Mirad Version 2

Introduction

Glojo, ha mir gonbeo yansauna gabyuxea dalyen. (Soon, the world will share a common auxiliary language.) Mirad ( aka Unilingua ) is an artificially-constructed auxiliary language (conlang) developed and published by Paris-based author Noubar Agopoff as a serious medium for easy and logical international communication. Mirad, which means world speech, and is pronounced mee-RAHD, is categorized by constructed language experts as philosophical because its vocabulary is mapped letter-by-letter to a semantic ontology or thesaurus. Also, the word stock of Mirad is considered a priori, that is, there is no deliberate association with words or roots in existing natural languages. The vocabulary is from scratch, yet based on internal lexical and semantic rules that help the learner to construct and deconstruct derivations logically, mnemonically, and consistently. The author claims in his book Unilingua -- Langue universelle auxiliaire that this language is well-suited for universal, logical communication because it is based on principles already exploited globally by sciences like mathematics and chemistry where symbolic formulas are constructed in accordance with strict rules and a limited sequence of symbols understood by all practitioners. Mirad is constructed on the following principles: Every vowel has numeric, vectorial, scalar, or semantic value. Every consonant is meaningful either lexically or grammatically. Word derivation is systematic, consistent, analogical, and mnemonic. Words are as ontologically unambiguous as possible. Words are as short and as easy to pronounce as possible. Inflection and derivation of words is regular and predictable. Word opposites (such as "big" vs. "little") differ only in the stem vowel. This book contains Version 2 of the language with additions and modifications to the original. The principal changes are: The letter w was added, mainly to indicate the passive voice of verbs. The letter s was changed to sound like the s in English sun The letter x was changed to sound like the sh in English show The letter c was changed to sound like the ch in English chair The letter h was added, mainly to create some new grammatical particles. Grammatical cases were eliminated and replaced by prepositions. The determiners like "this, that, such, which" were modified and systematized. Some prepositions and conjunctions were changed or added. A definite article was introduced. Much new vocabulary was added and some words were altered. The writing system now consists only of letters, with no diacritics.

Alphabet

Mirad uses the Roman alphabet as English does, except that the letters Q and C are only used in foreign borrowings or attempts to spell foreign words or names. There is an upper case (majuscules or capital letters) and a lower case (miniscules or small letters). The upper case letters are used for capitalization exactly as in English (see Orthography). Mirad, at least for non-foreign words, uses no diacritic marks such as the breve, the grave accent, or the diairesis. The order of the alphabet is the same as in English.

UPPERCASE	A	B	C*	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N	O	P	Q*	R	S	T	U	V	W	X	Y	Z
LOWERCASE	a	b	c*	d	e	f	g	h	i	j	k	l	m	n	o	p	q*	r	s	t	u	v	w	x	y	z
NAME	a	ba	ca	da	e	fe	ge	he	i	ji	ki	li	mi	ni	o	po	ko	ro	so	to	u	vu	wu	xu	yu	zu

* Not used in "native" Mirad words.

Spelling a word means uttering the names in succession of the letters in the word. For example:

• Mirad → mi i ro a da
• anxwa → a ni xu wu a

The letters w and h have only limited, functional (non-semantic) values in Mirad.

The letters c (pronounced as ch in English chair) and q (pronounced variably, depending on the context) are used only to represent foreign words and names. For example, Ce is used to represent Che in Che Guevara.

Phonology

The phonological system of Mirad consists of 20 consonant phonemes and 5 vowels phonemes.

Consonant Phonemes

The following IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) chart shows the articulation of the consonant sounds:

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n̪
Plosive	voiced	b	d̪		ɡ
	unvoiced	p	t̪		k
Affricate	voiced
	unvoiced			(t͡ʃ)*
Fricative	voiced	v	z	ʒ
	unvoiced	f	s	ʃ		h
Approximate			l̪	j	w
Flap			ɽ

Consonant Graphemes

The consonant graphemes (letters) in Mirad used to represent the above consonant phonemes are as follows:

GRAPHEME	b	c	d	f	g	h	j	k	l	m	n	p	r	s	t	v	w	x	y	z
PHONEME	b	(t͡ʃ)*	d	f	g	h	ʒ	k	l	m	n	p	ɽ	s	t	v	w	ʃ	j	z

• Note that the grapheme c is used only in foreign words, but represents the unvoiced affricate sound t͡ʃ.

Vowel Phonemes

This IPA chart shows the articulation of Mirad vowel phonemes:

	Front	Central	Back
High	i		u
Mid	e		o
Low		a

Vowel Graphemes

The vowel graphemes (letters) in Mirad used to represent the above vowel phonemes (sounds) are as follows:

GRAPHEME	a	e	i	o	u
PHONEME	a	e	i	o	u

Pronunciation

The letters in Mirad are consonant phonemes or vowel phonemes and have only one basic pronunciation, although the letter y represents a special case. The y acts as a consonant when beginning a syllabic nucleus, and is pronounced as in English yes, but can also be used to form what are known as post-iotated vowel diphthongs (see Vowel Diphthongs, below).

Vowels

• Simple Vowels

The vowels are pronounced as they are in many European Latin-based languages. The table below gives their phonetic values and some examples.

VOWEL	IPA*	SPANISH	FRENCH	ENGLISH
a	a	mano	la	ah!
e	e	hecho	été	day (without the y-glide)
i	i	si	oui	see (without the y-glide)
o	o	no	eau	so (without the w-glide)
u	u	tu	vous	too (without the w-glide)

* IPA = International Phonetic Alphabet

• Post-iotated Vowel Diphthongs

Vowels in Mirad can be post-iotated with the consonant y to produce five vowel diphthongs. These diphthongs are pronounced as such only at the end of a word or before a syllable beginning with a consonant. For example, igAY and EYna contain post-iotated vowel diphthongs, but maraya (ma-RA-ya) does not.

POST-IOTATED VOWELS	ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION	SPANISH/FRENCH PRONUNCIATION
ay	my	hay ( Sp. there is)
ey	day (with y-glide)	rey ( Sp. king)
iy	see (with y-glide)	abeille (Fr. bee)
oy	boy	Spanish hoy (Sp. today)
uy	gooey	Spanish muy (Sp. very)

Syllables starting with a y (ya, ye, etc.) form a set of what are known as pre-iotated vowels. Vowels, pre-iotated vowels, post-iotated vowels, and circum-iotated vowels (that is, those beginning and ending with a vowel like yay, yoy, etc.) are sometimes considered a class of vowels in the grammar of Mirad.

Consonants

The consonants in Mirad are pronounced not altogether differently from their English counterparts, except for x, which is sounds like English sh in ship and j which resembles the zh sound in Zhivago or mirage. However, the so-called stops p, t, and k sound more closely like their European equivalents in that they are not aspirated, i.e. their is no puff of breath following them as in English.

The consonants q and c are not native to Mirad and are used only to represent foreign names and expressions. In that case, c is used for the English ch sound in China. For example, Cinader, meaning to speak Chinese, is pronounced as in English chee-nah-DEHR.

The consonant w was not used before Version 2 of Mirad. It is now used to form the passive voice of verbs and certain numerical expressions and is pronounced as English w or the ou in French oui. The letter h is also used in certain function words and is pronounced like English h in house. It is also sometimes used to simulate sounds like the ch in Yiddish lachayim (to life!), or German Bach.

Here is a table showing the pronunciation of Mirad consonants:

CONSONANT	IPA	ARTICULATION	CLOSET EQUIVALENTS
b	b	unaspirated voiced bilabial plosive	French bon, English boy
c	tʃ *	unvoiced palato-alveolar affricate	English child, Spanish chico (only used in foreign words)
d	d	unaspirated voiced alveolar plosive	French de, English dog
f	f	unvoiced bilabial fricative	English fog
g	g	unaspirated voiced velar plosive	French gare, English good (always hard, even before e and i)
h	h	glottal fricative	English house (or a glottal stop or other similar sounds like German Bach
j	ʒ *	voiced palatal fricative	French je or English mirage
k	k	unaspirated unvoiced velar fricative	French carte, English kite (without aspiration) or French comment
l	l	voiced post-alveolar lateral approximant	English love or French bel (never a dark l as in English bell.
m	m	voiced bilabial nasal	English mother
n	n	voiced alveolar nasal	English nobody
p	p	unvoiced bilabial plosive	French pain, English pan (without aspiration)
q	-	-	(Only used in foreign words, where it has various gutteral pronunciations)
r	r	alveolar flap	Spanish mira or Italian Roma
s	s	unvoiced alveolar fricative	Always hard as in English safe (never a z sound as in rose)
t	t	unaspirated unvoiced alveolar plosive	French tous, English top (without aspiration)
v	v	voiced bilabial fricative	English very
w	w	voiced labio-velar approximant	English water, French oui
x	ʃ *	unvoiced post-alveolar fricative	English shape or French cher
y	j	voiced palatal approximant	English yard (except when post-iotating a vowel to create a vowel diphthong like oy)
z	z	voiced alveolar fricative	English zone

Note: If you see a blank here instead of an IPA symbol, it probably means that the font you are using to display characters in your browser does not support these characters.

Syllabification

Every syllable in Mirad contains one and only one vowel. A y when final or followed by a consonant is used to post-iotate or diphthongize the previous vowel and is therefore considered part of the syllable in which that vowel is the nucleus (see case 2, below). Similarly, the glides r, l, and w, when final or followed by a consonant are considered to be a part of the syllable where the preceding vowel is the nucleus (see case 4, below). Two vowels in a row form two syllabic nuclei (see cases 3, 6, and 7, below). Two non-glide or non-y consonants, are split between them (see case 8). How syllables are divided is important for determining where the stress accent goes in a word (see Stress, below).

CASE	EXAMPLE	SYLLABIFIED
1	ama hot	a-ma
2	ayma warm	ay-ma
3	aymsea warming up	aym-se-a
4	pyerxwa exploded	pyer-xwa
5	upayo will have come	u-pa-yo
6	vyaa true	vya-a
7	vyaay truly	vya-ay
8	vyay (not a word)	vyay
9	tambwa settled	tam-bwa

Phonotactics

Syllables in Mirad are shaped according to the following Consonant-Vowel patterns:

PATTERN	EXAMPLES
V[y]	o, ay
C[lrwy]V	va, xwa, gyo, gla, gre
V[y]C	iyt, ad, ant, aynt
C[lrwy]V[y]C	dud, glas, glays, dren, toyb, xwer
V[lrn]C	alx, arx, yalp, yarp, yank

Two non-glide consonants cannot appear together in the same syllable, except in foreign-imported words.

Stress

Stress in Mirad is not marked and is not phonemic, i.e. not semantically distinctive. However, in all words of more than one syllable, the stress is applied to the last, non-final vowel. In this case, y is treated like a consonant, and so a word ending in ay is stressed on that syllable (since the a is non-final). The following chart gives some examples:

Mirad Word	With Stress and Syllabification Marked
teja vital	te-ja
igay quickly	i-gay
Mirad Mirad	Mi-rad
booka sick	bo-o-ka
bookan sickness	bo-o-kan
tejea alive	te-je-a

Orthography

Orthography has to do with the way words are spelled.

Capitalization

Words in Mirad are capitalized as in English. That is:

• The first word of a sentence is capitalized.
• Proper nouns, including names of places and persons, inhabitants of those places, and the languages spoken there, are capitalized. (This contasts with usage in most European languages.)
• All the letters of an acronym are upper case.

The following chart illustrates this:

Mirad	English
Amerikam	America
Amerikama	American
Amerikat	an American
Amerikad	American English
Ivan	Ivan
Dropek ay Poos	War and Peace
At Mirade.	I speak Mirad.
Hyat be ha mir Mirado glojo.	Everyone in the world will speak Mirad soon.
Yat tameya Boston.	We were living in Boston.
His se Fransa vafil.	This is a French wine.
Ha Anxwa Doobi gey dyunwe ha AD.	The United Nations is also called the UN.

Punctuation

Punctuation and the rules governing it are the same as in English. The most common punctuation marks are:

PUNCTUATION MARK	NAME
.	period
,	comma
;	semi-colon
:	colon
'	single quote
"	double quote
(	left parens
)	right parens
--	dash
!	exclamation point
?	question mark
*	asterisk

Nouns

Types of Nouns

Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in these various ways:

• common vs. proper

COMMON	PROPER
tam...house	Meer...Venus
yagsim...bench	Fransam...France
dyes...book	Notre Dame...Notre Dame
tej...life	Tot...God

• concrete vs. abstract

CONCRETE	ABSTRACT
tab...body	ifon...love
mil...water	oyman...coolness
deuz...song	deuzen...singing

• countable vs. mass

COUNTABLE	MASS
pat...bird	pattel...bird food
patayeb...feather	patayebyan...plumage
meg...rock	mil...water

• gender-neutral / male-oriented vs. female-oriented

GENDER-NEUTRAL / MALE-ORIENTED	FEMALE-ORIENTED
tob...human being, man	toyb...woman
taf...suit, outfit	tayf...dress
apet...horse	apeyt...mare

• singular or plural

SINGULAR	PLURAL
dom...city	domi...cities
gon...part	goni...parts
jub...day	jubi...days

• inanimate (things) or animate (humans and animals)

INANIMATE	ANIMATE
mam...sky	pot...animal
tom...building	aut...person
job...time	tobot...child

Nouns also include gerunds, i.e. abstract nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like deuzen singing < deuzer to sing or osexen destruction < osexer to destroy.

In Mirad, all common nouns in their singular dictionary lookup form end in a CONSONANT. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as Roma Rome. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel i (pat bird ⇒ pati birds).

The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar.

Pluralization of Common Nouns

A singular common noun is made plural by suffixing the plural marker vowel i. So, the plural of par car is pari cars.

SINGULAR	PLURAL
tam...house	tami...houses
toyb...woman	toybi...women
tej...life	teji...lives

Articles

In Mirad, there is only a definite article, ha the; There is no indefinite article like English a / an. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article ha (which in reality is a definite deictic determiner, discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on Deictic Determiners). The definite article ha is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Latin. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart:

MIRAD	ENGLISH	SPECIFICITY
tam	a house	indefinite, no article
ha tam	the house	definite
ha tami	the houses	definite, plural
tej	life	general, no article
fitejawa tej	a life well-lived	indefinite, no article
ha tej (...at bayse)	the life (...I have)	specific
Fransad	French	general, no article
Ivan	Ivan	person's name, no article
Iflu yivan!	Cherish freedom	abstraction, no article
Ha yivani hu yat ifie.	The freedoms we enjoy.	abstraction specified
Yata yivani...	Our freedoms...	abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article

Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like love, life, freedom do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases the love that dare not speak its name or the life well-lived or the freedoms we possess. The names of languages and countries are also considered general, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew."

Proper Nouns

Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages will be discussed in a later section. It can be said here, though, that country names for the most part end in -am; the inhabitants of those places end in -at or pl. -ati; and the languages they speak end in -ad. Country names take a definite article only in a few cases like Ha Anxwa Doebi the United States. Otherwise, a country name like Fransam does not take a definite article, just as in English.

Modifiers: Placement and Agreement

Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as ewa two naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number.

Mirad	English
ha ewa aga tami	the two big houses
gla ifa taxi	many pleasant memories
hya fia tob	every good man
ha yaga via mepi	the long, beautiful roads
gra vua sexen	too much ugly construction
ata aja teji	My past lives

Noun Linkage

Nouns can be

1. linked with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or
2. juxtaposed, where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or
3. compounded, where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or
4. hyphenated, where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen.

Examples:

LINKAGE EXAMPLE	CONSTRUCTION
Ivan ay Maria....Ivan and Maria	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction ay (and)
ha tam ey ha par....the house or the car	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction ey (or)
hyati oy ha toybi....all but the women	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction or (but)
dunnyan boy eta dyun....a list without your name	nouns linked associatively by the preposition boy (without)
tej bi nasuk....a life of poverty	nouns linked associatively by the preposition bi of
ha tam bi Maria ....Mary's house (the house of Mary	nouns linked possessively by the preposition bi (of)
job bi aga ivan....a time of great joy	nouns linked associatively by the preposition bi (of)
dyen ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek....a book about the Second World War	nouns linked associatively by the preposition ayv (about)
dropek jaxeni....war preparations	modifier noun dropek (war) juxtaposed with the head noun jaxeni (preparations)
dom yautpar....a city bus	modifier noun dom (city) juxtaposed with the head noun yautpar (bus)
tojvaf....a death wish	modifier noun toj (death) compounded with the head noun vaf (wish)
jogatanyaf....youth league	modifier noun jogat (youth) compounded with the head noun anyaf (league)
maj-moj...a day-and-night	two or more equal nouns hyphenated

The X bi Y prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a named person. The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as his car is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition bi of is used in partitive expressions like tilzyeb bi vafil a glass of wine (but: vafil tilzeb wine glass, where wine modifies the glass associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on Prepositions or Conjunctions.

Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on Word Formation.

Noun Derivational Suffixes

Nouns can be divided into:

• simple nouns such as par vehicle
• compound nouns such as naadpar train < naad rail + par vehicle
• derived nouns such as fabyan forest < fab tree + -yan, a suffix meaning collection

Derived nouns are formed by attaching nominal suffixes (and sometimes prefixes)to other words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building.

SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE ONTO WHICH SUFFIX IS ADDED	EXAMPLES
-yan	collection, grouping, -ary	noun	tob man → tobyan mankind mar star → maryan constellation fab tree → fabyan forest dyen book → dyenyan library
-ut, -uyt (f.)	agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant	verb stem	beker treat → bekuyt nurse poper travel → poput traveler aker win → akut winner
-en	present gerund, -ing, -tion, -ment	verb stem	ifier enjoy → ifien enjoyment deuzer sing → deuzen singing axer act → axen action, acting
-ob, -oyb (f.)	offspring, baby of	noun	tob human being → toboyb baby girl apet horse → apetob foal yopet goat → yopetob kid
-an	abstact quality, -ness, -hood, -ity	adjective stem	via beautiful → via beauty yeva fair → yevan fairness, equity toba human → toban humanity, humanness, manhood
-(s)(u)n	object, thing	various stems	vyua dirty → vyun spot tamber settle → tambun settlement gorfer shred → gorfun scrap, shred yod not a single → yodsun not a single thing
-(s)on	abstract thing, issue	various stems	ifer to love → ifon love ov against → ovon obstacle aza strong → azon force 'yika' difficult → yikson problem
-in	doctrine, dogma, -ism	various stems	tot god → totin religion, theism otofa nude → otofin nudism yulf terror → yulfin terrorism
-tun	science of, -ology	noun	tot god → tottun theology tob man → tobtun anthropology vob plant → vobtun botany
-es	small item, part	noun	tom building → tomes apartment saun kind → saunes sample dreuz poem → deuzes stanza mek dust, powder → mekes speck, gain
-et	sub-level version of (persons only)	noun	tad father → tadet son tuyd aunt → tuydet niece tyud tutor → tyudet pupil
-s	thing, something, object, the X one	adjective	aa first → aas first one, first thing otwa unknown → otwas mystery tejea living → tejeas living thing
-t	person	adjective	ea second → eat second one, second person faa holy → faat holy one, saint ujna last → ujat last one, last person Amerika American → Amerikat an American
-d	language, speech, sound	adjective and other stems	Angla English → Anglad English (language) Mira of the world → Mirad Mirad (world speech) apet horse → aped neigh, whinny
-(e)m	place	various stems	hoa? what? → hom? where? yex work → yexem worksite ab on, above → abem top, surface kua lateral → kum side
-(a)m	place, house, building	various stems	nun merchanise → nunam store til drink → tilam bar, tavern fyadiler to pray → fyadilam church
-im	room, chamber	various stems	fadiler to pray → fadilim chapel mageler to cook → magelim kitchen tofer to dress → tofim dressing room
-[aou]r	instrument, device, machine	usu. verb stem	per to go → par car drer to write → drar pencil gorber to cut → gorbar knife yalber to lift → yalbur elevator, lift dop military → dopur machine gun
-ag	big	noun	tam house → tamag mansion tyal meal → tyalag banquet tilar spoon → tilarag ladle
-ayg	big and cute	noun	tam house → tamayg cozy mansion epet dog → epetayg wolfie
-yag	big and ugly	noun	tud uncle → tudyag dirty old uncle toyb woman → toybyag hag
-og	little	noun	tab body → tabog corpuscle apet horse → apetog pony tyal meal → tyalog snack gorbun cut → gorbunog cutlet
-oyg	little and cute	noun	tam house → tamoyg cottage apayt chicken → apaytoyg chickadee mimpar boat → mirparoyg dingy
-yog	little and ugly	noun	tam house → tamyog shack epat duck → epatyog ugly duckling kod secret → kodyog little dirty secret
-ig	sudden	noun and verb stem	man light → manig flash pyex stroke → pyexig swat yopaper dive, fly down → yopapig swoop
-if	love of, -philia	noun	tel food → telif gourmandise doab homeland → doabif patriotism dyes book → dyesif bibliophilia, love of books
-ef	need of	noun	tel food → telef hunger iga fast → igef emergency til drink → tilef thirst
-uf	hate of, -phobia	noun	mil water → miluf hydrophobia totin religion → totinuf hatred of religion toyb woman → toybuf misogyny
-yuf	fear of, -phobia	noun	lopyet snake → lopyetyuf fear of snakes mil water → milyuf hyrophobia
-yaf	ability to, power, -ability	verb stem	teater to see → teatyaf ability to see texer to think → texyaf cognition tester to understand → testyaf comprehension noser to spend → nosyaf spending power
-yof	inability to, disability	verb stem	teater to see → teatyof blindness teeter to hear → teetyof deafness paser to move → pasyof paralysis tujer to sleep → tujyof insomnia
-yef	compulsion to, mania	verb stem	vyoder to lie → vyodyef compulsion to lie kobier to steal → kobiyef kleptomania, compulsion to steal

Adjectives

Adjectives can be of the following types:

• descriptive

• qualitative, like iva (happy), fia (good), oga (small)
• denominal (noun-derived), like doma (urban) < dom (city) or teaba (ocular) < teab (eye)
• deverbal (verb-derived), (participles) like tejea (living) < tejer (to live) or twa (known) < ter (to know)
• preposition-derived, like aba (upper) < ab on top of or zoa (posterior) < zo (behind)

• determinative

• deictic, like hia (this), huyena (such), haewa (both)
• numeric, like awa (one), ea (second), iona (triple)
• quantitative, like ga (more), glo (few), gra (to much)
• pronominal, like heta (whose), ata (my), hyeta (anyone's)

Only descriptive adjectives are discussed here in the section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under Determiners. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as participals, are treated in the section on Verbs, since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal adjectives (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on Determiners and the section on Pronouns.

