most) Family

Summary:

ga....more gay....still,yet gaxer....increase gaber....add galer....multiply gan....whole	ge....as gey....even gexer....equalize geber....equate	go....less goy....no longer goxer....decrease gober....subtract goler....divide gon....part
gla....much, many, very	gle....some, rather	glo....little, few, slightly
gra....too much, too	gre....enough	gro....too little, not enough
gwa....most	gwe....just	gwo....least

The gi- (Sharp), gyi- (Solid) Family

Summary:

gia....sharp gin....point grin....blade	gua....dull gun....angle grun....hook
gyia solid, firm	gyua fragile

The if (Pleasure), yif (Courage) Family

Summary:

ifer....love ifon....love ifwa....beloved	ufer....hate ufon....hate ufwa....odious
yifa....brave yifla....valiant yifran....heroism yifer....dare	yufa....afraid yufla....horrible yufran....terror yufer....fear

The ig- (Fast), yig- (Hard) Family

iga....fast	uga....slow
igar....accelerator	ugar....brake
igper....run	ugper....amble
yiga....hard yigla....rude yigra....violent yigta....tense yigza....sharp, sour yigsa....rigid yigfa....rough yigaza....bitter	yuga....soft yugla....polite yugra....gentle yugta....lax yugza....mild, sweet yugsa....supple, flexible yugfa....smooth yugsra....elastic
bilyig....cheese	bilyug....butter

The ij (Beginning), yij (Opening), tij (Awakening) Family

Summary:

ijer....begin ijper....start up ijber....start up ijna....initial ijar....on switch ijem....origin	ujer....end ujper....come to an end ujber....bring to an end ujna....final ujar....off switch ujem....destination
vabij....seed  (√vab plant) tabij....embryo  (√tab body) patij....egg  (√pat bird) texij....concept  (√text thought) milij....spring  (√mil water) manij....glimmer  (√man light) majij....dawn  (√maj morning) mojij....dusk  (√moj evening)	kyeuj....fate  (√kye- random) dinuj....denouement  (√din story) mepuj....deadend  (√mep road) jobuj....eternity  (√job time)
yijer....open yijper....come open yijber...open up yijar....key	yujer....close yujper...come to a close yujber...bring to a close yujar....lock
tijer....be awake tijper....wake up tijber....waken tijtepa....conscious  (√tep mind)	tujer....sleep tujper....fall asleep tujber....put to sleep tujtepa....unconscious

The ik-- (Full), yik- (Difficult) Family

Summary:

ika....full iliker....flood ilaker....take on water ikber....fill melik....dirt pile	uka....empty iloker....drain iloker....leak ukber....empty meluk....hole, dugout
yika....difficult yikla....complicated yikom....hardship yikson....problem yikun....hindrance	yuka....easy yukla....simple yukom....comfort yukson....easy matter yukun....convenience

The iv- (Happy), yiv- (Free) Family

Summary:

iva....happy ivla....glad, content ivra....excited, thrilled iv....fun ivtax...gratitude ivder....cheer ivteuber....smile ivdeuxer....laugh ivseuz....sigh of relief yaniv....party yanivtosder....congratulate ivek....game, play ivuj....happy ending	uva....sad uvla....disappointed uvra....morose, dejected uv....sorrow uvtax....regret uvder....complain uvteuber....frown uvdeuxer....moan uvseuz....sigh of sorrow yanuv....dirge yanuvtosder....commiserate uvdin....tragedy uvuj....sad ending
yiva....free yivina....liberal yivtexa....libertarian doyiv....right yivdren....license	yuva....bound, captive yuvla....subject yuvrat....slave doyuv....duty yuv....bond nasyuv....debt oyuvan....independence yuvar....chain

The iz (Straight), yiz (Beyond) Family

Summary:

iza....straight izber....direct, steer izper....go straight, head for izmep....straight shot, beeline izon....direction iznad...vector straight line iznod....target izteser....denote iztex....logic iztesten....intuition izgun....right angle izeaxer....indicate, point out izyen....maneuver iztin....orthodoxy izbeb....pilot, driver

uza....curved.... uzber....turn uzper....deviate, curve uzmep....detour uznad....curve uznod....turning point uzteser....connote uztex....irrationality uzun....ring uzyus....spriral, coil uzabmas....arch uzmem....bay ulz....twist mapulz....tornado uzfuv....screw tuyobuz....bracelet tuyubuz....ring teebuz....earing teibuz....nosering teyobuz....necklace tiabuz....broche tilabuz....tit ring, nipple ring eybtuabuz....epaulette mamiluz....rainbow dopuz....bow, arch, bow-and-arrow

yiz....beyond yiza....ulterior yizper....surpass yiznod....extremity yiztapa....metaphysical yizmola....supernatural yizoga....ultra-small yizyivoza....ultraviolet yiztoba....superhuman yizmeira....extra-terrestrial

yuz....around yuza....circular yuzper....circulate yuzmep....periphery sinyuz....frame nidyuz....envelope yuznad....border yuzmas....fence yuznag....girth yuzmimper....circumnavigate yuzkof....blanket, wrap yuznof....bandage yuzdom....suburb yuzem....environment yuzbexer....hug