All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel a.

• fi- root qualitative morpheme ⇒ fia good
• par noun vehicle ⇒ para vehicular
• dalw- passive stem of the verb speak ⇒ dalwa spoken
• ab preposition on ⇒ aba superior

Descriptive adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify:

• aga tam....a big house
• ha fia toyb....the good woman
• ata boka ted....my sick father
• fia telsyeb bi vafil.....a good bottle of wine
• Yata dooba doof....our national flag
• Ata tejea tyedi.....my living relatives

doba xeut state agent can also be expressed as the noun compound dobxeut. Dob means a state.

pata bok avian illness can be compounded as patbok, literally bird illness.

Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building.

Comparison of Adjectives by Degree

As in English, descriptive adjectives can be modified by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree (ga, ge, etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on Quantitative Determiners.

QUANTITATIVE DETERMINER	COMPARISON
ga more	ga fia better
ge as, equally	ge fia as good
go less	go fia less good
gla very	gla fia very good
glay so	glay fia so good
gle rather/quite	gle fia rather/quite good
glo not very	glo fia not very/slightly good
gra too	gra fia too good
gre enough	gre fia good enough
gro not enough	gro fia insufficiently good/not good enough
gwa most	gwa fia best
gwe average	gwe fia good on average
gwo least	gwo fia least good

The relative conjunction vyel is used to translate English as in an equalitative comparison or than in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples:

• Ata tam se ga aga vyel etas. My house is bigger than yours.
• Hia tam voy se ge aga vyel atas. This house is not as big as mine.
• His se ha gwa aga tam bi yata yubem. This is the biggest house in our neighborhood.

Unlike in English, where comparative forms can be irregular (smaller, more intense, better), there are no exceptions in the comparison of Mirad adjectives and adverbs.

Abstract Quality Nouns Derived from Adjectives

Nouns referring to abstract qualities can be derived from qualitative and often other adjectives by suffixing the letter n. For example:

ADJECTIVE	ABSTRACT QUALITY
fia good	fian goodness
yeva just	yevan justice
uja final	ujan finality
joga young	jogan youth
teyda maternal	teydan motherhood, maternity
dooba nation	dooban nationality
tojbuwa lethal	tojbuwan lethality

Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives

Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing the vowel o. This has the effect of English un- in words like unlike, unhappy, and undetermined or the Greek private prefix a(n)- in words like asymmetric or anomalous.

Prefixing the syllable yo has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective.

Here are some examples:

NORMAL	NEGATED
ega normal	oega abnormal
twa known	otwa unknown
geyla similar	ogeyla dissimilar
iva happy	oiva unhappy
data friendly	odata unfriendly yodata inimical, enemy-like

Adjectival Suffixes

All qualitative adjectives end in at least the suffix a.

The suffix yena makes a noun into an adjective having the meaning like, -ish, -ly, having the qualities of, eg.:

• fyaat god → fyaata divine → fyaatyena godly, godlike
• tob man → toba human → tobyena virile, manly, human-like
• pot animal → pota animal → potyena bestial, animal-like
• mir world → mira global → miryena wordly

The suffix aya or ika means full of like the English endings -ful, -ous, -y, eg.:

• mil water → milaya or milika watery
• meb mountain → mebaya or mebika mountainous
• mel soil → melaya or melika soily, dirty
• tex thought → texaya or texika thoughtful

The opposite of this suffix is oya or uka meaning empty of, -less, -free, eg.:

• mil water → miloya or miluka waterless
• teb head → teboya or tebuka headless
• level sugar → leveloya or leveluka sugar-free

The suffix ina adds the notion of given to thinking like or an -ism much like English -istic, eg.:

• tob human → tobin humanism → tobina humanistic
• kyeoj fate → kyeojin fatalism → keyojina fatalistic
• yautin communism → yautina communistic

The suffix tuna adds the notion of pertaining to the study of like English -ological, eg.:

• tob human → tobtun anthropology → tobtuna anthropological
• vob plant → tobtun botany → vobtuna botanical
• teyen idea → teyentun philosophy → philosophical

The suffix ea, which makes an present active participle from a verb stem, is like English -ant, -ent, -ing, eg.:

• agser to grow → agsea growing as in the growing grass
• oker to lose → okea losing as in the losing team
• kyaxer to mutate → kyaxea mutant as in a mutant gene

The suffix yea, which makes a more intensive present active participle from a verb stem, is like English -ive, meaning apt or given to doing something, eg:

• dal- talk → dalyea talkative'
• zoybux- repulse → zoybuxyea repulsive
• vad- affirm → vadyea affirmative
• tox- to forget → toxyea forgetful
• if- to love → ifyea amiable, loving

The suffix (a)wa, which makes a past passive participle from a verb stem, is like English -ed, eg.:

• ok- lose → okwa lost as in the lost child
• alk-' defeat → alkawa defeated as in the defeated enemy
• anx- unite → anxwa united as in the United States

The suffix oa, which forms a future active participle from a verb stem, means apt to, liable to, eg.:

• toj- die → tojo will die → tojoa moribund, about to die
• pu- arrive → puo will arrive → puoa about to arrive, next

The suffix ua (active) or uwa (passive), which forms a conditional (hypothetical) participle from a verb stem, means "liable to, able to, eg.:

• tojb- kill → tojbua lethal
• tel- eat → teluwa edible
• belk- cure → belkuwa curable

Pronominalization of Adjectives

Adjectives can be pronominalized (or: substantivized) by adding s for things and t for persons. These, in turn, can be pluralized by suffixing the plural marker i.

ADJECTIVE	INANIMATE PRONOUN	ANIMATE PRONOUN
fia.... good	fias.... a good thing fiasi.... good things	fiat.... a good person fiati.... good persons
aga.... big	agas.... something big agasi.... big ones	agat.... a big person agati.... big persons
joga.... young, new	jogas.... something new, novelty jogasi.... new ones	yogat.... young person, youth yogati.... youngsters
jaga.... old	jagas.... antique jagasi.... old ones	jagat.... elderly person jagati.... oldsters
awa.... one ewa....two	awas.... one (of them) ewasi.... two (of them)	awat.... one (of them) ewati.... two of them
hia.... this	hias.... this one hiasi.... these (things)	hiat.... this one hiati.... these
gla.... much, many	glas.... a lot (of stuff) glasi.... many (things)	glati.... many (people)

Examples:

• Hia tyoyaf se ogre aga. At fu ga agas. This shoe is not big enough. I'd like a bigger one.
• Yat fu daler bay ha gwa jogati. We would like to speak with the youngest ones.
• At fe teaxer ha jogas, voy ha jagas. I want to look at the new one, not the old one.
• Ha ujnati so ha aati. The last shall be the first.

Adverbs

Adverbs can be derived from adjectives by replacing the adjective ending a with ay.

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
fia good	fiay well
yeva fair	yevay fairly
uja final	ujay finally
joga new	jogay newly
teyda maternal	teyday maternally

At the end of sentences or clauses, common one-syllable-stem adverbs can be shortened by removing the ay ending:

• Iyt deuze fi. She sings well.
• At upo ig. I'll come quickly.

Inherent Adverbs

There are some words in the language that are inherently adverbs and do not take the ay ending, because they are not formed from adjectives. Here are a few examples:

• yab up
• yeb in
• yob down
• oyeb out
• vay indeed, certainly
• vey perhaps
• voy not
• yub near
• yib far
• ub toward
• ib away
• zay ahead
• zey across
• zoy back

The above words are considered adverbial because they can modify verbs. For example:

• At teaxa yab. I looked up.
• Duhev et hyej upo zoy? Will you ever come back.
• Et po yib be tej. You will go far in life.

Some of them can double as prepositions. See Prepositions.

Many of them can be prefixed to verbs to indicate motion in various directions. (Keep in mind that the b or p can be assimilated to the first letter of per (go) or ber (put). For example:

• oyeb (out) + bier (take) = oyebier (take out)  [NOT: oyebbier]
• zey (across) + per (go) = zayper (transit, cross)
• yub (near) + per (go) = yuper (approach)  [NOT: yubper]
• yib (far) + daler (talk) = yibdaler (telephone)

Word Order of Adverbs

The word order of adverbs is fairly free, as in English. But, to avoid ambiguity, the adverb should be placed immediately before or after the sentence element it modifies, eg.:

• It deuze viay. He sings beautifully.
• Et yefe xer gwa ig. You must do it as quickly as possible.
• Et hyoj ako firxa ivan. You will never gain perfect happiness.

Comparison of Adverbs by Degree

Adverbs can be compared just as adjectives with the use of quantitative determiners. The words than and as are translated by the relative conjunction vyel.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE
fiay well	ga fiay vyel better than (Lit: more good-ly than)
igay quickly	ge igay vyel as quickly as (Lit: equally quick-ly as)
ugay slowly	gwa ugay as quickly as possible (Lit: most quick-ly)
yikay easily	go yikay less easily

Determiners

Determiners are words that specify or point out the context of nouns and other parts of speech. The English determiner this, for example, specifies a noun for its proximity to the current context. Determiners can be categorized in Mirad as the following types:

TYPE	ENGLISH EXAMPLES
Quantitative	more, less, very
Numerical	one, half, first
Deictic	the, this, some, every, which?, when
Pronominal	my, anybody's, one's own

Furthermore, as for part of speech, determiners can be adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. As adjectives, determiners can itemize or classify. As pronouns, they can refer to one or more persons (male or female) or things. As adverbs, they can specify time, place, degree, kind, age, frequency, and so forth.

Quantitative Determiners

Quantitative determiners act in one of several ways, they:

• specify mass, uncountable, singular nouns for relative AMOUNT, eg. much happiness, less work
• specify countable nouns for relative NUMBER, eg. one apple, two birds, many places
• specify adverbs, adjectives, and verbs for relative DEGREE, eg. how poorly, very good, eat too much.

From these, pronominalized quantitative determiners for PERSONS and THINGS can be derived.

• Inanimate singular pronouns are formed by adding s for AN AMOUNT OF A THING
• Inanimate plural pronouns are formed by adding si for A NUMBER OF THINGS

Animate plural pronouns are formed by adding ti for A NUMBER OF PERSONS.

The following table presents most of these word forms:

ADVERB / ADJECTIVE	SINGULAR INANIMATE PRONOUN	PLURAL INANIMATE PRONOUN	PLURAL ANIMATE PRONOUN
DEGREE: How...(big / quickly)? AMOUNT: How much...(money)? NUMBER: How many...(books)?	AMOUNT: How much...(+ STUFF)?	NUMBER: How many...(+ THINGS)?	NUMBER: How many...(+ PEOPLE)?
ga more	gas more (stuff)	gasi many (things)	gati many (people)
ge as, as much, as many	ges as much (stuff)	gesi as many (things)	geti as many people
go less, fewer	gos less (stuff)	gosi fewer (things)	goti fewer (people)
gla very, much, many glay so, so much, so many	glas much (stuff) glays so much stuff)	glasi many (things) glaysi so many (things)	glati many (people) glayti so many (people)
gle rather, quite a lot, quite a few	gles quite a lot (of stuff)	glesi quite a lot (of things)	qleti quite a few (people)
glo slightly, a little, few	glos a little bit	glosi a few (things)	gloti few (people)
gra too, too much, too many	gras too much (stuff)	grasi too many (things)	grati too many (people)
gre enough	gres enough (stuff)	gresi enough (things)	greti enough (people)
gro insufficiently, too little, too few	gros too little	grosi too few	groti too few (people)
gwa most	gwas the most (stuff)	gwasi the most (things)	gwati most people
gwe so, so much, so many	gwes so much (stuff)	gwesi so many (things)	gweti so many (people)
gwo least	gwos the least (stuff)	gwosi the least (number of)	gwoti the least number (of people)

Examples Using Quantitative Determiners

Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective:

• At se gla iva.....I am very happy.
• Et sa gro uga.....You were too slow.

Adverbs of Degree modifying another adverb:

• Tobi dale ge igay vyel toybi.....Men talk as fast as women.
• Yat yexe ga igay vyel yet.....We work faster (= more fast) than you.

Adjectives quantifying a singular mass noun:

• Ga nas efwo.....More money will be needed.
• Gra nas noswa....Too much money was spent.

Adjectives quantifying a plural countable noun:

• At ayse gro sari....I've got too few tools.
• It yeyfe at gle nas.....He owes me quite a bit of money.
• Gla tami osexwa.....Many houses were destroyed.

Pronouns referring to a mass amount of something:

• Gas ilokeye.....More is leaking.
• Et dileye gras.....You are asking for too much.
• Yat keo gwas.....We will seek as much as possible.

Pronouns referring to a countable number of things:

• Hisi se fia oy yat fe gasi.....These (items) are good but we want more (items).
• At teate drilari oy grosi.....I see pens, but not enough.

Pronouns referrring to a countable number of people:

• Grati xaye vyoci be hi yexem.....Too many (people) have made mistakes at this worksite.
• Glati dyunwe oy gloti kebiwe.....Many are called but few are chosen.text

Numerical Determiners

Numerical determiners are number words that modify nouns, such as one, fifty, a hundred. They are based on the cardinal numbers, which are explained here:

Cardinal Numbers

The cardinal numbers are words used in counting. These words are based on the vowels of Mirad and are crucial to any hierarchical ordering of lexical concepts.

• The units are formed from the plain and pre-iotated vowels:

0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
o	a	e	i	u	yo	ya	ye	yi	yu
zero	one	two	three	four	five	six	seven	eight	nine

The numerals 5-9 are pre-iotated versions of the vowels that constitute 0-4.

• The formative letter l + o zero is used to form the decades, seen below:

10	20	30	40	50	60	70	80	90
alo	elo	ilo	ulo	yolo	yalo	yelo	yilo	yulo
ten	twenty	thirty	forty	fifty	sixty	seventy	eighty	ninety

By changing the o zero in lo to other cardinal unit numbers, the numbers between the decades can be generated as follows:

alo	elo	ilo	ulo	yolo	yalo	yelo	yilo	yulo
ala 11	ela 21	ila 31	ula 41	yola 51	yala 61	yela 71	yila 81	yula 91
ale 12	ele 22	ile 32	ule 42	yole 52	yale 62	yele 72	yile 82	yule 92
...	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	...
alyu 19	elyu 29	ilyu 39	ulyu 49	yolyu 59	yalyu 69	yelyu 79	yilyu 89	yulyu 99

• By changing the decades marker l to s, you get the hundreds:

100	200	300	400	500	600	700	800	900
aso	eso	iso	uso	yoso	yaso	yeso	yiso	yuso

All the numbers in between the hundreds, can be generated by modifying the so ending, for example:

• asa 101
• asale 112
• usyulyu 199

• The thousands are generated with the formative letter r:

• aro 1,000
• aro a 1,001
• ero isi 2,300
• yoro yasula 5,641

• The millions are generated with the formative letters ml:

• emlo 2,000,000
• umlo 4,000,000

• The billions are generated with the formative letters mr;

• yamro 6 billion

The numbers composed with r, ml, and mr keep the o and are separated from the other numbers by a space.

iro asyulyo 3,195

yamlo asyulyo 6,000,195

alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele 10,075,186,922

Cardinal Numerical Determiners

Cardinal numerical determiners are numbers that modify a noun as to quantity. In a sequence of adjectives, the numerical determiner goes first. Cardinal numerical determiners are the same in form as cardinal numbers, but a special counter morpheme wa is added to monosyllabic numbers simply to aid in the comprehension and disambiguation of the words. If the numerical determiner is 2 or more, then the noun is pluralized.

Mirad	English
owa tam ← singular!	no houses, zero houses
awa tam ← singular!	one house, a house
ewa tami ← plural	two houses
iwa tami	three houses
uwa tami	four houses
yowa tami	five houses
yawa tami	six houses
yewa tami	seven houses
yiwa tami	eight houses
yuwa tami	nine houses
alo tami	ten houses
ase tami	a hundred two houses
ero iwa tami	two thousand three houses
iro alo tami	three thousand ten houses

Cardinal numerical determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing s or t, respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing i. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a y before the t. The s suffix is short for sun thing or suni things. The t ending is short for aut person or auti persons. For example:

• Et bayse awa tam. At gey bayse awas (= awa sun). You have one house. I have one too.
• At baysa alo dresari. Hij at bayse anay alosi (= alo suni). I had ten pencils. Now I only have two.
• Esa asoti (= aso auti) yeb ha duzam.There were a hundred people in the concert hall.
• Yat yefe kebier eluyti (= elu auyti) bi huti. We must choose twenty-four females from those people.

Ordinal Numerical Determiners

Ordinal numerical determiners like first, second, etc. are formed from the cardinal numbers by adding the adjectival ending a to the cardinal number.

Cardinal Number	Ordinal Numerical Determiner
o.... zero	oa.... zeroth
a.... one	aa.... first
e.... two	ea.... second
i.... three	ia.... third
alo.... ten	aloa.... tenth
asu.... 104	asua.... 104th

The word nap order can be inserted in these words to make them more comprehensible in speech:

• anapa.... first, first in order, primary*
• enapa.... second, second in order, secondary
• inapa.... third, third in order, tertiary
• alanapa.... eleventh, eleventh in order

There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers:

• ijna.... initial, first, original
• ujna.... last, final
• ajna.... past, ex-, former
• ojna.... future
• ejna.... present, current
• jana.... previous, last
• jona.... next, following

Ordinal numerical determiners and adjectives can be converted into adverbs by adding the suffix y to the adjectival counterparts:

Adjective	Adverb
aa.... first	aay.... firstly
anapa.... first	anapay.... primarily
ea.... second	eay.... secondly
ujna.... last	ujnay.... finally

Ordinal numerical determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix t and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix s. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix i. The person pronouns can also be feminized.

• ha aas.... the first thing
• ha aat.... the first person
• ha aati.... the first people
• hua aayt.... that first female
• ha eas.... the second thing
• eat.... another / a second person
• ha ujnati so ha ijnati.... the last shall be first

Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal adjective> | <ordinal numerical determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective>

• hua uwa aga tami.... those four big houses
• ha aa alo oga tami.... the first ten little houses
• ata anapa ewa oga tobobi.... my first two little children

Fractional Numerical Determiners

Fractional numerical determiners like half and quarter are formed by adding -yn for those functioning as nouns, -yna for adjectives, -ynay for adverbs, or -y(n) for prefixes, to the respective cardinal number.

CARDINAL NUMBER	FRACTION AS NOUN	AS ADJECTIVE	AS ADVERB	AS PREFIX	AS VERB
o.... zero	oyn.... a void, vacuum	oyna.... non-existant	--	oy(n)-.... devoid of	oynaxer.... annihilate
a.... one	ayn.... whole ha ayn.... the whole	ayna.... entire, whole	aynay.... entirely	ay(n)-.... holo-, whole-, all-	aynaxer.... integrate
e.... two	eyn.... a half	eyna.... half	eynay.... halfway	ey(n)-.... half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-	eynaxer.... halve
i.... three	iyn.... a third	iyna.... third	iynay.... by a third	iy(n)-.... terci-	iynaxer.... cut in third
u.... four	uyn.... a quarter	uyna.... quarter	uynay.... quarterly	uy(n)-.... quadri-	uynaxer.... quarter
alo.... ten	aloyn.... a tenth	aloyna.... tenth	aloynay.... by a tenth	aloy(n)-.... deci-	aloynaxer.... decimate
aso.... hundred	asoyn.... hundredth, percent	asoyna.... hundredth	asoynay.... by a hundredth	asoy(n)-.... centi-	asoynaxer.... cut by a hundred

Here are some examples:

• His uxo ha oynaxen bi yata mir..... This will cause the anihilation of our world.
• Ha ayna mir te ayv et..... The whole world knows about you.
• Has se gas ev ha ayn bi hasa goni..... It is more than the whole of its parts.
• Fransad se ayn-druna dalyen..... France is a holophrastic language.
• Et yafe bier eyn..... You can take half.
• Yat yefo eynaxer eta yexnix..... We will have to halve your salary.
• Hus sa eyn-vyan..... That was a half-truth.
• Eso eyn-zyunida dropek..... There is going to be a hemispheric war.
• Duhev his se eyn-exea dopar?.... Is this a semi-automatic weapon?
• Iynaxu hua ableyavol..... Cut that pie in thirds.
• It yeyfe bixwer ay iynaxwer..... He should be drawn and (be) quartered.
• Hia nas se aloyn bi has yat baysa zojab..... This money is a tenth of what we had last year.
• Ha dep aloynaxwu..... The army would be decimated.
• Ewa asoyni bi ha dityan bakasa..... Two percent (=hundredths) of the citizenry got sick.
• Hia tom se anay asoyngel aga vyel hua tom..... This building is only a hundredth as big as that building.

The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples:

• Et so aynay dudyefa av eta axi..... You will be wholly accountable for your actions.
• Iyt eynay tikabeloka..... She almost (=halfway) threw up.

Multiplicative Numerical Determiners

Multiplicative numerical determiners like double, triple can be formed by adding -on to the respective cardinal number if the number is monosyllabic, otherwise just -n. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix -a. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. The prefix ending, -n is often dropped.

CARDINAL NUMBER	MULTIPLE AS NOUN	...AS ADJECTIVE	...AS ADVERB	...AS PREFIX	...AS VERB-MAKER
o.... zero	oon.... null	oona.... nil		on-.... zero-	onaxer.... cancel, zero out
a.... one	aon.... single	aona.... single	aonay.... singly	an-.... uni-/mono-	anaxer unify
e.... two	eon.... twosome, double	eona.... double	eonay.... doubly	en-.... di-/bi-	enaxer double
i.... three	ion.... threesome, triplet	iona.... triple	ionay.... triply	in-.... tri--	inaxer.... triple
u.... four	uon.... quartet	uona.... quadruple	uonay.... quadruply	un-.... quadri-/tetra-	unaxer.... quadruple
yo.... five	yoon.... quintet	yoona.... quintuple	yoonay.... quintuply	yoon-.... quinti-/penta-	yoonaxer.... quintuple
alo.... ten	alon.... decade	alona.... decadic	alonay.... by a multiple of ten	alon-.... deca-	alonaxer.... multiply by ten
aso.... hundred	ason.... hundredfold	asona.... hundredfold	asonay.... by a hundredfold	ason-.... hecato-	asonaxer.... multiply by a hundred

The multiplicative noun dozen is expressed by aleon.

• Aleoni bi pati yizpapa..... Dozens of birds flew by.

By adding the suffix -at to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people:

• aonat.... solo, single

• aonatser.... become single

• eonat.... duo, pair, twosome, couple

• eonatser.... couple up, copulate

• ionat.... trio, threesome, trinity

• Ionatin.... Trinitarianism

• uonat.... quartet, foursome
• yoonat.... quintet, group of five people
• yoonati.... quintets

By adding the suffix -un instead of -on, we get the following:

• aun.... unit

• auna.... unitary, individual
• aunser.... unite
• aunyan.... series

• aunyana.... serial

• eun.... pair

• euna.... even, paired, binary
• oeuna.... odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired

• oeunat.... odd man out
• eunaxer.... even out

Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used:

• Yat vyaptyoyapa be eonati yez ha mep..... We marched in twos (= pairs) down the street.
• Asonati upo bay yat bu is ovdal..... Hundreds (of people) will come with us to this protest.
• Hia ivxel xwe enyabay..... This celebration happens biennially.
• Iyt se untubokat..... She is a quadriplegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)
• Diwe sagu ha auni..... Please count the units.
• Et gafisa aronay!.... You have improved a thousandfold!
• Tob se entyoyaba sat..... Man is a bipedal creature.

Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in -on in the numbers below ten is shortened to -n in common words:

• anzyus.... monocycle
• enzyus.... bicycle
• ingun.... triangle
• ungun.... quadrangle

Note: The prefixes for penta-/quinti- and hexa-/sext- must keep the -on so as to distinguish them from the prefixes yon apart and yan together.

• yoongona.... quintipartite  BUT: yonper.... separate, go apart
• yaongun.... hexagon  BUT: yanuper.... meet, come together

Frequentative Determiners

There are two ways to form determiners of frequency:

• Using jod(i) meaning occasion(s), instance(s), time(s), or
• Using xag meaning frequency

Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners:

"JOD" METHOD	"XAG" METHOD	MEANING
hogla jodi?	hoxag?	how often?, how many times?
hagla jodi	haxag	as many times, as often
hegla jodi	hexag	sometimes, on some occasions
higla jodi	hixag	this often, this many times
hugla jodi	huxag	that often, that many times, so many times
huygla jodi	huyxag	so often, so many times
hyogla jodi	hyoxag	never, on no occasion
hyagla jodi	hyaxag	always, at all times
hyegla jodi	hyexag	any number of times, however often
hyigla jodi	hyixag	as often, the same number of times
hyugla jodi	hyuxag	not as often, some other number of times
ga jodi	gaxag	more often
ge jodi	gexag	as many times
go jodi	goxag	less often
gla jodi	glaxag	many times, often
gle jodi	glexag	quite a few times, quite often
glo jodi	gloxag	not so many times, seldom
gra jodi	graxag	too often
gre jodi	grexag	often enough
gro jodi	groxag	too seldom
gwa jodi	gwaxag	as often as possible, most often, most times
gwe jodi	gwexag	an average number of times
gwo jodi	gwoxag	least often, as seldom as possible
owa jod	--	never, at no time, zero times
awa jod	--	once, one time
ewa jodi	--	twice, two times
iwa jodi	--	thrice, three times
alo jodi	--	ten times
ge jodi ev et fu	gexag vyel et fu	as often as you would like

Arithmetical Expressions

The following chart shows verbs from which are formed derivative words relating to mathematical operations:

VERB	OPERATION	PATIENT	SUBJECT	OPERATOR	SIGN	RESULT
gaber.... add	gab.... addition	gabwas.... addend	gabeas.... adder	gab.... plus, +	gabsin.... plus sign	gabix.... sum
galer.... multiply	gal.... multiplication	galwas.... multiplicand	galeas.... multiplier	gal.... times, x	galsin.... times sign	galix.... product
garer.... exponentiate, raise	gar.... power	galwas.... number being raised	gareas.... exponent	gar.... raised to the power of	galsin.... exponent	galix.... raising result
gober.... subtract	gob.... subtraction	gobwas.... subtrahend	gobeas.... subtractor	gob.... minus, -	gobsin.... minus sign	gobix.... difference
goler.... divide	gol.... division, fraction	golwas.... dividend	goleas.... divisor	gol.... divided by, ÷	golsin.... division sign	golix.... quotient
gorer.... cut, uproot	gor.... cut, root	gorwas.... radicand	goreas.... radical	gor.... lower to the power of, √	gorsin.... radical	gorix.... root lowering result
geler.... equal	gel.... equation	gelwas.... thing being equated	geleas.... equator	gel.... equal to, as, like	gelsin.... equal sign	gelix.... equation results

Examples of mathematical expressions:

• E gab e gele u..... Two plus two equals four.
• E gal i gele ya..... Two times three equals six.
• I gar e gele yu..... Three to the second power equals nine.
• E gob e gele o..... Two minus two equals zero.
• Yu gol i gele i..... Nine divided by three equals three.
• Yu gor i gele i..... Nine cubed equals three.
• Aso gor e gele alo..... One hundred squared equals ten.

Calendar Expressions

The word for calendar is judar. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used:

Basic Calendar Units

Time is divided using the following basic terms:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
job	time
jab	year
jeb	season
jib	month
jub	day
jwob	hour
jwab	minute
jweb	second

Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical morphemes to some of the time units above:

MIRAD	ENGLISH	NUMERICAL FORMULA
arojab	millenium	year x 1,000
asojab	century	year x 100
alojab	decade	year x 10
eynjab	half year	year x 1/2
uynjab	quarter	year x 1/4
yejub	week	day x 7
eynjwob	half hour	hour x 1/2

This, next, last, etc. are expressed as follows:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
hijub hia yejub hijab	today this week this year
zojub ha jana yejub zajab	yesterday last week last year
zajub ha jona yejub zajab	tomorrow next week next year
hujub hua yejub hujab	that day that week that year
jazojub ja ewa yejubi jazojab	the day before yesterday two weeks ago the year before last
jozajub jo ewa yejubi jozajab	the day after tomorrow two weeks from now the year after next

Seasons of the Year

Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for season jeb:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jeab	spring
jeeb	summer
jeib	autumn, Fall
jeub	winter

Examples of usage:

• be jeab.... in spring
• ja jeeb.... before summer
• ju jeib.... until autumn
• ji jeub.... since winter
• je ha jeb.... during the season
• ub ha uj bi jeeb.... toward the end of summer
• eb jeab ay jeeb.... between spring and summer
• jeeba gemoj.... vernal equinox
• jeiba fayebi.... autumn leaves
• jeba til.... seasonal drink
• jeubyena jebmalyen.... wintry climate
• jeabyena malyen.... spring-like weather
• jeuben.... hibernation

Months of the Year

Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month jib:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jiab	January
jieb	February
jiib	March
jiub	April
jiyob	May
jiyab	June
jiyeb	July
jiyib	August
jiyub	September
jilob	October
jilab	November
jileb	December

Some expressions using the months:

• be jilob.... in October
• ja jiyab.... before June
• ja zajiyeb.... by next July
• hijib.... this month
• zojib.... last month
• zajib.... next month
• bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis... month-to-month rent
• jibay... monthly
• jibi joy... months later
• jiba sindryen.... monthly magazine
• hujiba jobnis.... that month's rent
• hya ionjib.... every trimester
• jiber.... menstruate

Days of the Week

Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day jub:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
juab	Monday
jueb	Tuesday
juib	Wednesday
juub	Thursday
juyob	Friday
juyab	Saturday
juyeb	Sunday

Here are some common terms relating to days of the week:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
hojub?	which day
hajub hu...	the day that...
hejub	someday
hijub	today
hujub	that day
hyijub	(on) the same day
hyajub	every day
hyejub	any day
zajub	yesterday
zojub	tomorrow
ha jajub be ha jana jub	the day before, (on) the previous day
ha jojub be ha jona jub	the day before, (on) the previous day
jazojub	the day before yesterday
jozajub	the day after tomorrow
hya ea jub	every other/second day
hyajub boy juyeb	every day except Sunday

Examples of Usage:

• be juyob....on Friday
• ju juib....until Wednesday
• ji zojub.... since yesterday
• lojo jubuj.... by [Lit: not after] day's end
• jo zajub.... after tomorrow
• je ha jub.... during the day
• bi juab bu juub... from Monday to Friday

Parts of the Day

Here are the principal parts of a day:

DAYTIME	NIGHTTIME
maj....daytime, day	moj....nighttime, night
bi maj....A.M.	bi moj....P.M.
jaijmaj....pre-dawn	jaijmoj....pre-dusk
ijmaj....daybreak, dawn	ijmoj....dusk
amaryap....sunrise, sunup	amaryop....sunset, sundown
imaj....morning zaimaj....tomorrow morning hiimaj....this morning zoimaj.... yesterday morning huimaj....that morning hyaimaj....every morning	imoj....evening zaimoj....tomorrow evening hiimoj....this evening zoimoj.... yesterday evening huimoj....that evening hyaimoj....every evening
jwaimaj....early morning	jwaimoj....early evening
jwoimaj....late morning	jwoimoj....late evening
eymaj....noon	eymoj....midnight
joeymaj....afternoon	joeymoj....after midnight
ujmaj....dusk, day's end	gwomoj...late night

• Examples of Usage:

• At tijia ja ijmaj.....I woke up before dawn.
• At iyfe tuyjer be ha jwoa joeymaj.....I like to nap in the late afternoon.
• It yexe bi amaryap bu amaryop.....He works from sunup to sundown.
• Be gwa umaji, at teaxe teasibar.....Most evenings, I watch television.

Expressing Dates

The following is a how a date is normally expressed:

• be juab, 11 jieb 2018 JaK.....on Monday, February 11th, 1918 A.D.

The day in the above expression is pronounced ali.

The year is pronounced elo alyi (like English twenty eighteen).

The acronym for A.D. is JaK, short for Ja Krist (before Christ).

The acronym for B.C. is JoK, short for Jo Krist (after Christ).

Other date expressions follow:

• be ha 1800 jabi (alyi aso jabi)....In the 1800's (eighteen hundreds)
• ja ha 20a (eloa) asojab....before the 20th (twentieth) century
• eb 1920 (yulo elo) ay 2001 (elo awa)....between 1920 (nineteen twenty) and (two thousand one)
• zya hua alojab....throughout that decade
• At yexa hum je gla jabi.....I worked there for [Lit: during] many years.
• Ujbu his lojo jiyab.....Finish this by [Lit: not after] May.
• Iyt so him ub ha uj bi 2 (ewa) jiab....She will be here toward the end of January 2nd.

Telling Time

Clock time expressions use mostly the word jwob (hour) or jwobi (hours).

The usual time-of-day question is Se hojwob? What time is it? [Lit: is what-hour?]

The typical answer is in the format Se aa/ea... jwob gab/gob alo/ali... bi maj/moj. (Lit: (It) is (the) first/second... hour plus/minus ten/eleven...of day/night.

Here are some typical answers:

• Se aa jwob..... It is one o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) first hour.] [NOTE: The article "the" is left unexpressed.]
• Se ea jwob..... It is two o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) second hour.]
• Se alea jwob..... It is twelve o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) twelfth hour.]

• Se ia jwob bi maj*..... It is three o'clock A.M.  [Lit: It is third hour of daytime.]
• Se aloa jwob bi moj**..... It is ten o'clock P.M.  [Lit: It is tenth hour of nighttime.]

* bi maj (a.m.) can be abbreviated as bma

** bi moj (p.m.) can be abbreviated as bmo

• Se ua jwob (gab) alo..... It is four ten.....  [Lit: It is fourth hour (plus) ten.]
• Se iloa jwob gob ali..... It is thirteen minutes til three.  [Lit: It is thirteenth hour minus thirteen.]
• Se yoa jwobi gab uyn..... It is quarter after five.  [Lit: It is fifth hour plus a quarter.]
• Se yoa jwobi gob uyn..... It is quarter past five.  [Lit: It is fifth hour minus a quarter.]
• Se yaa jwobi gab eyn..... It is six thirty.  [Lit: It is sixth hour plus a half.]
• Se yaa jwobi gab ilo..... It is six thirty.  [Lit: It is sixth hour plus thirty.]
• Se yaa jwobi gob eyn..... It is thirty minutes til six.  [Lit: It is sixth hour minus thirty.]
• Se yaa jwobi gob ilo..... It is thirty minutes til six.  [Lit: It is sixth hour minus a half.]

• Se vyavay yea jwob gab alo bi moj..... It is exactly 7:10 P.M..  [Lit: It is exactly seventh hour plus ten of nighttime.]
• Et sa alo jwoa bey alo jwabi.....You were late by 10 minutes.  [Lit: You were late by ten minutes.]
• Has ijo jub 5:30 (= yaa jwob gab ilo) bmo (= bi moj).....It will begin around 5:30 (= five thirty [Lit: five hours plus thirty]) p.m.
• Puu him loga jwoa ev 3 (= ia) j. (= jwob)....Get here no later than 3 (= three) o'clock.
• Ha yautpar puo hum yeb 10 jwabi.....The bus will arrive there within 10 minutes.
• Ha jwobar izeade 2:30 (= ea jwob gab ilo).....The clock says [Lit: indicates] 2:30.
• Yit pua be 3a j. be ha nod.....They arrived at 3 on the dot.

Mirad normally uses a 12-hour system with distinction between a.m. and p.m., but military 24-hour time can also be used in particular situations, in which case the a.m./p.m. distinction is not needed.

• Yanpu at be iloa jwob gab alyo..... Meet me at 13:15. (= 1:15 p.m.)

The word jwab (hour, o'clock) can be abbreviated as j., as in the following:

• Yanpu at be 13a j..... Meet me at 13:00 (hours) [Lit: at (the) 13th h.]

The word gab (plus) can be omitted, as in:

• At teato et be yoa j. alyo..... I'll see you at five fifteen / quarter past five.

Note the following clock time idioms:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jwa	early
jwe	on time
jwo	late
Se vyavay eloa jwob.	It is exactly two o'clock.
jub eymaj	around noon
ub eymoj	toward midnight
yeb jwebi	within seconds
alo jwabi jahij	ten minutes ago
loga jwo ev / lojo 3 j.	no later than / by 3 o'clock.
jwobay	hourly / by the hour / on the hour
Hia pop dire / yixe 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.	This trip takes (Lit: requires / uses) 2 1/2 hours.
ju awa jwob bi hij	until one hour from now
ji zojub be 10a j.	since yesterday at 10 o'clock.
je ha jana 12 jwabi	for the last 12 minutes
ja 10a j.	before / by 10 o'clock (= the tenth hour)
ja 10 jwobi.	by / in / within 10 hours.
jo 10a j.	'after 10 o'clock.
jo 10 jwobi.	after 10 hours / 10 hours later / 10 hours ago

Expressing Age

Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for age: jag.

The typical question is:

• Et se hojaga?....How old are you? (Lit. what-aged)

A typical answer is:

• At se eli jaga....I am twenty-three years old.

The following chart shows other age expressions, many of which are agglutinations of the deictic morphemes beginning with h. If a cell has two Mirad forms, the second one is a shorter alternative version:

AGE
hojaga?.... how old?
hajaga.... of the age
hejaga.... of some age
hijaga.... this old
hujaga.... that old
huyjaga.... so old
jaga....old
joga....young
gle jaga.... rather old, oldish
gla jaga.... very old
gra jaga.... too old, super-aged
gro jaga.... under-aged, minor
ge jaga.... as old, of the same age
awa jab jaga.... one year old awa jaga awa jab
ewa jabi jaga.... two years old ewa jaga ewa jabi
alo jabi jaga.... ten years old alo jaga alo jabi
ga jaga vyel et.... older than you
ga joga vyel at.... younger than me
ge joga vyel iyt.... as young as her
ha gwa jagat bi ata tedetyan....the youngest of my siblings
grojagat....a minor
alojagat....a ten-year-old
aloyjagat....a teenager
jogat....a boy, a youth joygat...a girl
grejat....an adult, someone of age jagseat....an adolescent jagsat....grownup
yiloyjagat...an octogenarian
asoyjagat....a centenarian

Some other examples of usage:

• Et jagseye fi.....You are aging well.
• At voy jogseye hyegla.....I am not getting any younger.
• His se taam av ha jagati.....This is a home for the ederly.
• Yegaku eta jogan!....Regain your youth!
• At se ga jaga vyel ha mebi.....I am as old as the hills.
• Teaxu ata gwa joga tobot.....Look at my youngest child.
• Yat ife yata awajagat.....We love our one-year-old.
• Jagseatan se yika joob bi tej.....Adolescence is a difficult period of life.

Money Expressions

This section is currency-dependent and remains under construction.

Deictic Determiners

Deictic determiners are words which point out or specify other words. They include the following:

• demonstratives like this, that, those
• indefinite specifiers like any, some, all, the, etc.
• Derived animate and inanimate pronouns like this one, those things, something, everyone, etc.
• Derived adverbs of time like when, now
• Derived adverbs of place like there, here, somewhere
• Derived adverbs of manner like how, thus, somehow
• Derived adverbs of kind so, age this year old, direction that way, reason why?, and so forth.

Deictic Determiner Prefixes

There are ten deictic base morphemes used as prefixes to form many determiners, including adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs.

CATEGORY	BASE MORPHEME (PREFIX)
INTERROGATIVE	ho-...? what?
DEFINITE	ha- the
INDEFINITE	he- some, a certain
PROXIMAL	hi- this, these
DISTAL	hu- that, those, such, so
NEGATIVE	hyo- no, not any
DISTRIBUTIVE	hya- every, all, each
INDETERMINATE	hye- any, whatever
IDIODEICTIC*	hyi- the same, the very
ALLODEICTIC**	hyu- the other, another, else

* Idiodeictic is a coined Greek word meaning "same-specifying" and refers to words that point reflexively to the same entities, such as at the same time, in the same way, the same person, etc.

** Allodeictic is a coined Greek word meaning "other-specifying" and refers to words that point outwardly to other entities, such as somebody else, some other time, in other ways, etc.

Deictic Determiners as Adjectives

Here is a table showing the deictic determiner prefixes attached to elements ending in -a to form various adjectival deictic determiners:

	ADJECTIVE OF SELECTION	ADJECTIVE OF KIND	ADJECTIVE OF POSSESSION
INTERROGATIVE	hoa? which?	hoyena? what kind of?	hota? whose?
DEFINITE	ha   (short for haa) the	hayena the kind of	hata the one's
INDEFINITE	hea some, a certain	heyena some kind of, a certain kind of	heta someone's
PROXIMAL	hia this, these	hiyena this kind of, such (a), like this, like these	hita this one's
DISTAL	hua that, those	huyena that kind of, such (a), like that, like those	huta that one's
NEGATIVE	hyoa not, not a, not any	hyoyena no kind of, no such	hyota nobody's
DISTRIBUTIVE	hya    (short for hyaa) every, all, each	hyayena every kind of, all kinds of	hyata everybody's
INDETERMINATE	hyea any, whatever	hyeyena any kind of, whatever kind of	hyeta anybody's
IDIODEICTIC	hyia the same	hyiyena the same kind of	hyita the same one's
ALLODEICTIC	hyua the other	hyuyena some other kind of	hyuta someone else's

Note: The definite deictic determiner adjective ha (actually, short for haa) is used as what is more commonly referred to as the definite article the. As mentioned before, if the definite article or any other deictic morpheme is omitted before a noun, than it has the effect of the English indefinite article a / an with a singular noun or some with a plural noun.

This is called zero determination. For example:

• Yat tilia ha tilyeb bi vafil. We drank the glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia tilyeb bi vafil. We drank a glass of wine.

• Yat tilia ha tilyebi bi vafil. We drank the glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia tilyebi bi vafil. We drank (some) glasses of wine.

• Yat tilia awa tilyeb bi vafil. We drank one glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha awa tilyeb bi vafil. We drank the one glass of wine.

• Yat tilia ewa tilyebi bi vafil. We drank two glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ewa tilyebi bi vafil. We drank the two glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia hya ewa tilyebi bi vafil. We drank both glasses of wine.

• Yat tilia owa tilyeb bi vafil. We drank no/zero glasses (=not a single glass) of wine.