The ja (Before), jwa (Early) Family

Summary:

ja....before jaa....anterior jana....previous jater....presage japer....precede jader....predict jafyunder....warn jaovber....prevent jaxer....prepare jatuer....train jabikier....take precautions jaexdrer....plan jateaxer....preview jateaser....foresee janapder...preordain janap...priority jay....already jatex....forethought	je....during jea....on-going jena....current jes....course jeser....continue jey....on and on, forth	jo....after joa....posterior jona....next joxwas...aftermath joper....follow joteaxer....review joiber....inherit joigper....pursue jouper....succeed joy....afterwards, then, next jois....after-effect jotul....dessert jotej....afterlife jotex....afterthought	ji....since ji huj....since then	ju....until ju hij....until now
jwa....early jwaa....pre-mature jwapuer....arrive early jwaxer....preempt	jwe....on time jwea....ready, timely, ripe jwepuer....arrive on time jwexer....prepare	jwo....late jwoa....tardy, mature, stale jwopuer....arrive late jwoxer....delay

The ka- (Find), kya- (Change) Family

Summary:

kaxer....find kaxun....trove kaxon....solution kader....reveal kater....realize kap....adventure ijkaxer....invent kyekaxer....discover, stumble on katepa....conscious	kexer....seek kexun....goal kexon....quest keder....question keter....wonder, be curious about kep.....mission kebier....choose kebider....vote tunkexer....research zyakexer....search keteaxer....scan pokexut....hunter nazkexut....treasure hunter kyeojkexut....fortune-seeker	koxer....hide koxun....stash koxon....problem, quandary kod....secret koter....belie kop....going into hiding kobier....steal koem....hideaway koembier....take refuge koembuer...provide shelter kof....cover koexut....spy kodyun....coverword kodin....myth kodrentun....cryptography teabkof....blindfold koxof....cloak koxov....veil koifer....covet kopier....elope kopuer....sneak up to kotepa....subconscious
kyaa....variable kyaser....vary kyadun....variable kyasun....variant kyasea....variant kyayukwa....versatile kyaxer...change ebkyaxer....exchange kyaper...fluctuate, slide kyasanier....mutate tepkyaxer....persuade, motivate	kyea....haphazard kyeser....happen kyes....event, happening, incident kyeoj....fate, destiny kyen....luck, chance fikyen....good luck fukyen....bad luck fukyes....accident kyenek....game of chance kyenekam....casino kyenekar....gaming machine kyeson....circumstance yankyeson....coincidence kyeper....waver kyebuk....danger kyeteaser....notice kyeyanuper...happen to meet kyeon....case kyexej....adventure fukyeoj....misfortune fikyeoj...good fortune	kyoa....fixed, static, still kyoser...stay, stand kyos....status, state kyosa....static kyoejea....constant, permanent kyoaxer....stabilize kyoxer....fix, park parkyoxam....parking garage kyoteaxer....stare kyotepier....pay attention kyotexer....obsess

The ki- (Slant), kyi- (Heavy) Family

Summary:

kia....oblique kim....slope	kua....lateral kum....side
kyia....heavy kyiper....gravitate kyisona....grave	kyua....light kyuper....levitate kyusona....trivial

The va (Yes), vya- (True) Family

va....yes	ve....maybe	vo....no
vaa....affirmative	vea....possible	voa....negative
vay....indeed	vey....possibly	voy....not
vyaa....true	vyea....relative	vyoa....false

Factive adverbs:

FACTIVE ADVERB	EXAMPLE
vay indeed, really, do/does	Aat vay tide et..... We really do understand you. Vay upu gajod..... Do come again.
vey.... may, maybe, perhaps, might	Vey mamilo..... It may rain.
voy.... not	Et voy se ata xeb..... You are not my boss.

Factive Responses

FACTIVE RESPONSE	EXAMPLE
va.... yes	Va, at tide..... Yes, I understand.
ve.... maybe, perhaps	Ve. At voy te..... Maybe, I don't know.
vo.... no	Vo. Et yofe beer has..... No. You can't have it.