• Yat tilia ea tilyeb bi vafil. We drank another/a second glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ea tilyeb bi vafil. We drank the second glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ea tilyebi bi vafil. We drank second glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ea tilyebi bi vafil. We drank the second glasses of wine.

Examples of the Usage of Adjectival Determiners

• Hoa tam se etas? Which house is yours?
• Hoyena dyezuni ifxe et? What kind of movies do you like?
• Hota tef okwa? Whose hat was lost?
• Ha tob ta yata dyuni. The man knew our names.
• Hayena dini at ife, et ufe. The kind of stories I love, you hate.
• Hea mepi eejdyunwo. Certain streets will be renamed.
• Heyena fukyes uxaye parnyan. Some kind of accident has cause a traffic jam.
• Heta abtaf akwa be ha zatem. Someone's coat was found in the foyer.
• Hia dyes se ata gafias. This book is my favorite.
• Hiyena xeyen voy vayafwo. This type of behavior will not be tolerated.
• Hita tim so yovoza. This guy's room will be blue.
• Hua mas efwa eejvozilbwer. That wall needs to be repainted.
• Huyena duni yeyfwe yixwer za at. Such words should not be used in front of me.
• Huta tam magseye. That guy's house is on fire.
• Hyoa din se ga gesaya. No story is more important.
• Hyoyena tes tesiyafwe. No such meaning can be inferred.
• Hyota jatexdren sa ga fia. Nobody's plan is better.
• Hya mepi izpe Roma. All roads lead to Rome.
• Hya tob yefe xer ita gon. Every man must do his part.
• Hyayena telami ese be hia mep. All manner of restaurants exist on this street.
• Hyata tej se uka bi yabi ay yobi. Everyone's life is full of ups and downs.
• Hya ewa domi agxaye. Both cities have grown.
• Hyea voz so fia. Any color will be fine.
• Hyeyena til se beuwa. Any kind of drink is available.
• Hyeta ved se ge ifa vyel atas. Anyone's guess is as good as mine.
• Hyea tim et fe et yafe bayser. Whatever room you want, you can have.
• Hyia fukyesi kyese glajodi. The same accidents occur frequently.
• Hyiena dyezuni teaxuwa zajub. The same kind of films were shown yesterday.
• Hyita dyun yixwa gajod. The same person's name was used again.
• Hyua dyezun sa ifuyea. The other movie was more entertaining.
• Hyuena mos teasu ga fia. Another kind of furniture would look better.
• Hyuta texyen se ga fyia. Someone else's opinion is equally valid.

Deictic Determiners as Pronouns

The following chart shows deictic determiners used as pronouns. Note that the suffix -s (short for sun) is used pronouns referring to things, while -t (short for tob) is used for those referring to persons. The suffix -i pluralized either of these. The distinction between a form like what? and a selective form like which? is made by using the full adjectival form (with -a-) in the selective forms. So, for example, hot? is who?, but hoat? is which one? (referring to a person).

PRONOUNS	THING	THINGS	SELECTIVE THING	SELECTIVE THINGS	SELECTIVE PERSON	SELECTIVE PERSONS	PERSON	PERSONS	PERSON POSSESSED THING	PERSON POSSESSED THINGS
INTERROGATIVE	hos? what?	hosi? what (things)?	hoas? which one?	hoasi? which ones?	hoat? who(m)?	hoati? who? (pl.)	hot? who, whom?	hoti? who (pl.)?	hotas? whose (thing)?	hotasi? whose (things)?
DEFINITE	has it, the thing	hasi they, them, the things	haas the one	haasi the ones	hat the one	haasi the ones	hat the person, he, him	hati the persons, they, them	hatas whose? (thing)	hatasi whose? (things)
INDEFINITE	hes something	hesi some (things)	heas a certain one	heasi certain ones	heat a certain one	heati certain ones	het someone	heti some (people)	hetas someone's	hetasi some people's
PROXIMAL	hit this	hiti these	hias this one	hiasi these	hiat this one	hiati those	hit this person, he, him	hiti these people, they, them	hitas this person's, his	hitasi this person's (things), theirs
DISTAL	hus that	husi those	huas that one	huasi those	huat that one	huati those people, they	hut that person, he, him	huti those people, they, them	hutas that person's, his	hutasi that person's (things), his
NEGATIVE	hyos nothing	hyosi none	hyoas not a one	hyoasi none	hyodat not a one	hyoati none	hyot nobody	hyoti no people	hyotas nobody's	hyotasi nobody's (things)
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyas everything, all	hyasi all things	hyaas each one	hyaasi all of them	hyaat each one	hyaati all of them	hyat everyone	hyati all (people)	hyatas everyone's	hyatasi everyone's (things)
INDETERMINATE	hyes anything, whatever	hyesi any	hyeas whatever one	hyeasi any of them	hyeat whichever one	hyeati whichever ones	hyet anyone	hyeti whoever	hyetas whoever's	hyetasi anybody's (things)
IDIODEICTIC	hyis the same thing	hyisi the same things	hyis the same one	hyiasi the same ones	hyiat the same one	hyiati the same one	hyit the same person	hyiti the same people	hyitas the same person's	hyitasi the same person's (things)
ALLODEICTIC	hyus something else	hyusi other things	hyuas the other one	hyuasi the other ones	hyuat the other one	hyuati the others	hyut someone else	hyuti others	hyutas someone else's	hyutasi someone else's (things)

Other pronominal deictic determiners can be derived from adjectival determiners of kind and numeric determiners:

	KIND OF THING	KIND OF THINGS	KIND OF PERSON	KIND OF PEOPLE
INTERROGATIVE	hoyenas? what kind of thing?	hoyenasi? what kind of things?	hoyenat? what kind of person?	hoyenati? what kind of people?
DEFINITE	hayenas the kind of thing	hayenasi the kind of things	hayenat the kind of person	hayenati the kind of people
INDEFINITE	heyenas some kind of thing	heyenasi some kind of things	heyenat some kind of person	heyenati some kind of people
PROXIMAL	hiyenas this kind of thing	hiyenasi these kinds of things	hiyenat this kind of person	hiyenati these kinds of people
DISTAL	huyenas such a thing	huyenasi such things	huyenat such a person	huyenati such people
NEGATIVE	hyoyenas no such thing	hyoyenasi no such things	hyoyenat no such person	hyoyenati no such people
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyayenas every kind of thing	hyayenasi all kinds of things	hyayenat every kind of person	hyayenati all kinds of people
INDETERMINATE	hyeyenas any kind of thing	hyeyenasi any kinds of things	hyeyenat any kind of person	hyeyenati any kinds of people
IDIODEICTIC	hyiyenas the same kind of thing	hyiyenasi the same kinds of things	hyiyenat the same kind of person	hyiyenati the same kinds of people
ALLODEICTIC	hyuyenas some other kind of thing	hyuyenasi other kinds of things	hyuyenat some other kind of person	hyuyenati other kinds of people

Selective vs. Non-Selective Forms

The pronominal deictic interrogative determiner hot? means who and contrasts with its selective counterpart hoat?, which means which one?. All the selective determiners refer to one or more things or persons from a selectable pool of things or persons.

The following sentences illustrate the use of the above pronominal determiners:

• Hot aka zajuba ek?.... Who won yesterday's game?
• Hoat bi ha akuti sa ha gwa fiat?.... Which one of the winners was the best?
• Hota tam se hus?.... Whose house is that?
• Hotas se hus?.... Whose is that?
• Hotia deuzi et gaife?.... Whose songs do you prefer?
• Hotias et gaife?.... Whose do you prefer?
• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hosi se eta gaifuni?.... What are your preferences?
• Hoa deuzi se eta gwafiasi?.... Which songs are your best?
• Hoasi se eta gwafiasi?.... Which ones are your best?
• Bi hia deuzuti, hoat et gafie?.... Of these vocalists, which one do you prefer?
• Hoati se gwa fia?'.... Which ones are best?
• Hoti et teexe gwa jodi?.... Who (all) do you listen to the most often?
• Huat hu at teexe gwa jodi draye ejna deuz..... The one I listen to the most has written a new song.
• Ejna deuz? At voy teste haas hu et tede..... New song? I don't understand which one you mean.
• Hias. This one.
• Vo. Huasi se ga fia..... No. Those are better.
• His se jub av ivxelen..... This is a day for celebration.
• Va. Hia jub. At tesde hijub..... Yes. This day. I mean To-day.
• Husi sa ha jubi, ata dat! Those were the days, my friend!
• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hot aka ha igpek?.... Who won the race?
• Hyas uja fi..... Everything ended well.
• Hyasi uje..... All things come to an end.
• Hyayenasi vey kyesu..... All sorts of things might happen.
• Hyos yoka at..... Nothing surprised me.
• Hyot ta odut ako..... Nobody knew who would win.
• Huati fu pier yefe..... Those who would like to leave may.
• Hyet yefe eker hia ifek..... Anyone can play this game.
• Huyenasi voy afwo..... Such things will not be permitted.
• Hua tob voy taxe hia tob..... That man does not remember this man.
• Huti yanyexe fi..... Those guys work well together.
• At jay teataye hiyenasi..... I've seen such things before.
• Huyenat voy vabiwu..... A person like that would not be accepted.

Person pronouns in -t and -ti can be feminized by inserting the glide y before the t:

• Huyenayti ufwe himi..... Women like that are hated in these parts.
• Hoayti yentexe at?.... Who among the women agree with me?
• Hyeyti hu yontexe yefe iper..... Any girls who disagree must leave.

Placement of Deictic Determiners

In a sequence of adjectives before a noun, deictic determiners go first, as in English. For example:

• Hota ewa oga nyefi se hisi?.... Whose two small bags are these?

In interrogative sentences, the interrogative word often starts out the sentence, as in English.

• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hot et teata aay hijub?.... Who(m) did you see first today?

Interrogative deictic determiners ('question words can also go at the end of sentence:

• Eta dyun se hos?.... What is your name? Lit. Your name is what?

Distributive Deictic Determiners Incorporating Numerical Information

Sometimes, a deictic determiner specifies numerical information. This chart shows those forms:

ADJECTIVE	INANIMATE PRONOUN	ANIMATE PRONOUN
hawa* the only	hawas the only thing hawasi the only things	hawat the only one (person) hawati the only ones
hyawa* each	hyawas each one	hyawat each person
hyaewa both	hyaewasi both (things)	hyaewati both (people)
hyeiwa all three	hyeiwasi all three (things)	hyeiwati all three (people)
ohyawa not every	ohyawas not everything	ohyawat not everyone
hyoawa not a single	hyoawas not a single thing	hyoawat not a single person
hyeawa either	hyeawas either one	hyeawat either one (person)
hyeewa any two	hyeewasi any two things	hyeewati any two people
hyeowa neither	hyeowas neither one	hyeowat neither person
hyuawa another	hyuawas another one	hyuawat another
hyuowa no other	hyuowas nothing else	hyuowat nobody else

*Hawa and hyawa are short for haawa and hyaawa.

• Ohyawat se iva bay eta ebtexden..... Not everyone is happy with your decision.
• Hyaewasi yafwe uxer yata efi..... Both (things) can serve our needs.
• Hyeawa tim ivlaxo at..... Either room will satisfy me.
• Hyeowas oivlaxo at..... Neither one will dissatisfy me.

Note: Hyua means the other, while hyuawa means another.

Similarly, hya means every, all, while hyawa means each.

Also, ha means the, while hawa means the only.

The person pronouns in the above chart can be converted into possessive adjectives by adding the adjective suffix a, eg.:

• Hyawata tej se ge glatesa ev hyutas..... Each one's life is as important as another's.
• Hyeowata dyun se vyama..... Neither person's name is real.
• Hyaiwatia teji se kyebukuwa..... The lives of all three are in danger.

The above possessive adjectives can, in turn, be converted into inanimate pronouns with the suffix -s.

• Hyawatas se glatesa..... Each one's is important.
• Hyeowatas se vyama..... Neither's is real.
• Hyaiwatias se kyebukuwa..... All three of theirs' are in danger.

Correlative Distributive Deictic Determiners are handled as follows:

• Hyeawa A ey B.... either A or B
• Hyeowa A oy B.... neither A nor B
• Hyaewa A ay B.... both A and B
• Hawa A, voy B.... only A, not B

Pro-Adverbs Formed from Agglutinated Deictic Determiners

This tables shows a correlated set of pro-adverbs built through the agglutination of basic deictic determiners. This is not all-inclusive, because their are other similary-constructed pro-verbs relating to age, frequency, and so forth.

ADVERBS	MANNER	PLACE	TIME	DEGREE	REASON
	-yen short for byen (manner)	-m short for em (place)	-j short for job (time)	-gla very	av (for)
INTERROGATIVE	hoyen? how?, in what way?	hom? where?	hoj? when?	hogla? how?, to what degree?	avhos? why?
DEFINITE	hayen the way, how	ham the place, where	haj the time, when	hagla as, to the degree	avhas because
INDEFINITE	heyen somehow, in some way	hem somewhere	hej sometime	hegla somewhat	avhes for some reason
PROXIMAL	hiyen this way, so	him here	hij now	higla so, this, to this extent	avhis for this reason, hence
DISTAL	huyen that way, thus	hum there	huj then	hugla so, that, to that extent	avhus for that reason, therefore, so
NEGATIVE	hyoyen in nowise	hyom nowhere	hyoj never	hyogla not at all	avhyos for no reason
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyayen totally, in every way	hyam everywhere	hyaj always	hyagla totally	avhyas for every reason
INDETERMINATE	hyeyen anyway	hyem anywhere, wherever	hyej whenever	hyegla however, to any degree	avhyes for whatever reason
IDIODEICTIC	hyiyen likewise	hyim at the same place	hyij at the same time	hyigla as, to the same extent	avhyis for the same reason
ALLODEICTIC	hyuyen otherwise	hyum elsewhere	hyuj some other time	hyugla not as	avhyus for some other reason

Many of these pro-adverbs are agglutinated abbreviations for longer, full forms:

• hom....where   <   ho   +   nem   =   what place
• hoj....when   <   ho   +   job   =   what time
• hoyen....how   <   ho   +   byen   =   what manner
• hot....who   <   ho   +   tob   =   what human being
• hos....what   <   ho   +   sun   =   what thing

The longer, expanded forms of pro-adverbs can be used at any time. For example:

• At yegteato et hejob.....I will see you again sometime.
• Hosun se eta dyun?....What is your name?
• Et yeyfe axer hubyen.....You shouldn't act that way.

It should be noted that all of these deictic pro-adverbs, unless used as nouns, such as in the sentence Iyt iyfe him. She likes this place (or) She likes it here., are really abbreviations of longer expressions with mostly the preposition be at. For example, At tameya hum., meaning I used to live there. is ignoring the preposition be from the longer, more explicit version At tameya be hum., lit. I used to live at that-place. The proper preposition must be explicitly present if something other than be at is meant. For example, from where? is expressed as bi hom? Similarly, until then would be expressed as ju huj.

Here are some examples of how deictic pro-adverbs are used:

• Hom et tame?.... Where do you live?   <   Et tame be HOa neM? You live at what place.)
• At tame hum..... I live there.
• Et tame hum hu ha mep uje..... You live where the road ends.
• Hom yet peye?.... Where are you guys going?
• Et yafe per hyem hu et fu..... You can go anywhere.
• Bi hom et se?.... Where are you from?
• Hoj et taja?.... When were you born?
• At voy tajaya huj..... I had not been born then.
• Et pia avhes..... He left for some reason.
• Hoyen et iyfe hia vafil?.... How do like this wine?
• Voy se fia axer hiyen..... It is not good to act this way.
• Avhos et tadsa hugla jwa?.... Why did you marry so late?
• Ha tob pia avhyos..... The man left for no reason.

The different, somewhat confusing, meanings of how are illustrated here:

• Hoyen it xa hus?.... How did he do that?.... (Equivalent to Be hoa byen...? In what way...?) (MANNER)
• Hoyen et xeye?.... How are you doing?.... (This is the normal way of saying How are you? or How do you do? (MANNER)
• Hoyena sa ha dyezun?.... How was the film?.... (How here is an ADJECTIVE OF KIND, and thus ends in -a.)
• Hogla aga it se?.... How big is he?.... (DEGREE)
• Hogla iyfla et se!.... How nice you are!.... (DEGREE, but used here as an EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSION)

* Bu hom (to where, whither) is not required here, since the verb per go (to) has the to direction built in.

Quantitative Deictic Determiners

The deictic prefixes can be combined with gla to form quantitative expressions acting as adverbial or adjectival determiners, and substantives (pronouns referring to things or people):

	ADVERBIAL / ADJECTIVAL DETERMINER	INANIMATE SINGULAR PRONOUN	INANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN	ANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN
INTERROGATIVE	hogla? how?/how much?/how many?	hoglas? how much?	hoglasi? how many	hoglati? how many (people)?
DEFINITE	hagla how/as much/as many	haglas as much	haglasi as many	haglati as many (people)
INDEFINITE	hegla somewhat/some/some	heglas some	heglasi some	heglati some (people)
PROXIMAL	higla this/this much/this many	higlas this much	higlasi this many	higlati this many (people)
DISTAL	hugla that/that much/that many huygla so, so much, so many	huglas that much huyglas so much	huglasi that many huyglasi so many	huglati that many huyglati so many (people)
NEGATIVE	hyogla not at all/no/no	hyoglas none of it	hyoglasi none of them	hyoglati none
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyagla totally/all/all	hyaglas all of it	hyaglasi all of them	hyaglati all
INDETERMINATE	hyegla however/any/any	hyeglas any of it	hyeglasi any of them	hyeglati any number of them
IDIODEICTIC	hyigla as/as much/as many, equally	hyiglas the same amount	hyiglasi the same number	hyiglati as many (people)
ALLODEICTIC	hyugla not as much/not as much/not as many	hyuglas a different amount	hyuglasi a different number of things	hyuglati a different number of people

Here are some examples showing how these quantitative determiners are used:

• Et deuze huygla fi..... You sing so well.
• At se hegla booka..... I am somewhat tired.
• Hogla pati et teata hijub?.... How many birds did you see today?
• At teata vyavay hugla tami..... I saw exactly that many houses.
• Iyt fe hyiglas vyel et..... She wants the same amount as you.
• Hoglati yantexe yet?.... How many (people) agree with you?
• Hyoglati yantexe..... None agree.
• Yit fu heglasi..... They would like some (of them).
• Et yafe bier hyeglasi et fe..... You can take however many you want.

NOTE: The following determiners are synonymous and interchangeable:

• hegla = gle (somewhat)
• hyigla = ge (as, equally)

Pronominal Determiners

For a discussion of pronominal determiners ( = possessive adjectives) like my, mine, yours, our own, etc., see Possessive Adjectives under Pronouns.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun I stands for the person standing at this place. The pronoun this stands for the thing or person nearest.

In Mirad, pronouns can be:

• personal or deictic
• ordinary or reflexive
• animate or inanimate
• specific or generic
• ungendered or feminine

Basic Personal Animate Pronouns

Basic personal animal pronouns in Mirad have three person-levels (first, second, third), two numbers (singular, plural), and two genders (gender-neutral, female), and two specificities (specific and generic). Pronouns do not have case forms like English he / him or she / her but they can be adjectivized to form what are known as possessive adjectives in English like his or my or possessive pronouns like hers or mine. Here is two charts showing the basic personal animate pronouns, split into gender-neutral and female.

	SINGULAR GENDER-NEUTRAL	PLURAL GENDER-NEUTRAL
FIRST PERSON	at....I, me	yat....we, us
SECOND PERSON	et....you	yet....you, you all
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	it....he, him	yit....they, them
THIRD PERSON GENERIC	ot....one	yot....they, them
THIRD PERSON REFLEXIVE	ut....self, oneself	yut....selves, oneselves

	SINGULAR FEMALE	PLURAL FEMALE
FIRST PERSON	ayt....I, me	yayt....we, us
SECOND PERSON	eyt....you	yeyt....you, you all
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	iyt....she, her	yiyt....they, them

The third person generic pronouns ot and yot are of common gender and are used as English one and they, people (means unspecifed persons), as in the following examples:

• Ot yefe xer ha yakwas..... One must do what is expected.
• Yot de hav et vyode hoj..... They/People say you never lie.

The person specific ungendered pronouns refer by default to males, but can serve as gender-neutral pronouns referring back to either males or females. If the vowel stem is iotated with a y, the pronoun then refers specifically to a female.

The first person plural pronoun ya(y)t can be either inclusive or exclusive, i.e. it can mean "you and I" or "you and the others."

There is no distinction of case in Mirad, so at can mean I or me. For example:

• Xu at fibun..... Do me a favor.
• At so eta dat..... I will be your friend.
• Hov tojbu it..... Don't kill him/her.
• At ta hav iyt upo..... I knew she would come.
• Fadilu av yayt.'.... Pray for us (women).

Note: The English pronoun it is inanimate (refers to a thing or abstraction) and is not included in the above set of animate personal pronouns. This inanimate pronoun is explained later.

Reflexive Personal Pronouns

Reflexive personal pronouns like English myself, yourself, etc. are formed postfixing the reflexive pronoun ut or uti depending on whether the pronoun is singular or plural. The gender of the pronoun is reflected in the first personal pronoun morpheme, not the ut morpheme.

REFLEXIVE	SINGULAR GENDER-NEUTRAL	SINGULAR FEMININE	PLURAL GENDER-NEUTRAL	PLURAL FEMININE
First	atut.... myself	aytut.... myself	yatyut.... ourselves	yaytyuyt.... ourselves
Second	etut.... yourself	eytut.... yourself	yetyut.... yourselves	yeytyuyt.... yourselves
Third Specific	itut.... himself	iytut.... herself	yityut.... themselves	yiytyuyt.... themselves
Third Generic	otut.... oneself	--	yotyut.... people themselves	--

Examples of usage:

• At yafe teater atut be ha sinzyef.....I can see myself in the mirror.
• Iyt yubteaxa iytut.....She examined herself.
• Tyeu etut!....Know thyself.
• It tojbu itut.....He would kill himself.
• Ot yefe ifer otut.....One must love oneself.
• Yot glajodi voy ife yotyut.....People often don't love themselves.

The reflexive pronoun ut self can sometimes be prefixed to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean auto-, or self-, eg.:

• tojber.... kill → uttojber.... commit suicide
• vyixer.... clean → utvyixer.... wash up, clean oneself, self-clean
• exer.... function → utexer.... function automatically, self-run
• izber.... pilot → utizber.... auto-pilot, self-drive
• exut.... operator → utexut.... automaton
• deber.... rule → utdebea.... autocratic, self-ruling
• tejdin.... biography → uttejdin.... autobiography
• fider.... praise → utfider.... boast   (= self-praise)

Emphatic Personal Pronouns

Emphatic personal pronouns can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive deictic pronoun hyit or hyiti, depending on whether the personal pronoun is singular or plural. The feminine is marked only on the personal pronoun.

EMPHATIC PRONOUNS	SINGULAR	PLURAL
FIRST PERSON	at hyit I myself, me myself	yat hyiti we ourselves, us ourselves
SECOND PERSON	et hyit you yourself	yet hyiti you yourselves
THIRD PERSON	it hyit he himself iyt hyit she herself	yit hyiti they themselves

Examples:

• At hyit voy vyatexe Tot.....I myself don't believe in God.
• At jateate yeyt hyiti be hua dezzamos.....I foresee you gals yourselves on that stage.
• Iyt hyit voy sa hum.....She herself was not here.

Reciprocal Personal Pronouns

The reciprocal pronoun one another, each other is translated with ot hyut:

• Yat yefe ifer ot hyut..... We must love one another. (hyut here means another, other person.)

This reciprocal pronoun can be converted to a possessive adjective by suffixing a, as in ot hyuta....one another's:

• Yat yefe fiyzaxer ot hyuta fwasi. We must respect one another's wishes.

Note the following:

• othyutif....Mutual love = love for one another
• hyutin....altruism

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives, which can also be referred to as pronominal determiners, are derived from basic and reflexive personal pronouns by adding the adjectival ending a to the basic or reflexive personal pronoun, as follows:

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES	SINGULAR BASIC	PLURAL BASIC	SINGULAR REFLEXIVE	PLURAL REFLEXIVE
FIRST PERSON	ata my	yata our	atuta my own	yatyuta our own
SECOND PERSON	eta your	yeta your	etuta your own	yetyuta your own
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	ita his iyta her	yita their iyta their (f.)	ituta his own iytuta her own	yityuta their own yiytyuta their own (f.)
THIRD PERSON GENERIC	ota one's	yota people's	otuta one's own	yotyuta people's own

The above possessive adjectives an be substantivized as pronouns by adding the suffix s thing possessed, or si things possessed, as follows:

SUBSTANTIVIZED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES	BASIC POSSESSED THING	BASIC POSSESSED THINGS	REFLEXIVE POSSESSED THING	REFLEXIVE POSSESSED THINGS
FIRST SINGULAR POSSESSOR	atas mine, my thing	atasi mine, my things	atutas my own, my own thing	atutasi my own, my own things
SECOND SINGULAR POSSESSOR	etas yours	etasi yours, your (things)	etutas your own	etutasi your own, your own things
THIRD SINGULAR SPECIFIC POSSESSOR	itas his iytas hers	itasi his (things) iytasi her (things)	itutas his own (thing) iytutas her own (thing)	itutati their own (things) iytutasi their (f.) own (things)
THIRD SINGULAR GENERIC POSSESSOR	otas one's	otasi one's , one's things	otutas one's own	otutasi one's own (things)
FIRST PLURAL POSSESSOR	yatas ours	yatasi ours, our things	yatyutas our own	yatyutasi our own (things)
SECOND PLURAL POSSESSOR	yetas yours	yetasi yours, your things	yetyutas your own	yetyutasi your own (things)
THIRD PLURAL POSSESSOR	yitas theirs	yitasi theirs, their things	yityutas their own	yitutasi their own (things)

Examples:

• Yat yefe valbeler yatyutasi.....We must protect our own.
• Etasi naze ga vyel atasi....Yours are worth more than mine.

The Concrete vs. Abstract Inanimate Pronoun it

The pronoun it is a special case in Mirad. When it refers back to a previously-specified inanimate object or non-human subject such as book or dog, the definite deictic determiner has is used, for example:

• At eke bay ha epet avhas at iyfe has..... I play with the dog because I like it.

The possessive forms of has is hasa its, for example:

• At iyfe ha epet ay at ife hasa dyun..... I like the dog and I love it's name.

If the pronoun they/them is just a plural of it, then the pronoun hasi.

• Ha epeti se via ay at ife hasi..... The dogs are beautiful and I love them.

The possessive form of hasi they/them is hasia their, for example:

• Ha epeti se via oy hasia dyuni se otwa..... The dogs are beautiful, but their names are unknown.

If it introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the it is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example:

• Mamilo..... It will rain. ( = Will rain.)
• Se fia hav et upa..... It is good that you came. ( = Is good that you came.)
• Sa via jub bay et..... It was a beautiful day with you. ( = Was a beautiful day...)
• Voy se yuka yarper hia meb..... It is not easy to climb this mountain. ( = Is not easy...)

Referring to Third Persons with Deictic Determiners

The definite, proximal, distal deictic determiners can be used for third person pronouns. These forms can be animate or inanimate, masculine or feminine, singular or plural, definite, proximal (near to the speaker) or distal (remote from the speaker). The general forms of these specifiers are given in a previous section, but they are elaborated here for their use as third person pronouns:

	Thing	Things	Person	Persons
DEFINITE	has it, the thing hasa its	hasi they/them, the things hasia their	hat he/him, the person hata his hayta she/her	hati they/them, them, the persons hatia their haytia their, the girls'
PROXIMAL	his it, this hisa its, this thing'	hisi they/them, these things hisia their	hit he/him, this person hita his hiyta her	hiti they/them, these people hitia their hiytia their, these girl's
DISTAL	hus it, that husa it's, that thing'	husi they, them, those things husia their	hut he/him,that person huta his huyta her	huti they/them, those people hutia their, those people's huytia their, those womens'

By changing -t to -yt (post-iotating), the above person pronouns can be made feminine. For example, hiyt she, her. These pronouns can also be converted to possessive adjectives by suffixing the adjective ending a, for example, hiyta her. Furthermore, the possessive adjectives can be substantivized by suffixing s (s.) or si' (pl.) , for example, hiytias theirs, these women's or hiytiasi theirs, these women's (things).

Here are some examples using the above pronouns:

• Huyt voy se tadsa..... She (that woman) is not married.
• At hoj teataye hiti..... I have never seen them (these people).
• Hutiasi se ga aga ev atasi..... Theirs are bigger than mine.
• Hom et koxa has?.... Where did you hide it (the thing)?
• Hoyen et ijtya hat?....How did you meet him (the person)?
• At tyaye huyt yagjob..... I've known her (=that female) for a long time.

The above pronouns answer the questions hos? what?, hosi? what things?, hot? who(m)?, or hoti? what persons?, but there is another set of deictic selective pronouns that answer the questions hoat? which one?, hoayti? which ones (of the females mentioned)?, hoas? which one/thing?, and hoasi? which ones/things?:

SELECTIVES	THING	THINGS	PERSON	PERSONS
DEFINITE	haas the one	haasi the ones	haat the one	haati the ones
PROXIMAL	hias this one	hiasi these	hiat this one	hiati these
DISTAL	huas that one	huasi those	huat that one	huati those

Here are some examples using these deictic selective pronouns:

• Duhev et fu hias ey huas?.... Would you like this one or that one?
• Huayt se haat..... She (that female person) is the one.
• At iyfe hiasi ga ev huasi..... I like these more than those.

Compare the following two examples:

• Hoas et fu? Hias..... Which one would you like? This one. (SELECTIVE)
• Hos et fu? His..... What would you like? This. (SPECIFIC)

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are presented in the chapter on Verbs, under the section "Free Relative Clauses".

Verbs

Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present infinitive (see Infinitives), such as bayser to have. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because of it is somehow special, and the stem is the infinitive minus the wer ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions.

This shows how the STEM is derived:

PRESENT INFINITIVE	STEM
bayser to have	bays-
xer to do	x-
poser to stop	pos-
xwer to happen (PASSIVE)	x-

Verb Categories

Conjugated forms of verbs can be described with the following morphological categories:

• STATES: finite, non-finite
• TENSES: present, past, future
• ASPECTS: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, conditional
• VOICES: active, passive (reflexive and reciprocal are lexical, not morphological)
• MOODS: indicative, hypothetical
• PERSONS: 1st singular, 2nd singular, 3rd singular, 1st plural, 2nd plural, 3rd plural

In effect, the PERSONS category does not affect the morphology of the verb form itself, because the verb form stays the same for all PERSONS.

In addition, lexically, verbs can be described as stative, transitive, intransitive, reflexive, inchoative, causative, dynamic, autonomous, directional, of motion, gestural, and various combinations of these, etc.. For example:

CATEGORY	VERB
STATIVE	ser be
TRANSITIVE	xer do
INTRANSITIVE	tojer die
REFLEXIVE	utvyixer wash up
INCHOATIVE	tujaser fall asleep
CAUSATIVE	tujaxer put to sleep
GESTURAL	baseger shake
OF MOTION	oper get off
DIRECTIONAL	iper go away
DYNAMIC	yijber (perform an action to make something) open
AUTONOMOUS	yijer open (by itself)
RECIPROCAL	tujer hyit-hyut kill one another

Non-finite Forms

Non-finite verb forms are not conjugated for person, cannot form a predicate, and do not have a subject. There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad:

• INFINITIVES: the dictionary reference form of a verb, ending in er
• GERUNDS: verbal nouns, ending in en
• PARTICIPLES: verbal adjectives, ending in a

Infinitives

Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the present infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or sometimes the present passive infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus this er or wer ending is the VERB STEM.

STEM	ENDING	INFINITIVE
agas	er	agaser to grow
agax	er	agaxer to magnify
p	er	per to go
x	wer	xwer to happen, be done

The infinitive in Mirad is used just as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two tenses (present, past) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the respective endings are underlined:

INFINITIVE	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
PRESENT	agaxer to magnified	agaxwer to be magnified
PAST	agaxayer to have magnified	agaxawer to have been magnified

Gerunds

The gerund is a verbal noun like English mating in mating rituals. It is formed by suffixing en to the verb stem for the active voice and wen for the passive voice (The consonant w is used in Mirad for indicating the passive voice).

INFINITIVE	STEM	ACTIVE GERUND	PASSIVE GERUND
agaxer...to magnify	agax-	agaxen... magnifying, magnification	agaxwen being magnified
per... to go	p-	pen... going	(no passive voice)
saxer... to create, make, form	sax-	saxen... forming, creation	saxwen being created

Some examples:

• Ha saxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi..... The formation of this star took millions of years.
• Iyta deuzen sa gla via..... Her singing was very beautiful.
• Popen se yika yex..... Traveling is hard work.
• Teetwen fiay se glatesa av dezuti..... Being heard well is important for actors.

Participles

Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a. Participles can be present, past, future, or hypothetical. They can also be active or passive. Here is a table of participles:

TENSE-VOICE	INFINITIVE	STEM	ENDING	PARTICIPLE	EXAMPLE
PRESENT ACTIVE	deuzer to sing	deuz-	-ea	deuzea singing	ha deuzea pat the singing bird
PRESENT PASSIVE	ebdaler to discuss	ebdal-	-ewa	ebdalewa being discussed	ha ebdalewa dyen the book being discussed
PAST ACTIVE	pier to depart	pi-	-aa	piaa departed	ha piaa topi the departed souls
PAST PASSIVE	azyujber to lock	azyujb-	-(a)wa	azyujbawa locked	ha azyujbawa (or: azyubwa) mes the locked door
FUTURE ACTIVE	tajber to give birth	tajb-	-oa	tajboa about to give birth	ha tajboa toyb the woman about to give birth
FUTURE PASSIVE	osexer to destroy	osex-	-owa	osexowa about to be destroyed	ha osexowa tam the house about to be destroyed
HYPOTHETICAL ACTIVE	tojber to kill	tojb-	-ua	tojbua apt to kill	tojbua til a lethal potion
HYPOTHETICAL PASSIVE	tiler to drink	til-	-uwa	tiluwa drinkable	tiluwa mil potable water

Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples:

• Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay. She entered the room singing.
• Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia. The speech having been finished, he left.

Also, the above participles can be nominalized by suffixing n. Examples:

• tiluwa drinkable → tiluwan potability
• tojbua lethal → tojbuan lethality
• piaa departed → ita piaan his having departed...

Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for peoples. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized:

• xwa known → xwas what is known, a fact
• xwa known → xwasi facts, information
• oxwa unknown → oxwas what is not known, a mystery
• osexea destroying → osexeas a destroyer
• tojbua lethal → tojbuas something lethal, a lethal thing
• tojboa moribund → someone about to die, a fatal case
• tejea living → tejeat a living person
• tejea living → tejeasi living things

There is a special nominalized animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer), which refer to person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These participles end in ut.

• sexut.... builder
• nuut.... supplier
• tojbut.... killer
• ifut.... lover
• akuti.... winners

Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut the winner.

Finite Forms

In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories:

• two MOODS (indicative and hypothetical)
• three TENSES (present, past, future)
• five ASPECTS (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, conditional)
• two VOICES (active, passive)

Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person suject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se. Thus, at se I am, et se you are, it se he is, etc.

Moods

There are two moods in Mirad: indicative and hypothetical.

• Indicative Mood

The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go.

The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, and future indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively.

• Hypothetical Mood

Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below:

• a command , i.e. the IMPERATIVE (Go!)
• a wish or suggestion, i.e. the HORTATIVE or JUSSIVE (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!)
• an imagined if-condition, i.e. the SUBJUNCTIVE (If I were a rich man...)
• an imagined then-situation, i.e. the CONDITIONAL (I would be happy.)

Aspects

There are four aspects in the Mirad verb system.

• the SIMPLE aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional.
• the PROGRESSIVE aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense.
• the PERFECT aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed.
• the IMMINENT aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen.
• the CONDITIONAL aspect, i.e. an action supposed to happen.

• The Simple Aspect (default)

Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, and non-conditional.

Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of two Mirad verbs (saxer to create and ser to be) with the endings underlined:

MOOD	TENSE	ASPECT	VOICE	VERB #1 saxer	VERB #2 ser
INDICATIVE	PRESENT	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxe. I create	At se. I am
INDICATIVE	PAST	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxa. I created	At sa. I was
INDICATIVE	FUTURE	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxo. I will create	At so. I will be
HYPOTHETICAL	ATEMPORAL	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxu. I would create [CONDITIONAL] Vas yat saxu! Let's create! [HORTATIVE] Saxu has! Create it! [IMPERATIVE] Vas hyat saxu! May everyone create! [JUSSIVE]	At su. I would be Vas has su. Let it be. Su fia! Be good! Vas hyat su iva! May everyone be happy!

• The Simple Indicative Present Tense

The simple indicative present tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later.

• The Simple Indicative Past Tense

The simple past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time.

• The Simple Indicative Future Tense

The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future.

• The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal

A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, jussive, conditional, or subjunctive.

Generally, if a verb form ending in u begins a sentence, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!. If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers vas, ves, or vos, than it is probably a CONDITIONAL predicate like At fu per. I would like to go.. If the subject of the verb is preceded by ves if, then it is a SUBJUNCTIVE (unreal conditional) clause as in Ves at su nasikat... If I were a rich man.. If the subject is preceded by Vas that/let/may or vos don't, then it is a HORTATIVE wish like Vas et yagteju. May you live long. or a JUSSIVE suggestion like Vas yat fadilu. Let us pray. or a prohibition like Vos tilu his! Don't drink this!.

Voices

Mirad has two voices, ACTIVE and PASSIVE (although REFLEXIVES and RECIPROCALS can be produced lexically.).

• Active Voice

The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action.

• Passive Voice

A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just before the last vowel of the verb form. The past passive particle ending awa can be reduced to wa (done is xawa or xwa) if the resultant combination of consonants is not to hard to pronounce.

The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs:

TENSE-MOOD	ACTIVE	PASSIVE	EXAMPLE
INFINITIVE	xer to do	xwer to be done	Ese hyos xwer. There is nothing to be done.
PRESENT PARTICIPAL	sexea constructing	sexewa being constructed	His se sexewa. This is under construction.
PRESENT	xe does	xwe is done	Huyenasi hoj xwe. Such things are never done.
PAST PARTICIPAL	xaa having done	x(a)wa done	Hyas se xawa. Everything is done.
PAST	tojba killed	tojbwa was killed	Hoj it tojbwa? When was he killed?
HYPOTHETICAL	bakxu heal	bakxwu be healed	Hav it bakxwu. May he be healed.

Sometimes, the passive voice is used to represent a medio-passive. For example, ujwer to open is used medio-passively in the expression Ha mes ujwa. The door opened., because there is no overt subject, as if the door opened itself. Many intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the verb tajber to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tobob tajbwa zajub. The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tobob taja zajub. The child was born yesterday.)

• Reflexive Voice

A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example:

• tojber to kill → uttojber to kill oneself
• milber to wash → utmilber to wash up
• teater to see → utteater to see oneself
• yalber to lift → utyalber to lift oneself → Utyalbu! Lift yourself up!
• ter to know → utter to know oneself → Uttu! Know thyself!

• Reciprocal Voice

A verb is made reciprocal by using hyit-hyut one another as the object, for example:

• tojber to kill → tojber hyit-hyut to kill one another
• vyixer to wash → vyixer hyit-hyut to wash one another
• teater to see → teater hyit-hyut to see one another

Aspects Revisited

Mirad verbs have the following aspects:

• SIMPLE -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. NON-PROGRESSIVE, NON-PERFECT, NON-IMMINENT, and NON-POTENTIAL.
• PROGRESSIVE -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time.
• PERFECT -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state.
• IMMINENT -- this describes an action or state about to happen.
• POTENTIAL -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible.

The Simple Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.). The simple conditional refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.).

SIMPLE ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
SIMPLE PRESENT	at xe.... I do	Has xwe.... it is done
SIMPLE PAST	at xa.... I did	Has xwa.... it was done
SIMPLE FUTURE	at xo.... I will do	Has xwo.... it will be done
SIMPLE CONDITIONAL	at xu.... I would do	Has xwu.... it would be done

The Progressive Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE	at xeye.... I am doing	Has xewe.... it is being done
PAST PROGRESSIVE	at xeya.... I was doing	Has xewa.... it was being done
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE	at xeyo.... I am going to be doing	Has xewo.... it will be happening
CONDITIONAL PROGRESSIVE	at xeyu.... I would be doing	Has xewu.... it would be happening

The Perfect Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

PERFECT ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT PERFECT	at xaye.... I have done	Has xawe.... it has been done
PAST PERFECT	at xaya.... I had done	Has xawa.... it had been done
FUTURE PERFECT	at xayo.... I will have done	Has xawo.... it will have been done
CONDITIONAL PERFECT	at xayu.... I would have done	Has xawu.... it would have been done

The Imminent Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect. The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

IMMINENT ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT IMMINENT	at xoye.... I am going to do	Has xowe.... it is going to be done
PAST IMMINENT	at xoya.... I was going to do	Has xowa.... it was going to be done
FUTURE IMMINENT	at xoyo... I will be about to do	Has xowo.... it will be about to be done
CONDITIONAL IMMINENT	(not used)	(not used)

The Potential Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

POTENTIAL ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT POTENTIAL	at xuye I am to do	Has xuwe it is to be done, it is doable
PAST POTENTIAL	at xuya I was to do	Has xuwa it was to be done, it was doable
FUTURE PERFECT	(not used)	(not used)
CONDITIONAL PERFECT	(not used)	(not used)

Putting It All Together: The Mirad Verb Conjugation System

The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad verb conjugation system using the verb xer to do and its passive xwer to be done, happen:

STATE	MOOD	ASPECT	TENSE	VOICE	CONJUGATED FORM
INFINITIVE		SIMPLE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xer to do xwer to be done, to happen
INFINITIVE		PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaer to have done xwaer to have been done, to have happend
PARTICIPLE		PROGRESSIVE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xea doing xwea being done, happening
PARTICIPLE		PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaa having done xwaa ∼ xwa done, happened
PARTICIPLE		IMMINENT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoa about to do xwoa about to happen
PARTICIPLE		POTENTIAL		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xua bound to do xwua doable
GERUND				ACTIVE PASSIVE	xen doing, deed xwen being done, happening, event
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xe does xwe is done, happens
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xa did xwa was done, happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xo will do xwo will be done, will happen
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (CONDITIONAL / IMPERATIVE)	SIMPLE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xu would do, do! xwu would be done, would happen, be done!
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeye is doing xewe is being done, is happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeya was doing xewa was doing, was happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeyo will be doing xewo will be happening
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (CONDITIONAL)	PROGRESSIVE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeyu would be doing xewu would be happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaye has done xawe has been done, has happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaya had done xawa had been done, had happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xayo will have done xawo will have been done, will have happened
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (CONDITIONAL)	PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xayu would have done xawu would have been done, would have happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	IMMINENT	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoye is about to do xowe is about to be done, is about to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	IMMINENT	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoya was to be done xowa was to be done, was to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	POTENTIAL	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xuye is supposed to do xuwe is supposed to be done, is supposed to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	POTENTIAL	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xuya was supposed to do xuwa was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen

Predicate Types

Predicate types, i.e. illocutions, refer to whether the verb, predicate, clause, or sentence is expressed as a question (INTERROGATIVE), a declaration (DECLARATIVE), a negation (NEGATIVE), affirmation (AFFIRMATIVE), or combinations of these.