Correlative conjunctions:

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLE
ay.... and	Et ay at po hum.....You and I will go there.
ey.... or	Aat yake mamil ey mamyoym.....We expect rain or snow.
oy.... but	At po oy at voy beso glajob.....I will go but I won't stay long.
ay/ey.... and/or	Ha duzun yebio X ay/ey Y.....The concert will include X and/or Y.
hyaewa...ay.... both...and	Hyaewa et ay at voduda..... Both you and I answered no. Hyaewati voduda..... Both answered no.
Hyeawa...ey.... either...or	Hyeawa et ey at ako..... Either you or I will win. Hyeawat ako..... Either will win.
Hyoewa...ey.... neither...nor	Hyoewa et ey at ako..... Neither you nor I will win. Hyoewat (bi ha ewati) ako..... Neither (of the two) will win.

Some derivatives of va, ve, and vo:

• vader.... affirm, assent, say yes, approve, ratify, vouch
• vaduder.... answer yes, reply affirmatively
• vaa.... positive, affirmative
• vatin.... optimism
• vatexer.... think so, believe, trust
• vafer.... hope, anticipate
• valder.... assure, promise

• veder hesitate, say maybe, suppose, guess
• Vea.... possible
• vetin.... skepticism
• vetexer.... wonder, be skeptical, hedge
• vefer.... have qualms about, vacillate
• veduder.... equivocate, reply neither yes or no, answer maybe
• velder.... bet, wager

• voder.... deny, negate, veto, say no, decline
• voa.... negative
• vofer.... reject, despair
• votin.... pessimism
• votexer.... doubt, think not, disbelieve
• voduder.... answer no, reply negatively
• volder.... warn

The vi- (Beautiful), vyi- (Clean) Family

Summary:

via....beautiful	vua....ugly
viya....pretty	vuya....nasty
vila....magnificent
vira....marvelous
vria....glamorous
vifa....elegant	vufa....vulgar
vita....classy	vuta....wretched
vioga....cute
viaga....sumptuous
vyia....clean	vyua....dirty
vyida....clear	vyuda....muddled
vyina....pure	vyuna....stained
vyita....chaste	vyuta....sleazy
vyiya....neat	vyuya....foul

Chart of Group 2 Core Morphemes

Here is chart showing all the group 2 core morphemes in Mirad:

POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE	POSITIVE	OPPOSITE
ab on ayb over ab- put on	eb between eyb among eb- prevent	ob off oyb under ob- remove	ib away from ib- receive	ub toward ub- send
ap- get on	ep- intervene	op- get off	ip- leave	up- come
ba- lean bal- press bar- crush byas- stand byax- erect bas- make a stir bax- stroke, rub	b- put be at be- have bes- stay bex- hold byes- behave byex- knock blex- detain brex- restrain bel- carry	bo- support bos- be still box- calm down byos- droop byox- hang	bi from bi- take byi starting with byis- originate bix- pull blix- yank brix- uproot	bu to bu- give bux- push byux- touch blux- drive brux- kick
bay with	bey by	boy without
yab up	yeb in oyeb out	yob down	yib far	yub near
yap- rise	yep- enter	yop- descend	yip- flee	yup- approach
pas- move pya- hover pyas- surge pyax- shoot plax- shake, wipe prax- brush pap- fly	p- go pes- wait pex- trap pyex- strike plex- beat prex- crash pep- ride	pos- rest pox- stop pyos- fall pyox- drop plox- sink prox- drown pop- travel	pi- depart pix- catch pyi- originate plix- capture prix- rape pip- sail	pu- arrive pus- jump pux- throw pyu- reach pyux- impact plux- thrust prux- shoot pup- tunnel
af- permit	ef- need	of- prohibit	if- love	uf- hate
	f- want		fi- good	fu- bad
fya- holy		fyo- profane	fyi- useful	fyu- harmful
yaf- can	yef- must	yof- cannot	yif- dare	yuf- fear
ga more gab- add gal- multiply gax- increase	ge- equal	go less gob- subtract gol- divide gox- decrease	gi- point	gu- angle
gwa- most	gwe- just	gwo- least
gya- fat		gyo- thin	gyi- solid	gyu- fragile
gla- much	gle- rather	glo- few
gra- too	gre- enough	gro- inadequate
ag- big	eg- normal	og- small	ig- fast	ug- slow
yag- long		yog- short	yig- hard	yug- soft
ja before	je during	jo after	ji since	ju until
jwa early	jwe on time	jwo late
aj past	ej present	oj future	ij beginning	uj end
taj* birth	tej* life	toj* death	tij* awake state	tuj* sleep
			yij- open	yuj- close
ka- find	ke- seek	ko- hide	ki- oblique	ku- lateral
kya- change	kye- haphazard	kyo- fixed	kyi- heavy	kyu- light
ak- win	ek- play, risk	ok- lose	ik- full	uk- empty
yak- expect	yek- try	yok- surprise	yik- difficult	yuk- easy
va yes	ve maybe	vo no	vi- beautiful	vu- ugly
vya- true	vye- relative	vyo- false	vyi- clean	vyu- dirty
av for	ev- neutral	ov against	iv- happy	uv- sad
yav- innocent	yev- fair	yov- guilty	yiv- free	yuv- captive
yaz- convex	yez flush with	yoz- concave	yiz beyond	yuz around
za front	ze middle	zo behind	zi right	zu left
zya- wide	zye through	zyo- narrow	zyi- flat	zyu- round
zay forward	zey across	zoy back
az- strong	ez- moderate	oz- weak	iz- straight	uz- curved
ha- the	he- some	ho- which	hi- this	hu- that
hya- every	hye- any	hyo- no	hyi- same	hyu- other
hav that	hev whether	hov lest
hay hello	hey hey	hoy goodbye	hiy voici	huy voila
ya(n)* together		yo(n)* apart
a one	e two	o zero lo- un-, de-	i three	u four
ya six	ye seven	yo five	yi eight	yu nine
ay and	ey or	oy but