Making Predicates Interrogative

To make a declarative predicate or sentence into a question, simply begin it with the Yes/No Question Introducer Duves Tell me whether.../Is it true that...? or any other interrogative pronoun or adverb such as Hos? What?, Hot? Who(m)?, or Hom? where?. Note that the Du in Duves means Say.../ Tell me..., so Duves...? really is a command meaning Say whether.... The word ves without the du is a conditional complementizer and just means if or whether. The part of the sentence after Duves is a simple declarative statement in the normal word order. The same is true for the words following other interrogative words, such as Hos? What? and Hom? Where?. In other words, there is no inversion of word order in questions as there often is in English, Spanish, and many other languages.

DECLARATIVE	INTERROGATIVE
Et se tadsa..... You are married.	Duves et se tadsa?.... Are you married?
Ha mari se maya..... The stars are bright.	Duves ha mari se maya?.... Are the stars bright?
Hut aka.....That guy won.	Hot aka?.... Who won?
Iyt aka glas.....He won a lot.	Hoglas iyt aka?.... How much did she win?
It paye..... He has gone.	Hom it paye?.... Where has he gone?

Note that the question words introduce the sentence and do not alter the word order as seen in the declarative. Also, a declarative sentence can be made interrogative simply by adding a question mark at the end in writing or raising the voice inflection at the end in speaking, eg:

• Et tame ha yubem?.... You live in the neighborhood?

Yes/no questions such as the above and those introduced with Duves usually are answered with va yes, ve maybe, or vo no or their equivalents.

YES-NO QUESTION	ANSWER
Duves eta dyun se John?.... Is your name John?	Vo, se Bill..... No, it's Bill.
Duves eta apet aka?.... Did you horse win?	Va. Atas vay aka....Yes. Mine won indeed.
Duves et texe vas ha malyen gafiso hijub?.... Do you think the weather will improve today?	Ve..... Maybe.
Fe per bay at?... Wanna go with me?	Vey zajub.... Maybe tomorrow.

Affirming/ Doubting / Negating Declarations

The following set of interjections and adverbs can be used to affirm, cast doubt on, or negate declarations:

	INTERJECTION	ADVERB	PROPOSITION
AFFIRMATIVE	va yes	vay indeed, really	Va. At vay yantexe.... Yes, I indeed/do/really agree.
DUBITATIVE	ve maybe, perhaps	vey possibly, may...	Ve. At vey po..... Maybe. I may/possibly will go.
NEGATIVE	vo no	voy not	Vo. At voy su iva..... No. I would not be happy.

Mixing Them Up

The above interrogative words and the words of affirmation / doubt / negation can be used in various combinations, for example:

• Duves et voy se tadsa?.... Aren't you married?
• Avhos iyt se voy tadsa?.... Why isn't she married?
• Vey voy mamilo..... It may not rain.
• At vay voy tadso iyt..... I will certainly not marry her.
• Et peyo, vya?.... You will go, right?
• Vo. Hus vey vay se vyoa..... No. That may indeed be wrong.
• Et te ha dud, vya?.... You know the answer, don't you? (=right?)

Note that the particles of affirmation/doubt/negation usually precede the verb, but can just as easily follow it.

• At voy te. .... I don't know.
• At te voy. .... I don't know. [Lit: I know not.]

Imperative and Hortative Expressions

An imperative expression is a command. In Mirad, a verb in the hypothetical without a subject is assumed to an imperative referring implicitly to you. For example:

• Ipu!.... Go away!
• Tiju!.... Wake up!
• Su fiat!.... Be a good person!

Hortative expressions, i.e. urging or wishing expressions like Let's go. or May he win., use the hypothetical form of the verb with the clause introduced by the positive complementizer vas that, may, let. In Arabic and some other languages, this is called the jussive' mood.

• Vas yat fadilu..... Let's pray. (Lit: That we would pray.)
• Vas et aku hia ifek..... May you win this game.
• Vas ha edeb yagteju..... Long live the king. (Lit. That the king would long-live.)

The negative version of imperative and hortative expressions is introduced with the negative complementizer hov don't, lest, let's not. If there is no subject pronoun, you is understood.

• Vos dalu at huyen..... Don't (you) speak to me that way.
• Vos yit oku..... May they not lose.
• Vos yat toxu it..... Let's not forget him.

Complementizers

Hav, hev, and hov are part of a whole system of complementizers:

TYPE	COMPLEMENTIZERS	MEANING	MIRAD EXAMPLE	ENGLISH EQUIVALENT
INTERROGATIVE	duhev...?	Is it true that...? Tell (me) whether... (yes/no question introducer)	Duhev eta dyun se John?	Is (it true that) your name is John?
CONDITIONAL	hev	if, whether	Hev et te, du has. At utdide hev it upo.	If you know, say so. I wonder whether he'll come.
ANTI-CONDITIONAL	ohev	unless	Oves et yexe, et voy ako.	Unless you work, you will not win.
POSITIVE/HORTATIVE	hav	that, so that, let, may	At ta hav it upo. Hav yat dilo. Hav et su iva. At xa has hav et fitexu at.	I knew (that) he would come. Let's pray. Let you be happy. I did it so you'd think well of me.
NEGATIVE/PROHIBITIVE	Hov	Don't, let...not, lest	Hov teaxu at. Hov yat su uva. At pio hov et futepyensu.	Don't look at me. Let's not be sad. I will leave lest you get angry.

Subjunctive Clauses

The hypothetical mood is also used in subjunctive clauses. A subjunctive clause is one in which an action or state is desired, requested, required, or wanted in some other way by the actor in the main clause. Positive subjunctive clauses are introduced with the positive complementizer hav that, let's, so that. Here are some examples:

• Ha ideb dila hav at tyoibu za it..... The king asked that I kneel before him.
• Se igefwa hav et upu gwa ig..... It is urgent that you come as soon as possible.
• Dirwa hav hyat dolu..... It was ordered that everyone be silent.

A negative subjunctive clause is introduced with the negative complementizer hov don't, lest.

• Su bikaya hov et pyosu..... Be careful lest you fall / that you not fall.

The conditional complementizer hev if, whether can introduce a clause in the subjunctive, indicating an unreal condition, as in the following examples:

• At sexu tam hev at su nasika....I would build a house if I were (= would be) rich.
• Hos et xu hev et baysu ga nas?...What would you do if you had (= would have) more money?

Many of the above sentences could be rephrased with an infinitive in order to avoid the subjunctive:

• Ha ideb dila at tyoiber za it..... The king asked me to kneel before him.
• Se igefwa av et uper gwa ig..... It is urgent for you to come as soon as possible.
• Hyat dirwa doler..... Everyone was ordered to be silent.
• Su bikaya voy pyoser..... Be careful not to fall.

If-Then Conditional Clauses

A conditional clause is introduced with the conditional complementizer hev if, whether. The if-clause can be a real tense or a hypothetical. If the if-clause is hypothetical, the then-clause is also hypothetical. Here are the possible variations:

IF-CLAUSE	THEN-CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Hev ot yexe gla, If one works hard,	ot akxe. one succeeds.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
Hev et ta, If you knew,	et dola. you kept quiet.
FUTURE INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
Hev et pio, If you leave,	at so uva. I will be sad.
PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
Hev at su nasika, If I were rich, Hev et teetu, If you would listen,	at nusbiu aga tam. I would buy a new house. et testu. you would understand.
PAST HYPOTHETICAL	PAST HYPOTHETICAL
Hev at tayu, If I had known,	at dudayu hyuyen. I would have responded differently.

Note that in English, when the then-clause is future tense, the if-clause is present; This is not the case in Mirad, where both clauses are in the future. In Mirad, the formula is "If you WILL leave, I WILL be sad." In English, the formula "I didn't know whether he WOULD x" is translated in Mirad as "I didn't know whether he WILL x."

If/Whether Subordinate Clauses

Here are some examples of sentences where the main clause contains some verb of knowing, questioning, wondering, guessing followed by a subordinate clause introduced by the conditional complementizer hev whether / if. Note that the tenses in Mirad are somewhat different in that there is no relative shifting of time as in English.

MAIN CLAUSE	IF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
At utdide I wonder	hev it te ha vyan. if / whether he knows the truth.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
At voy te I don't know	hev yit aka ey oka. if / whether they won or lost.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
At voy te I don't know	hev et ujako. if / whether you will succeed.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
At utdide I wonder	hev et yantexu. if / whether you would agree.
PAST INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
At voy ta I didn't know	hev it se tadsa. if / whether he was [Mirad: is] married.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
At dida I asked	hev iyt teata hia dezun. if / whether she had seen [Mirad: saw] this play.
PAST INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
At voy ta I didn't know	hev it upo if / whether he would [Mirad: will] come.
PAST INDICATIVE	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
At dida I asked	hev it fu per bay at. if / whether he might like to go with me.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST HYPOTHETICAL
At dida I asked	hev it fayu per bay at. if / whether he might have liked to go with me.

The negative conditional complementizer ohev unless is used in main-subordinate clause structures in the same way as the above.

MAIN CLAUSE	IF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Ot voy ujake One does not succeed	ohev ot yexe jestay. unless one works hard.
FUTURE INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Et voy teato at You won't see me	ohev et upo. unless you come (= will come).

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are of two types:

• Bound relative clauses qualify an explicit element (usually a noun or phrase) appearing in the main clause, and refer back to that element by means of the relative complementizer hu, and:
• Free relative clauses, which do not have an explicit antecedent external to themselves. Instead, the relative clause itself takes the place of an argument in the matrix clause. For example, in the English sentence I like what I see, the clause what I see is a free relative clause, because it has no antecedent, but itself serves as the object of the verb like in the main clause. (An alternative analysis is that the free relative clause has zero as its antecedent.) In Mirad, deictic pronouns or adverbs followed by the relative complementizer hu, as shown in the chart below, are used to introduce the free relative clause.

Bound Relative Clauses

The invariable relative complementizer hu is used to introduce a bound relative clause and refer back to an element in the main clause. Here are some examples:

• Ha tob, hu tadsa ja ewa jabi, bayse awa tobot.....The man, who got married two years ago, has one child.
• Ha toyb hu ake ibe aga nazun.....The woman who wins receives a big prize.
• Hia pati hu at pexa magilwo himaj.....These birds (that/which) I caught will be cooked this evening.
• Biu hyea jotul hu et fu.....Take any dessert (that) you'd like.
• Ha apet hu at bua it ha afyab apeda bay if.....The horse I gave the apple to neighed with pleasure. (= ...that I gave him the apple...)
• Iyt ijtyexa at bu ha yexeb hu iyt yexaya ob it je gla jabi....She introduced me to the boss under whom she had worked for many years. (Lit: ...that she had worked under him...)

Note that in cases where the relative clause ends in a preposition governing the man clause antecedent, a pronoun is added agreeing in gender, number, and animacy with the main clause antecedent. This type of construction occurs in the last two example sentences above. So, the English relative clause for whom I sang would be expressed in Mirad as that I sang for her/him/it/them depending on the gender, number, and animacy of the antecedent in the main clause.

• Ha toybi hu at deuza av iyti fida ata yafi.....The ladies for whom I sang (= that I sang for them) praised my abilities.

Bound relative clauses beginning with whose are expressed in Mirad as hu ita/iyta/yita/yiyta (= that his/her/their/their), depending on the gender and number of the explicit antecedent in the main clause.

• Ha ekuyt hu iyta tyoyab yonpyexwa yofa eker hijeb....The female player whose foot (= that her foot) was broken was unable to play this season.
• Ata yubati, hu yita tam sa jay ga aga vyel yatas, agaxa yita param gajod....Our neighbors, whose (= that their) house is already bigger than ours, enlarged their garage again.

If no preposition governing the antecedent is involved, but the relative clause takes the place of an objective case element, supplying a pronoun referring back to the antecedent noun, is optional:

• Ha dyeni hu at dyedi (hasi) zamaj sa hya fiasi....The books I read (= them) last evening were all good (ones).

Free Relative Clauses

Free relative clauses are introduced by a deictic pronoun or adverb followed by the relative complementizer hu as shown in the charts below.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS	MIRAD...ENGLISH	EXAMPLE
THING(S)	has hu...what/that which/the thing that hasi hu...what/those which/the things that hyes hu...whatever/anything that hyesi hu...whatever/anything that/any things that hyas hu...everything that/all that hyasi hu...all (things) that hyos hu...nothing (that) hyosi hu...none of the things (that) haas hu...which one haasi hu...which ones	Has hu at da se vyaa....What I said is true. Hasi hu it xa futepyenua at....What/the things he did angered me. At xo hyes hu et do....I will do whatever/anything you say. Et voy teeta hyesi hu at deuza....You didn't hear any of the things I sang. Hyas hu at fe se poos....All I want is peace. At akxa hyusi hu at fa....I achieved all the things I wanted. At testa hyos hu et da....I understood nothing you said. Hyosi hu et iyfe ifue at....None of the things you like appeal to me. At te voy haas hu at gwafe....I don't know which one I like best. At te haasi hu at gwofe....I know which ones I like least.
PERSON(S)	hat hu...who//the person (who) hati hu...those who/the ones who hyet hu...whoever/anybody who/that hyeti hu...whoever/any people that/who hyat hu...everyone that/everybody who hyati hu...all (people) who hyot hu...nobody (that/who) hyoti hu...no people (that/who) huta hu...whose haat hu...which one haati hu...which ones	Hat hu et teata pia....The person you saw left. Hsti hu at tye yantexe....The people I know agree. At teapo hyet wa at fe....I will visit whomever I wish. Et voy teata hyeti hu at teata....You didn't see any of the ones I saw. Hyat hu at ijtya sa fiyena....Everyone I met was nice. At fida hyati hu at yeyfa....I praised all the people I was supposed to. At testa hyot hu at teeta....I understood nobody I heard. Hati hu et ijtyaxa sa fuyena....The ones you introduced were ill-mannered. At te voy hati hu ifpot his se....I don't know whose pet this is. At te voy haat hu at gwafe....I don't know which one (person) I like best. At te haati hu at gwofe....I know which ones (people) I like least.
RELATIVE ADVERBS	MIRAD ADVERB...ENGLISH ADVERB	EXAMPLE
PLACE	ham hu...where hyem hu...wherever hyam hu...everywhere hu...bi ham...from where, whence hu...bu ham...to where, whither	Yat teje ham hu ha malyem se ema....We live where the weather is mild. At fu per hyem hu et po....I'd like to go wherever you go. Hyam hu et pe, su bikaya....Everywhere you go, be careful. Ha dom hu at upe bi ham se gla oga....The town from where I come (Lit: that I come from it) is very small. Ha memi hu at popeyo hami se gle jiba....The countries where I am going to be traveling are quite distant.
TIME	haj hu...when hyej hu...whenever hyaj hu...everywhere	Du at haj hu et puo....Tell me when you arrive. Hyej hu iyt se iva, iyt deuze....Whenever/anytime she is happy, she sings. Hyaj hu at yabteaxe, et yobteaxe....Every time I look up, you look down.
MANNER/KIND	hayen hu...how, in what way, as hyeyen hu...however, in any way, in whatever manner hyiyen hu just as, the same way as	At utdide hayen hu it xa hus....I wonder how he did it. Hyeyen hu xwa se kos....However it happened is a mystery. Xu has hyiyen hu at xe has....Do it the same way as I do it.
DEGREE	hagla hu...how, to what extent hyigla hu...just as	Et hyoj to hagla hu iva at se....You'll never know how happy I am. At popo hugla hu yib at yafe....I will travel as far as I can.
QUANTITY	hagla hu...how much, how many hyegla hu...however much, however many hyigla hu...as much/many as	Duhev et te hagla hu nas it bayse?...Do you know how much money he has? Yet dida yat hyegla hu tami yat sexa....You guys asked us however many houses did we build. Et niso hyigla hu nas at xe....You will earn as much money as I do.
REASON	avhas hu...why, for what reason avhyes hu...why ever, for whatever reason	Duhev et te avhas hu it xa hus....Do you know why he did that? Yat voy teste avhyes hu et xu hus....We don't understand why ever you'd do that.

If the relative clause is restrictive (i.e. it cannot be omitted without violating the meaning of the sentence), then no commas are used, but if it is non-restrictive (i.e. it provides new information that can be omitted), then it is surrounded by commas, just as in English.

• RESTRICTIVE: Ha mar hu yata mer zyupe has dyunie ha amar. The star that our planet goes around (Lit: it) is called the sun.
• NON-RESTRICTIVE: Ha amar, hu yata mer zyupe has, se vay ahay mar. The sun, which our planet goes around, is really only a star.

Indirect and Direct Discourse

As in English, Mirad has both indirect discourse and direct discourse. Indirect discourse is when you know or say that something happened, whereas direct discourse is when you directly quote what someone has said.

Indirect Discourse

Sentences that have a main clause of communication or knowledge, followed by a subordinate clause with an indirect indication of what was said or known, use the positive complementizer hav (that, the fact that) to introduce the subordinate clause. The tense in the subordinate clause is a true tense, not a relative tense. Unlike in English, where the that can often be omitted, the Mirad hav complementizer can never be omitted.

• At ta hav et upo..... I knew that you would (= will) come.
• Ata ted da hav it yexe hya ita tej gel fufut..... My father said that he had worked (= he worked) all his life as a plumber.
• Se vyaa hav at gra tele..... It is true that I eat too much.
• At jada hav et puo jwa..... I predicted that you would (= you will) arrive early.

The conditional complementizer hev if, whether and the negative complementizer hov lest, don't, that...not are discussed in later sections.

Direct Discourse

Direct discourse works exactly as in English. Double quotes are used to surround the directly quoted part of the sentence.

• Iyt da, "At voy fe per." She said, "I don't want to go."
• At dida it, "Hot sa eta ted?". I asked him, "Who was your father?"

Transitivity

Verbs can be transitive, intransitive, or reflexive. Verbs in the passive voice are by nature intransitive.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs can take a direct object and oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity.

Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go). Here are some examples:

TRANSITIVE	INTRANSITIVE
xer do	ser be
agxer grow (something)	agser grow (up)
amxer heat, make hot	amser become hot, heat up
puxer throw	puser jump
per go	ber put
aber put on	aper get on
yaber raise	yaper rise
poxer stop (something)	poser (come to a) stop
yuber bring	yuper approach
yeber insert	yeper enter

• At agxe vobi..... I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants.
• Ha vobi agseye ig..... The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast.

• Poxu ha par!.... Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car!
• Ha par posa..... The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE].

• At yaba ha mis..... I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window.
• Ha amar yapaye..... The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE].

Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity

Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer to sleep vs. tujper to fall asleep.

INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE
Ha mes yija....The door opened. Ha nasyef yijpa....The purse came open.	At yijba ha mes....I opened the door.
Ha mes yuja.....The door closed. Ha yanup yujpa.....The meeting adjourned.	At yujba ha mes.....I closed the door.
Ha dezun ijaye.....The play has started. Ha par ijpa boy poys.....The car started up immediately.	At ijba ata tul.....I started my meal.
Ha dezun ujaye.....The play has ended. Ata yex ujpaye.....My work has come to an end.	A ujba ha dyen.....I finished the book.
Ha tob toja zomoj.....The man died yesterday evening. Ha tob tojpa.....The man dropped dead.	Hot tojba ha tob?....Who killed the man?
Teju.....Live!. Tejpu!.....Come alive!.	Yat efe tejber ha tob.....We need to revive the man.
Ha tobob taja zojub.....The baby was born yesterday.	Iyt tajba awa tobob zojub.....She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.
At tija jwe.....I woke up on time. It voy tijpa.....He did not come to..	At tijbo et jwa.....I will wake (you) up early.
At tujeya.....I was sleeping. At tujpeya.....I was falling sleep.	At tujbo it.....I will put (him) to sleep..

The transitive voice of verbs like those in the above chart can be made passive with w:

• Ha tob tojbwa zomoj.....The man was killed last evening.
• Ha tobob tajbwo bey ha bekut.....The baby will be delivered by the nurse.
• Ha bukwat voy yafe tejbwer.....The injured person cannot be saved.
• Ha mis yijbwa je ha moj.....The window was opened during the night.

Reflexive Verbs

Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.:

• At tujboye atut..... I am going to kill myself.
• Tu etut!.... Know thyself!
• It gorba itut bay gorbar..... He cut himself with a knife.
• Ot yefe yuxer otut..... One must help oneself.

Sometimes, verbs incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix:

• uttujber.... commit suicide
• utboler.... support oneself

Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.:

• Et efe vyimiler etut..... You need to wash up [= wash yourself]. (or)
• Et efe utvyimiler.....You need to wash up.

Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs

Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object.

PREPOSITION-INCORPORATING VERB	EXAMPLE
per go (to)	Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home., It pa Paris. He went to Paris.
der say (to), tell	Du at eta dyun. Tell me your name., Du at has. Tell it to me.
peser wait (for)	Pesu at. Wait for me.
buer give (to)	Buu at hua dyes. Give me that book.

As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu has bu at. Give it to me.

Transitive/Causative and Intransitive/Inchoative Verbs

Derived from Adjectives

Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, while an inchoative verb means to become or take on the quality of something. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize.

To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix xer to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer.

ADJECTIVE	CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE	CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE
-xer	LITERAL	IDIOMATIC
aga big	agaxer to magnify	agxer to grow
ana one	anaxer to unify	anxer to unite
yona apart	yonaxer to separate	yonxer to cut
yaga long	yagaxer to lengthen	yagxer to stretch
yuga slow	yugaxer to retard	yugxer to brake
sana formal	sanaxer to formalize	sanxer to form
gea equal	geaxer to equalize	gexer to copy, equate
jaa prior	jaaxer to prioritize	jaxer to prepare

To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser to be to either the stem or the whole adjective.

ADJECTIVE	INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE	INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE
-ser	LITERAL	IDIOMATIC
aga big	agaser to get bigger	agser to grow
ana one	anaser to unify	anser to unite, become united
yona apart	yonaser to become separate	yonser to break

Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.:

• Ansu ey yet yonxwo. Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE]
• At otadsa haj hu at sa eta jag. I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE]
• Hisi agaxo has hu et teate. These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE]
• Hia tobot agseye ig. This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE]
• Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom. My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE]

Derived from Nouns

Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X.

NOUN	TRANSITIVE/CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE	INTRANSITIVE/INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE
mog ash	mogxer to incinerate	mogser to become ashes
yan collection	yanxer to collect	yanser to get together
tad spouse	tadxer to marry	tadser to get married
yom ice	yomxer to freeze/make ice	yomser to freeze/become ice
mag fire	magxer to burn, set fire to	magser to burn, get burned
uk void	ukxer to empty	ukser become empty, empty out

Derived from Verbs

Verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb stem ux (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused, eg.:

• At gorbuxo ata tayeb zamaj..... I will get my hair cut tomorrow.
• Et voy yafe puxer at..... You cannot make me go.
• It tojbuxa yit..... He had them killed.
• At efe vyilxuxer ata par..... I need to have my car washed.
• Et upuxwa him avhes..... You were made to come here for some reason.
• At bakambuxo et..... I will have you hospitalized.
• Et voy yafe deuzuxer at..... You cannot make me sing.
• At ivteuduxwa..... I was tickled (= made to laugh).
• Eta deuz ivteuduxa yat..... Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)
• Hav het ivasuxu et..... May someone get you to be happy.

Directional Verbs

The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the ending ier for an action or motion toward the speaker and uer for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some object, eg.:

SUBJECT-DIRECTED	OBJECT-DIRECTED
bier to take	buer to give
nier to consume	nuer to supply
nyier to order	nyuer to deliver
nunier to buy	nunuer to sell
nazunier win a prize	nazunuer award a prize
noysier pay off	noysuer charge
ojbier borrow	ojbuer lend
tadier get married	taduer marry off
papier take flight	papuer send off flying
pipier set sail	pipuer dock
simbier take a seat	simbuer offer a seat
tampier leave home	tampuer arrive home
tamier settle in	tamuer shelter
nusbier to buy	nisbuer to sell
telier to eat	teluer to feed
gonbier to participate	gonbuer to share
tilier to drink	tiluer to water, give to drink
teubier to swallow	teubuer to spit out
teatier to observe, watch	teatuer to show
taxier to memorize	taxuer to remind
alier to breathe in	aluer to breathe out, expire
ilier to absorb	iluer to leak, soak
ifier to enjoy	ifuer to please
dier to ask	duer to suggest
tier to learn	tuer to inform
pier to depart	puer to arrive
kebier to choose	kebuer to distribute
tujier to fall asleep	tujuer to put to sleep
tojier to fall dead	tojuer to kill
byier to originate	byuer to target
mempier to take off	mempuer to land
sinier visualize	sinuer display
xier to result	xuer to cause

Prepositions and Directional Adverbs as Verbal Prefixes

Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate to p before the verb per to go and a preposition ending in b will lose the b before a verb beginning with b. Here are some examples:

PREPOSITION/ADVERB	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
ab on	aber apply	aper get on, mount
ob off	ober remove	oper get of, dismount
eb between	eber block	eper intervene
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise
yob down	yober take down	yoper descend
yub near	yuber bring near	yuper approach
yib far	yiber take away	yiper go far away
yeb in	yeber insert	yeper enter
yeb in	yepuxer throw in	yepuser jump in
oyeb out	oyeber expose	oyeper exit
oyeb out	oyepuxer eject	oyepuser jump out
zyu round	zyuber rotate	zyuper revolve
zya throughout	zyaber spread	zyaper tour
av for	avdaler plead	avper pursue
ov against	ovber oppose	ovper countervene
yan together	yanber compose	yanper meet
yon apart	yonber separate	yonper separate
iz direct	izber lead	izper head
uz curved	uzber divert	uzper diverge
yuz around	yuzbexer surround	yuzper circulate
yiz beyond	yizber transfer	yizper surpass

Note:

The prefix eej- anew, again is used like the English prefix re-, eg.:

• ember to position → eejember to reposition, replace
• der to say → eejder to repeat
• sanxer to shape, form → eejsanxer to reshape, reform

The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.:

• saxer to build, construct → losaxer to destroy, deconstruct
• yonxer to unite → loyonxer to disunite
• xer to do → loxer to undo

The prefix vyo- is used as the counterpart to the English mis-, meaning wrongfully, eg.:

• nadxer to align → vyonadxer to misalign
• der to say → vyoder to misstate, lie
• utbier to appropriate → vyoutbier to misappropriate

The prefix yan- together is used as the English co-, eg.:

• exer to operate → yanexer to cooperate
• tamer to dwell → yantamer to cohabit
• napber to put in order → yannapber to coordinate

The prefix zoy- is used as the English re(tro)-, meaning back, eg.:

• teaper to visit → zoyteaper to revisit
• uper to come → zoyuper to return, come back
• buxer to push → zoybuxer to repel, push back
• puxer to throw → zoypuxer to reject, throw back, jettison

The prefix az- (from aza strong) is used as an intensifier, eg.:

• yujber to close → azyujber to lock
• der to say → azder to emphasize
• duer to suggest → azduer to urge
• dizeuder to laugh → azdizeuder to guffaw

By contrast, the prefix oz- (from oza weak) is used as a softener, eg.:

• der to utter → ozder to whisper
• duer to suggest → ozduer to hint
• dizeuder to laugh → ozdizeuder to chuckle
• uvteuder to moan → ozuvteuder to whimper

The prefix ja- before is used as the English prefix pre-, fore-, or ante-, eg.:

• der to tell → jader to foretell, predict
• teater to see → jateater to foresee, preview
• ter to know → jater to presage, have foreknowledge of
• yever to judge → jayever to prejudge
• juder to date → jajuder to antedate

By contrast, jo- after is used as the English prefix post-, eg.:

• juder to date → jojuder to postdate
• texer to think → jotexer to reflect on, review
• der to say → joder to mourn, regret
• ibler to obtain → joibler to inherit

The prefix gra- too much is used for actions that are excessive, eg.:

• telier to eat → gratelier to overeat
• fer to want → grafer to cover
• der to say → grader to exaggerate
• daler to talk → gradaler to yammer

By contrast, the prefix gro- to little is used for actions that are underdone, eg.:

• fyinder to value → grofyinder to underestimate
• mageler to cook → gromageler to undercook

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc.

Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad:

POSITIVE		NEGATIVE
afer may ayfer might	efer need	ofer may not oyfer might not
ifer love iyfer like	fer want	ufer hate uyfer dislike
yafer can, be able yayfer might, could	yefer must, have to yeyfer ought, should	yofer cannot yoyfer could not, might not
yifer dare		yufer be afraid
yiver have a right, be free		yuver be bound

If the modal verb is in the hypothetic aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples:

• At fe per..... I want to go.
• At fu per..... I would like to go.

• Et yafe aker..... You can win.
• Et yafu aker..... You could win.

• Yet yefe iper..... You must leave.
• Yet yefu iper..... You ought to leave.

Post-iotating the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example:

• At ife et. ....I love you.
• At iyfe et. ....I like you.

• Et yefe iper..... You must leave.
• Et yeyfe iper..... You should leave.

• Iyt yafe aker..... She can win.
• Iyt yayfe aker..... She might win.

• At ufa uda tuz..... I hated that art.
• At uyfa uda tuz..... I disliked that art.

By the same token, adding the intensifying consonants l and r add strength to the model verb sense:

• Hua toyb yufxa at..... That woman scared me.
• Hua toyb yulfxa at..... That woman intimidated me.
• Hua toyb yurfxa at..... That woman terrorized me.

• Hia yex efwo..... This work will be necessary.
• Hia yex elfwo..... This work will be critical.
• Hia yex erfwo..... This work will be indispensable.

• Su yifa..... Be brave.
• Su yilfa..... Be bold.
• Su yirfa..... Be heroic.

• Et yuve buer nas..... You are supposed to give money.
• Et yulve buer nas..... You are bound to give money.
• Et yurve buer nas..... You are absolutely compelled to give money.

Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries:

• Et afe oyeper ay ifeker..... You may go out and play.
• Yat efa tujer..... We needed to sleep.
• Ot ofe mavier him..... One is prohibited to smoke here.
• Mavier him ofwe..... Smoking here is prohibited.
• At ife dyeer..... I love to read.
• He et fe yebuper?.... Do you want to come in?
• At fu teaper et edjub..... I would like to visit you some day.
• It ufaye hyaj teaxwer..... He has always hated being looked at.
• Duhev et iyfe per tilami?.... Do you like going to bars?
• At uyfe tijer gra jwa..... I dislike waking up too early.
• Et yafe xer hyes hu et fu..... You can do whatever you like.
• Et yefer xer ad vyaas..... You must do the right thing.
• Et yeyfe voy daler huyen azay..... You should not talk so loud.
• At yeyfa ter ga fi..... I should have known better.
• At voy yifu der hyea fuas..... I would not dare say anything bad.
• Hov yufu der has hu et tesde..... Don't be afraid to say what you mean.
• Et yive dier yevanavdut..... You have a right to ask for a lawyer.
• Yat voy yuve kyoejer..... We are not bound to stick around.

Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms

All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented", eg:

SUBJECT-ORIENTED VERB	SUBJECT-ORIENTED ADJECTIVE	PATIENT-ORIENTED VERB	PATIENT-ORIENTED ADJECTIVE
afer may	afa allowed	afwer be permitted	afwa permissable
efer need	efa needful	efwer be necessary	efwa necessary, required
ofer be unallowed	ofa prohibited	ofwer be prohibited	ofwa banned
yafer be able	yafa able	yafwer be possible	yafwa possible
yefer must	yefa obliged	yefwer be obligatory	yefwa obligatory
yofer be unable	yofa unable	yofwer be impossible	yefwa impossible
fer want	fa willing	fwer be desirable	fwa desirable, wanted
yifer dare	yofa daring, brave	yifwer be safe	yifwa safe
yufer be afraid	yifa afraid	yufwer be a danger	yufwa frightning

• Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him. It is permissible to smoke here.
• Ofwe (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him. It is prohibited to throw litter here.
• Fwe (= se fwa) hav yet dolu. It is desired that you stop talking.
• Voy yafwe beser him gajob. It is not possible to remain here any longer.
• Yofwa av at ivteuder. It was not possible for me to laugh.
• Yefwe hav et piu ig. It is essential that you leave quickly.
• He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi? Is it obligatory to remove my shoes?
• Ga yux efwo. More help will be needed.

*Ofawa is used for unwanted for disambiguation purposes.

Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems

Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below:

SUBJECT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED
afxer allow (someone to do sthg.)	afwaxer permit (something to be done)
efxer require	efwaxer necessitate
ofxer prohibit	ofwaxer prohibit
yafxer enable	yafwaxer make possible
yefxer oblige	yefwaxer make obligatory
yofxer cripple	yofwaxer disable
yifxer embolden	yifwaxer make safe
yufxer intimidate	yufwaxer make frightening
ifxer please	ifwaxer make pleasant

Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes

Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things.

	POSITIVE ADJECTIVE	NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	-yafa able to X, -able	-yofa unable to X, un-X-able
PATIENT-ORIENTED	-yafwa possible to X	-yofwa impossible to X
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	-ifa fond of Xing, Xophile	-ufa averse to Xing, Xophobic
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	-yika hard of Xing	yuka comfortable Xing
PATIENT-ORIENTED	-yikwa hard to X	yukwa easy to X
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	-efa in need of Xing
PATIENT-ORIENTED	-efwa necessary to X

	POSITIVE ADJECTIVE	POSITIVE VERB	NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE	NEGATIVE VERB
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	teatyafa able to see, sighted	teatyafer be able to see	teatyofa blind	teatyofer be blind
PATIENT-ORIENTED	teatyafwa visible	teatyafwer be visible	teatyofwa invisible	teatyofwer be invisible
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	teetyafa able to hear, hearing	teetyafer be able to hear	teetyofa deaf	teatyofer be deaf
PATIENT-ORIENTED	teetyafwa audible	teetyafwer be audible	teeyofwa inaudible	teeyofwer be inaudiable
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	dalyafa able to speak	dalyafer be able to speak	dalyofa mute, dumb	dalyofer be mute, dumb
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	doabifa patriotic	doabifer be patriotic	doabufa rebellious	doabufer rebel
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	tosyafa sensitive	tosyafer be able to feel	tosyofa insensitive	tosyofer be numbed
PATIENT-ORIENTED	tayotyafwa palpable	tayotyafwer be palpable	tayotyofwa numb	tayotyofwer be impalbable, numb
PATIENT-ORIENTED	tidyukwa easy to understand	tidyukwaxer make easily understood	tidyikwa hard to understand	tidyikwaxer make hard to understand
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	tilefa thirsty	tilefer be thirsty
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	telefa hungry	telefer be hungry
PATIENT-ORIENTED	tejefwa vital	tejefwer be vital

Sensing Verbs

Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern:

	VISUAL	AUDIAL	OLFACTORY	GUSTATORY	TACTILE
	teab eye	teeb ear	teib nose	teub mouth	tayob skin
RECEPTIVE/ACTIVE	teater see	teeter hear	teiter smell	teuter taste	tayoter feel
RECEPTIVE/PASSIVE	teatwer be seen	teetwer be heard	teitwer be smelled	teutwer be tasted	tayotwer be felt
STATIVE	teaser seem	teeser sound	teiser smell	teuser taste	tayoser feel (or) toser
DYNAMIC/ACTIVE	teaxer look at	teexer listen	teixer sniff	teuxer taste	tayoxer touch (or) toxer
DYNAMIC/PASSIVE	teaxwer be looked at	teexwer be listened to	teixwer be sniffed	teuxwer be tasted	tayoxwer be touched (or) toxwer
CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE	teatuer show	teetuer make hear	teixuer make smell	teuxuer offer a taste	tayoxuer make feel (or) toxuer
CAUSATIVE/PASSIVE	teatuwer be shown	teetuwer be made to hear	teituwer be made to smell	teutuwer be given a taste	tayotuwer be made to feel (or) toxuwer
INCHOATIVE/ACTIVE	teatier perceive, catch sight of	teetier catch the sound of	teitier get a whiff of	teutuer get a taste of	tayotier get the sensation of
INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE	teatiwer be perceived	teetiwer be heard	teitiwer be whiffed	teutiwer be tasted	tayotiwer be felt
NEGATIVE-MODAL/PATIENT-ORIENTED/ STATIVE	teatyofer be blind	teetyofer be deaf	teityofer be unable to smell	teityofer be unable to taste	tayotyofer be insensitive
NEGATIVE-MODAL/OBJECT-ORIENTED/ STATIVE	teatyofwer be invisible	teetyofwer be inaudible	teityofwer be undetectable odorwise	teityofwer be insipid	tayotyofwer be undetectable by touch
NEGATIVE-MODAL/PATIENT-ORIENTED/CAUSATIVE	teatyofxer blind	teetyofxer deafen	teityofxer desensitize to smell	teutyofxer desensitize to taste	tayotyofxer desensitize
NEGATIVE-MODAL/OBJECT-ORIENTED/CAUSATIVE	teatyofwaxer make invisible	teetyofwaxer make inaudible	teityofwaxer make odorless	teutyofwaxer render tasteless	tayotyofwaxer numb

Examples of usage:

• At teatyofxwa bey ha mani. I was blinded by the lights.
• Ha xeus sa teetyofxyea. The noise was deafening.
• Hia tit se gla teatiyea. This pupil is very perceptive.
• Hua bekil se teityofwa. That medecine is odorless (impossible to smell).
• Teatyofwaxu ha vyuni. Make the spots invisible.
• Ha magmeb yonpyerx tayotyafwa zya ha mir. The volcano eruption could be felt throughout the world.

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that connect and show a relationship between a noun or noun phrase and the rest of the sentence. In Mirad, prepositions are simple monosyllables or phrases. Prepositions, as in English, are positioned before the noun or noun phrase they connect.

Single-word Prepositions

Here is a chart of simple prepositions. Most are spatial, but some are temporal, relational, or mathematical.

POSITIVE	NEUTRAL	NEGATIVE
	SPATIAL
ab on, upon	eb between	ob off, off of
ayb over, above	eyb among, amid	oyb under, below
bu to	be at	bi from, of
byu as far as, up to		byi since, starting with
bay with	bey by	boy without
ub toward		ib away from
yub near (to)	yeb in oyeb out of	yib far (from)
yaz flush with	yez along	yoz perpendicular to
yuz around		yiz beyond
za in front of	ze at the middle of zey across	zo behind, in back of
zu (to the) left (of)		zi (to the) right (of)
zya throughout	zye through
	TEMPORAL
ja before	je during, while	jo after
ju until		ji since
	RELATIONAL
av for	vyel than, as, compared to, about	ov against
ay and	ey or	oy but, except
	MATHEMATICAL
gab plus, +		gob, - minus
gal times, x	gel like ogel unlike	gol, ÷ divided by
gar to the power of		gor to the root of

Examples showing how these single-word prepositions are used:

• Ha dyen se ab ha sem..... The book is on the table.
• Hov et pyosu ob ha abtamas!.... Don't fall off the roof!
• Ha pati papa ayb ata tam..... The birds flew over my house.
• It kosa oyb ha yagsim..... He hid under the bench.
• Simbiu eb hut ay at..... Take a seat between that person and me.
• Yat teje eyb fiati..... We live among good people.
• Hos se nax bi pop bu ay bi Boston?.... What is the cost of a trip to and from Boston?
• His se ifek bi kyen..... This is a game of luck.
• Duvas et sa be hua duzun zomoj?.... Were you at that concert last night?
• Yit se embwa be ha zenod bi ha mapil..... We are positioned at the hub of this storm.
• Iyt tyoyapa byu ha mis..... She walked up to the door.
• Ha tob tojbwa bey gobar..... The man was killed with/by a knife.
• Et xu ga fiay ser bay at ev boy at..... You would do better to be with me than without me.
• Teaxu ib ha amar..... Look away from the sun.
• Hov teaxu iz ub ja man..... Don't look directly toward the light.
• Et efe tyoyaper yuz ha ovon..... You need to walk around the obstacle.
• Yat yofe per yiz hia nod..... We are prohibited from going beyond this point.
• Iyt simpa za at. .... She sat in front of me.
• Et yeyfe simbier zo hua toyb..... You should sit in back of that woman.
• Embu has zu ha mis..... Put it to the left of the door.
• At simpo zi et..... I will sit to the right of you.
• Ha pat poosa ze ha tim..... The bird stayed in the middle of the room.
• Diwe hav et poosu yeb ha tam..... Please stay in the house.
• At so oyebdom av yoga joob..... I will be out of town for a short while.
• Ha mimpar mimpa yaz ha mip..... The boat sailed along the river.
• His xwa zya ha doob..... This happened throughout the nation.
• Mil upeye zye ha mes..... Water is coming through the door.
• His xwo ja zajub. .... This will happen before tomorrow.
• Esa mapil je ha moj..... There was a storm during the night.
• Ju zamaj..... Until tomorrow morning.
• At voy teataye et ji zoyejub..... I have not seen you since last week.
• Diwe xu hes av at..... Please do something for me.
• Hia dyen se din av ewa fiuti..... This book is a story about two lovers.
• Datan se ga fia vyel nas. Friendship is better than money.
• Hos se ge fua vyel has hu yat soa zojab. Nothing is as bad as what we underwent last year.
• Yit yexeya ov yat..... They were working against us.
• Et ay at yeyfe ser dati..... You and I should be friends.
• Hot ako, et ey at?....Who will win, you or I?
• Hyat oy hut ta ha dud..... Everyone but that guy knew the answer.
• Et voy se gel at..... You are not like me.
• Et se hyagla ogel at..... You are totally unlike me.
• E gab e gese u..... Two plus two equals four.
• U gob e gese e..... Four minus two equals two.
• E gal e gese u..... Two times two equals four.
• E gol e gese a..... Two divided by two equals one.
• U gar e gese asya..... Four squared equals sixteen. (Lit: Four to the power of two...)
• Alya gor e gese u..... The square root of sixteen is four. (Lit: Sixteen to the root of two...)

Directional Adverbs

There are certain directional adverbs that can play a part in forming phrasal prepositions:

yub near	yib far
yab up	yob down
zay forward, ahead	zoy back
iz directly, straight	uz indirectly, roundabout

The next section lists some phrasal prepositions using the above directional adverbs.

Phrasal Prepositions

Phrasal prepositions contain one or more prepositions in some combination with either a noun or an adverb. This chart shows some examples:

PHRASAL PREPOSITION	EXAMPLE
yub bu near to, close to	At fe tujer yub bi et..... I want to sleep close to you.
yib bi far from	Ha amar se yib bi ha imer..... The sun is far from the earth.
yab bu up to	It fu paper yab bu ha mam..... He would like to fly up to the sky.
yab bi up from	Su yab bi ha sim..... Get up from the bed.
yab bey up (along)	Yat tyoyapo yab bey ha meab..... We will walk up the hill.
yob bu down to	Igpu yob bu ha obmos..... Run down to the cellar.
yob bi down from	Ha tat upa yob bi ha mam..... The angel came down from the sky.
yob bey down from	Iyt igtyoyapa yob bey ha meab..... She ran down the hill.
yob ab down on top of	Has kawa yob ab eta oybmos..... It was found down on your floor.
zay bu on to, forth to	Ha elyanaadpar popa zay bu zona doym..... The train traveled on to the next town.
zey bi across from	Iyt simbia zey bi yat..... She sat across from us.
zoy bi back from	At se zoy bi ha yexim..... I am back from the office.
iz bu straight to	Pu iz bu fyomir! ....Go straight to hell!
iz zoy bi right back from	It upu iz zoy bi ha yexim..... He came right back from the office.