*Technically, not part of Group 2, but presented here to show the parallelism,

Chart of Group 1 Scaled Core Morphemes

These group 1 core morphemes are mostly hierarchical in nature with the zeroth element being at the top of the scale:

o zero	a one	e two	i three	u four	yo five	ya six	ye seven	yi eight	yu nine
ot one	at I	et you	it he	ut self	oot they	aat we	eet you	iit they	uut selves
dob state	dab government	deb leader	dib administration	dub minister
dom city	dam metropolis	dem park	dim fountain
dot society	dat friend	det mate	dit citizen	dut sir
fob vegetation	fab tree	feb fruit	fib trunk	fub branch	fyob root
job time	jab year	jeb season	jib month	jub day	jwob hour	jwab minute	jweb second
mor universe	mar star	mer planet	mir world	mur moon
mol nature	mal air	mel soil	mil water	mul mineral
mos floor	mas wall	mes door	mis window	mus stairs
nod point	nad line	ned plane	nid volume	nud column
nof cloth	naf material	nef weave	nif wire	nuf button		nyaf knot	nyef bag	nyif rope	nyuf package
nog degree	nag measure	neg level	nig space
no- spend	na- money	ne- save	ni- earn	nu- pay	nyo- waste	nya- accumulate	nye- store	nyi- order	nyu- deliver
som furniture	sam armoire	sem table	sim chair	sum bed
tob human	tab body	teb head	tib trunk	tub arm	tyob leg
tod family	tad spouse	ted parent	tid sibling	tud child			tyed relative
tof clothing	taf suit	tef hat	tif vest	tuf sleeve	tyof pants
tov lingerie	tav robe	tev scarf	tiv shirt		tyov underpants
tol nutrition		tel eat	til drink	tul dish		tyal meal
tom building	tam house	tem hall	tim room	tum cell
vob plant	vab grass	veb seed	vib stem	vub blade	vyob root

Chart of Group 1 Semantically-scaled Core Morphemes

These group 1 core morphemes have a central vowel that distinguishes them in a directional or some other semantic way:

af- allow	ef- need f- want	of- prohibit	if- love	uf- hate	yaf- can	yef- must	yof- cannot	yif- dare	yuf- fear
ax- act as- become	ex- function es- exist s- be	ox- malfunction os- cease to be	ix- effect	ux- cause	yax- be busy	yex- work	yox- idle	yix- use	yux- serve
bak health	bek treatment	bok illness	bik care	buk injury		byek cure	byok pain bryok torture		bruk multilation
dal- speak	del- declare d- say dr- write drye- print	dol- be silent	di- ask	du suggest,word		dye- read			dyu- call
draf card	dref paper drev page	drof cardboard					dryef notebook
daz dance taz sculpture	dez theater drez poety tez culture		diz comedy	duz music tuz art		dyez cinema tyez magic		siz painting	deuz song teuz voice
nas- money nax price naz value	nex- save	nox- spend noz jewel	nix- earn	nux- pay nuz reward	nyax- stack nyaz wealth	nyex- store	nyox- waste	nyix- order	nyux- ship, deliver
sar instrument			sir machine	sur motor
san form sax- create	sex- build	son matter	sin image siz- paint	sun thing				syin subject	syun object
tax- remember	tex- think t- know tes- mean	tox-- forget tos- feel	tix- study ti- learn	tux- teach, tu- inform		tye- recognize		tyi- get acquainted	tyu- familiarize
xa- execute xal- accomplish	xe- practice xey- behave x- do	xo- undergo	xi- result	xu- bring about		xye- occupy

Chart of Geo-physically Scaled Core Morphemes

These group 1 core morphemes have a vowel that indicates something about the position in the world or its geo-physical nature:

mol nature	mal air	mel soil	mil water	mul matter
mom outer space	mam sky	mem land	mim sea	mum underground
mop orbit	map wind	mep road	mip river	mup tunnel
mob chasm		meb mountain		mub cave
oma cold yom ice	ama hot		ima wet	uma dry
mog ash	mag fire mak electricity	meg stone mek dust		mug metal muk mineral
mov smoke	mav flame maf cloud	mef brick mev porcelain		muf pole muv stick
moj night	maj day
mon dark	man life
pot animal pyot wild animal	pat bird	pet land animal pelt insect pyet reptile	pit fish pilt crustacean pyeit amphibian
dop military	dap air force	dep army	dip navy diep marines

Charts of Words Showing Mnemonic Parallelism

The words in the following charts share some commonality, which is evident in their similar phonetics:

tob	teb	tib	tub	tyob	tayob	tayeb
man	head	trunk	arm	leg	skin	hair
fob	feb	fib	fub	fyob	fayob	fayeb
tree	treetop	trunk	branch	root	bark	leaf
vob	veb	vib	vub	vyob	vayob	vayeb
plant	tuft	stem	twig	root	peel	bud
patob			patub			patayeb
egg			wing			feather
pit	piteb		pitub			pitayeb
fish	fishhead		fin			scale
dob	deb	dib	dub
state	leader	administration	minister
	xeb		sub	syob
	boss		offshoot	base

teub	teus	teud	seux	xeus	deuz	seuz	xeuz
mouth	voice	shout	sound	noise	song	tone	tune

tayob	fayob	vayob	tayof
skin	bark	peel	leather

tub	fub	vub	fuf	muf	tiibuf	movuf	gimuf	manuf	fauf
arm	branch	twig	pipe	rod	artery	(smoking) pipe	skewer	candle	log

teab	eye
teater	see
teaxer	look
teaser	seem
teaper	visit
egteaper	revisit
teader	witness
teazer	notice
teatier	perceive
teatuer	show
beaxer	watch
neaxer	aim
vyateaxer	examine
vyabeaxer	inspect
vyaleaxer	check
izteader	indicate
izteatuer	point out
izteaxer	focus
abteaxer	survey
yagteaxer	stare
igteaxer	glance
egteaser	reappear
yozteatuer	display, expose
jateater	foresee
jateaxer	preview
yonteater	distinguish
oteaser	disappear
vyateatuer	prove
zyeteaxer	peek
zyoteaxer	peer
ugteaxer	gaze
yuzteaxer	look around
yubteaxer	scrutinize
kyoteaxer	glare
yogteaxer	glimpse
joteaxer	review
zoyteaxer	look back
zayteaxer	look ahead
ojteader	warn
tepteatier	consider
kuteaxer	observe
ejeatuer	present
ejeaser	show up, appear
utejeaser	represent
ajteaxer	review
ojteaxer	expect, envisage
yoveater	suspect
kiteaxer	look askance
yizteaxer	look beyond
zeyteaxer	look across
fyateater	respect
vyoteas	illusion
vyamteaser	seem true
koteaxer	sneak a peek
ziteaxer	look right
zuteaxer	look left
eyteaxer	squint
zyateaxer	peruse, scan
fateaber	blink
teabigyujer	wink
teabiler	weep, tear up

nas	teb	tuyub	tilab	tuyob	tun	tab	teub	sin	teeb	nas	teib	vos	drer	ten
money	head	finger	breast	wrist	science	body	mouth	image	ear	money	nose	flower	write	knowledge
noz	tebuz	tuyuz	tilaz	tuyoz	tuz	taz	deuz	siz	teebuz	naz	teiz	voz	drez	tez
jewel	crown	ring	broche	bracelet	art	statue	song	painting	earring	value	perfume	color	poetry	culture

Geographic Proper Names

As in English, Geograpic names are capitalized, including languages (cf. French, where languages are lower cased).

Continents and Their Inhabitants