Idiomatic Prepositional Phrases

The following chart shows other prepositional phrases that are considered idiomatic, because they are somewhat abbreviated by the omission of the definite article ha in front of the noun in these phrases:

OTHER PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
be abem bi at the top of	bu abem bi to the top of	bi abem bi from the top of
be obem bi at the bottom of	bu obem bi to the bottom of	bi obem bi from the top of
be ebem bi in the area between	bu ebem bi to the area between	bi ebem bi from the area between
be aybem bi above, over	bu aybem bi to the area above	bi aybem bi from the area above
be oybem bi below, under	bu oybem bi to the area below	bi oybem bi from the area below
be eybem bi amid	zye eybem bi through the midst of	yez eybem bi in the midst of
be zam bi at the front of	bu zam bi to the front of	bi zam bi from the front of
be zem bi at the middle of	bu zem bi to the middle of	bi zem bi from the middle of
be zom bi at the back of	bu zom bi to the back of	bi zom bi from the back of
be yubem bi in the vicinity of	bu yubem bi to the vicinity of	bi yubem bi from the vicinity of
be yibem bi at a distance from	bey azon bi by dint of	be avon bi in favor of
be ubem bi in the direction of	bay ux bi with assistance from	be byux bay in touch with
be yabem bi in the upper reaches of	be vyen bu in relation to	doytaxwa bay associated with
be yobem bi in the bottom area of	be ned bi on the level of	be mep bu on the way to, en route
bey mep bi by way of, via	be kum bi beside, at the side of	be ij bi at the start of
be uj bi at the end of	bey uxun bi by means of	be kunad bi at the edge of
be nod bi at the point of	be yezem bi at the interior of, inside	be yozem bi at the exterior of, outside
be nad bay in line with	yez kunad bi alongside	be tes bi in the sense of
be teas bi in the guise of	be san bi in the form of	be yanx bi in conjunction with
be bol bi in support of	be gab bu in addition to	be dyun bi in the name of

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that join or introduce clauses. They are divided into coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. Also some conjunctions consist of a combination of words.

Coordinating Conjunctions

This chart shows the coordinating conjunctions used in Mirad:

ay	and
ey	or
oy	but
oey	nor

Usage examples:

• At oveko ay at ako. I will compete and I will win.
• Bosu ey at tuyapyexo et. Be still or I will spank you.
• It yeka oy it oka. He tried but he lost.
• At voy tilo oey at telo. I shall not drink, nor shall I eat.

Correlative Coordinating Conjunctions

The above coordinating conjunctions can be associated in correlative pairs, as follows:

hyaewa...ay	both...and
hyeawa...ey	either...or
hyoawa...oey	neither...nor
voy hyawa...oy (gay)	not only...but (also)

Examples:

• At hyaewa dyede ay dre Mirad..... I both read and write Mirad.
• Et yafe hyeawa beser ey pier. Se eta kebiun..... You can either stay or leave. It's your choice.
• Yat hyoawa move oey tile..... We neither smoke nor drink.
• At voy hyawa deuze oy gay at daze.....I not only sing but also I dance.

Complementizers

There are five complementizers (= subordinating conjunctions) that either connect clauses, where the second clause is subordinate to the main clause, or introduce a certain kind of statement.

TYPE	COMPLEMENTIZER	CLAUSE LINKER	SENTENCE INTRODUCER
POSITIVE / HORTATIVE	hav	that, so that	May (something happen), Let (something happen)
CONDITIONAL	hev	if, whether	--
NEGATIVE / PROHIBITIVE	hov	lest, that...not	Don't
ANTI-CONDITIONAL	ohev	unless	--
INTERROGATIVE	Duhev...?	--	Is it true that, say whether..., do(es)?

Examples of these conjunctions linking a main and subordinate clause:

• At ta hav et upo..... I knew that you would come.
• At xa has hav et testu..... I did it so that you would understand.
• At voy ta hev et upo..... I did not know whether you would come.
• Hev et te ha dud, du has..... If you know the answer, say it.
• At yufa hov et upu..... I feared lest you come.
• At voy upo ohev et upo gay..... I will not come unless you come, too.

Example of these conjunctions introducing a sentence:

• Hav yat fadilu..... Let us pray. (HORTATIVE)
• Hav yit teliu avol!.... Let them eat bread.
• Hav ad edeb yagteju..... May the king live long.
• Duhev et te ad dud?.... Do you know the answer?
• Duhev et se tadsa..... Say whether you are married.
• Hov (et) yufu..... Don't (you) be afraid.
• Hov ud xwu..... Let that not happen.
• Hev et te, du has..... If you know, say so.
• Hev hus se vyaa otwe..... Whether that's true is unknown.
• Hev et upo ey voy, at voy tebike..... Whether you come or not, I don't care.

The sentence-initial interrogative complementizer Duhev (Is it true that?) is used to introduce a yes/no question. The word can be analyzed as a command meaning Say whether....

• Duhev et se tadokayt?.... Are you a widow? (= Say whether you are...).

Composite Conjunctions

Other conjunctions are formed with two or more words, which, because of their frequency, are usually written together as one word:

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLES
jahu.... before	Du hay jahu1 et pio..... Say hi before you leave.
jehu.... while	Jehu at so him, at xo gle yex av et..... While I'm here, I'll do some work for you.
johu.... after	At buo et has johu et nuso..... I will give it to you after you pay.
juhu.... until	Yat voy ijo juhu et puo him..... We won't start until you get here.
jihu.... since	At voy teataya huyenas jihu et sa hum..... I had not seen such a thing since you were there.
hajhu.... when	Hajhu et pua, ha iv ija..... When you arrived, the fun began.
johus.... then	Yat deuza johus hyat daza..... We sang, then everyone danced.
jehus.... meanwhile	Jehus, at ujba hyas..... Meanwhile, I finished everything.
hamhu.... where	At voy te hamhu it pa..... I don't know where he went.
avhashu.... why	Duhev et te avhashu it xa his?.... Do you know why he did it?
avhashu.... because	It xa has avhashu it fa teatuer yat hes..... He did it because he wanted to show us something.
geyhu.... even if	Geyhu et yontexe, at bolo et..... Even if you disagree, I'll support you.
hayenhu.... as if	Yat yeyfe axer hayenhu yat teata yod..... We should act as if we saw nothing.
gelhu.... as if	Yat yeyfe axer gelhu yat teata yod..... We should act as if we saw nothing.
gey ovhu.... even though	Gey ovhu ha pansin sa gra yaga, at ifia has.....Even though the movie was too long, I enjoyed it.
ovhu.... (al)though	At po ovhu at voy fe..... I'll go, although I don't want to.
avhus.... so, therefore	It vuda at, avhus at pia..... He insulted me, so I left.

1. Before as a preposition followed by a noun or pronoun is just ja, but as a conjunction, the element hu is attached because a verbal clause follows: At upo ja et. I will come after you. vs. At upo jahu et upo. I will come after you come. All conjunctions, since they are followed by a verbal clause, end in -hu. Those that end in -hus that are really connective adverbs. The connective adverb so is translated by avhus, which really means for that.

Interjections

Interjections in Mirad include the words for yes, no and maybe:

va	yes
ve	maybe, perhaps
vo*	no

* Not to be confused with voy, which translates the English adverb not, as in Vo, it voy se tadsa. He is not married.

Examples:

• Va. At se otadsa..... Yes. I am unmarried.
• Va. At se vay otadsa..... Yes. I am indeed/really unmarried.
• Va, vay..... Yes, indeed.
• Va ay vo. Hus vey se vyaa..... Yes and no. That may be true.
• Va ey vo?.... Yes or no?
• Ve. At te voy valay..... Maybe. I don't know for sure.
• Vo. At voy vatexe et..... No. I don't believe you.
• Vo! Dilwe hov xu has..... No! Don't do it.
• Et se Amerikama, va vo?.... You're American, yes or no?
• Hev va, xu has..... If so, do it.
• Hev vo, wo xu has..... If not, don't do it.

Other interjections include greetings and non-vulgar expletives:

INITIAL GREETING	hay!	Hello!, Hi!
VOCATIVE GREETING	hey!	Hey!, O!, Oh!
TERMINAL GREETING	hoy!	Goodbye!, Bye!
PROXIMAL SPECIFIER	hiy!	Voici!, Here is...
DISTAL SPECIFIER	huy!	Voila!', There is...
POSITIVE EXCLAMATION	hway!*	Great! Wow!, Bravo!, Woopee!,Hurrah!, Thanks!
SURPRISE EXCLAMATION	hwey!	What a...!, Oh!, Well!, You're welcome!
NEGATIVE EXCLAMATION	hwoy!	What a pity!, It's a shame!, Woe is...!, Darn it!, Yikes!, Boo!, Sorry!

• hw is pronounced like the wh in English words.

Examples:

• Hay! Ata dyun se Johan.....Hi! My name is John.
• Hey, Johan! Hoyena et se?....Hey, John, how are you?
• Hey, Fyaat! O, God!
• Hoy. At teato et zajub.....Bye. I will see you tomorrow.
• Hiy ha dyen et dila..... Here's the book you requested.
• Hiy Tobyan..... Behold Man. (Ecce Homo).
• Hiy ata dyundraf..... Here's my caling card.
• Huy! Se xawa..... Voilà! It's done.
• Huy hos at yaka..... There's what I expected.
• Hway et!.... Good for you!
• Hway! Et utnaze his...... Bravo! You deserve this.
• Hwey via maj! ....Oh, what a beautiful morning!
• Hwey At ta voy hav et upo..... Oh! I didn't know you were coming.
• Hwoy at..... Woe is me.
• Hwoy! Ga fia fikyen jonay..... Pity!. Better luck next time.

Vulgar expletives are not offered here, but may arise naturally in daily speech.

Syntax

[This page under construction]

Mirad is an SVO language like English, that is, the subject (S) comes first, then the verb (V) predicate, then the object (O). Determiners (D) and adjectives (A) generally precede the noun (N) they modify. Adverbs (AD) can float more freely, as long as no ambiguity results.

Following are some example sentences showing this word order:

• Yat (S) iyfe (V) pit (O)....We (S) like (V) fish (O).
• Yat (S) iyfe (V) yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O)....We (S) like (V) fried (A) fish (N O).
• Yat (S) voy (AD) iyfe (V) yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O)....We (S) do not (AD) like (V) fried (A) fish (N O).
• Yat (S) voy (AD) iyfe (V) yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O) gla(AD)....We (S) do not (AD) like (V) fried (A) fish (N O) very much (AD).
• Yat (S) voy (AD) iyfe (V) hia (D)yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O) gla(AD)....We (S) do not (AD) like (V) this (D) fried (A) fish (N O) very much (AD).
• Yat (S) gle (AD)) iyfe (V) hia (D)yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O)....We (S) rather (AD) like (V) this (D) fried (A) fish (N O).

Greetings and Other Polite Expressions

MIRAD	ENGLISH
Hay!	Hello!
Hey!	Hey!
Hoy!	Bye!
Hiy...	Here is / Here comes... / Voici
Huy...	There's... / There goes... / Voila
Hway!*	Great! / Good for you! / Thanks! / Congratulations!
Hwey!	Oh my! / Goodness gracious! / Well! / Your're welcome!
Hwoy!	Too bad! / What a shame! / Sorry!'
Fijub!	Good day!
Fimaj!	Good morning!
Fimoj!	Good evening!
Hoyen et xeye?	How are you? (Lit. How are you doing?)
Fi. Ay et?	Fine. And you?
Iftaxwo. Hway.	Thank-you. (Lit. (It) will be fondly remembered.)
Toxu. Hwey.	You're welcome. (Lit. Forget (it).)
Diwe.	Please. (Lit. It is asked.)
Yovobu (at). Hwoy.	Excuse (me).
Fipop!	Bon voyage!
Su valta!	Be safe!
Igbaksu!	Get well soon!
Yanivtos! Hway!	Congratulations! (Lit: together-happy-feeling)
Iva Tajjub!	Happy Birthday!
Yanuvtos! Hwoy!	My condolences! (Lit: together-sad-feeling)

• hw is pronounced in Mirad like a wh in English words.

Word Formation

In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings have been attached to consonants and various values have been ascribed to vowels.

The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of core words and derived words.

Guiding Principles for Word Formation

The vocabulary is built on root morphemes, that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by:

• The meaning of each letter of the word.
• The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: fixed vs. variable.
• How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language.
• The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about).
• The logic of its composition.
• The mnemonic associations this word suggests.

The words derived from root morphemes in turn follow very simple laws called vocabulary-building rules.

Root Morphemes

Root morphemes are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. These root morphemes are divided into two groups:

• 1st Group:  consisting of nouns
• 2nd Group:  consisting of prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and verbs.

Root Morphemes of the 1st Group (nouns) are composed of three letters:

• The first, a consonant called the classifier
• The second, a vowel¹ called the ordinal
• The third, a consonant called the generic

Examples:

CLASSIFIER	ORDINAL	GENERIC	MEANING
t	o	b	man
d	o	t	society
f	a	b	tree

1. A vowel in this case includes pre-yodified vowels like ya, ye, etc.

Root Morphemes of the 2nd Group (Adjectives, Verbs,and anything but nouns)

are composed of a consonant+vowel or vowel+consonant, such as the following:

ab....on	ob....off
bu....to	bi....from
if-....love	uf-....hate
fi-....good	fu-....bad
va....yes	vo....no
vya-....true	vyo-...false

In a few cases, a 2nd group root morpheme consists of just a single consonant or just a single vowel:

b-....put	p-....go
s-....be	x-....do
t-....know	d-....say
f-....want	w-....[passive marker]
i....[plural marker]	o....un-
a....[adjective marker]	-t...person

Consonants and Their Meanings

The classifier and generic letters in 1st group root morphemes are consonants and 2nd group root morphemes almost always have one consonant, so one needs to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart:

CONSONANT	1st Group Root Morphemes (NOUN)	1st Group Root Morphemes (NOUN)	2nd Group Root Morphemes	Numeric Value
	CLASSIFIER	GENERIC	CLASSIFIER	IN NUMBERS
b	organ, illness, body, etc.	organism	gesture, manner, movement
p	animal, vehicle		movement
s	thing, furniture		form, thing	hundred
x	do, action		do, action
d	society	person, thing	reading, writing
t	person	person	intelligence, knowing
f	vegetation	clothing	volition
v	plant, color	linen	veracity
g		measurement	quantity
k		condition, risk	change, chance
j	time	time	time
z		jewel, precious, art	spatial
l		element, liquid		ten
m	nature	place, building, furniture, metal		ml = million
n	mechandise	abstraction
r		tool, machine		thousand, mr = billion

The letters l and r are used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word. The letter y, if used before a stem vowel intensifies the semantics of the word, but mitigates the semantics if it follows the stem vowel.

The letter h is used only in certain interjections, conjunctions, and determiners and has no semantic identity.

The letter w has no semantic identity of its own, but is used only to form the passive of verbs and to form a counter morpheme used in numbers, and sometimes to substitute for y when the latter letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. jwo late, instead of jyo).

1st Group Root Morphemes

The ordinal vowels of noun morphemes have certain values:

• Numeric Values:

The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with y are considered pre-iotated vowels.

o	a	e	i	u	yo	ya	ye	yi	yu	alo	ala	ale
0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
zero	one	two	three	four	five	six	seven	eight	nine	ten	eleven	twelve

A vowel with a numeric value is sometimes prefixed to nouns to form a hierarchy of nouns:

MIRAD deb	ENGLISH ruler		MIRAD dab	ENGLISH rule
adeb	emperor		adab	empire
edeb	king		edab	kingdom
ideb	prince		idab	principality
udeb	duke		udab	duchy
yodeb	marquis, margrave		yodab	marquisate
yadeb	earl, count		yadab	county, earldom
yedeb	lord, vassal		yedab	dominion
yideb	viscount		yidab	viscountcy
yudeb	baron		yudab	barony
alodeb	tribal chief		alodab	tribe

Sometimes the numeric vowel falls inside the word after the ordinal vowel. This happens with days of the week, as shown here:

MIRAD jub	ENGLISH day
juab	Monday
jueb	Tuesday
juib	Wednesday
juub	Thursday
juyob	Friday
juyab	Saturday
juyeb	Sunday

• Positional Values:

The positional value of vowels is shown below (Rule nr. 10):

	a.... up, superior, north, ahead, on
u.... left, west, near	e.... center, middle	i.... right, east, away
	o.... down, inferior, south, back, off

	za.... front, ahead
zu.... left	ze.... middle	zi.... right
	zo.... back

	zamir.... north
zumir.... west	zemir.... equator	zimir.... east
	zomir.... south

	ab.... on
ib.... away	eb.... between	ub.... toward
	ob.... off

	yab.... up
yib.... far	yeb.... in	yub.... near
	yob.... down

	ja.... before
ji.... since	je.... during	ju.... until
	jo.... after

• Geophysical Values:

o	outer space, nature
a	air, gas, sky
e	land, soil, earth
i	liquid, water, juice
u	underground, minerals

Some examples:

mol nature	mom outer space	poper travel	pot animal	mop orbit	dop military
mal air	mam sky	paper fly	pat bird	map wind	dap air force
mel soil	mem land	peper ride	pet land animal	mep road	dep army
mil water	mim sea	piper sail	pit fish	mip river	dip marines
mul mineral	mum underground	puper burrow	put bug	mup tunnel	dup submarine force

Morpheme Chart

The meaning of the 1st Group root morphemes comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the generic consonant, as show in the chart below. Most often, the root morphemes have a zeroth element in which the ordinal vowel is o. Related, usually hierchically subordinate, words are created by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel.

ROOT MORPHEME	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	GENERIC CONSONANT
tob man	t = human, animal	b = organism
tod family	t = human, animal	d = society
tof clothes	t = human, animal	f = tissue
tov lingerie	t = human, animal	v = linen
tol food	t = human, animal	l = fluid, substance
vob plant	v = plant	b = organism
tom building	t = human, animal	m = place
dob state	d = social	b = organism
dom city	d = social	m = place
dop military	d = social	p = movement
som furniture	s = thing	m = place
pot animal	p = movement	t = human, animal

Chart of 1st Group root morphemes:

bok....illness	bak....health	bek....treatment	bik....care	buk....injury
byok....pain		byek....cure
dob....state doab....fatherland doeb....federal state	dab....government adab...empire edab....kingdom idab....principality udab....duchy yadab....earldom yedab....dominion yidab....viscountcy yudab....barony alodab....tribe	deb....leader adeb...emperor edeb....king ideb....prince udeb....duke yadeb....earl yedeb....lord yideb....count yudeb....baron alodeb....tribal leader	dib....administration	dub....ministry
dom....city<small doam....township doem....village doim....hamlet doum....estate	dam....air field	dem....park	dim....fountain
dop....military	dap....air force	dep....army diep....marine force	dip....navy	dup....submarine forces
dot....society doyt...club	dat....friend daat....buddy	det....mate	dit....citizen	dut....sir duut....sire duyt....madam duyut....lady
job....time joob....eon joab....era joeb....period joib....epoch joub....age joyob....chron joyab....term jod....occasion	jab....year	jeb....season jeab....spring jeeb....summer jeib....autumn jeub....winter jej....course	jib....month jiab....January jieb....February jiib....March jiub....April jiyob.... May jiyab....June jiyeb....July jiyib....August jiyub....September jilob.... October jilab....November jileb....December	jub....day juab....Monday jueb....Tuesday jueb....Wednesday juub....Thursday juyob....Friday juyab....Saturday juab....Sunday jud....date
jwob....hour	jwab....minute	jweb....second
mor....universe	mar....star amar...sun	mer....planet Amer....Mercury Emer....Venus Imer....Earth Umer....Mars Yomer....Jupiter Yamer....Saturn Yemer...Uranus Yimer....Pluto	mir....world	mur....satellite amur....moon
mol....nature	mal....air maal...atmosphere mael...troposphere mail...stratosphere maul...ionosphere mayol...exosphere	mel....soil meel....terrain meil....mud	mil....water mial....steam miil....dew	mul....matter
mom....cosmos	mam....sky	mem....land meam...region meem....territory meim....countryside meum....zone myem....yard	mim....sea<small miam....lake miem....lagoon miim....pond mium....pool miyom....puddle	mum....underground
mog....ash mon....darkness moz....black moj....night	mag....fire man....light mak....electricity maz....white maj....daytime	meg....stone meag....marble meeg....slate meig....granite meug....clay meyog....china meyag....chalk meyeg....limestone meyig....alabaster meyug....gypsum melog...argil melag....adobe meleg....terra cotta melig....marl melug....kaolin melyog....pegmatite melyag...feldspar melyig....silica melyug....flint mealog....sandstone mek....dust miek....sand myek....powder myeik....paste		mug....metal muk....mineral
mop....orbit	map....wind maap....puff maep....breeze maip....gust maup....gale mayop....typhoon	mep....road meap....avenue meep....boulevard meip....lane meup....trail	mip....river miap....stream miep....brook miip....rivulet miup....tributary	mup....tunnel
mof....galaxy mov....smoke	maf....cloud maaf....stratus maef....nimbostratus maif....cumulus mauf....cumulonimbus mayof....stratocumulus mayaf....allocumulus mayef....allostratus mayif....cirrocumulus mayuf....cirrostratus mav....flame	mef....brick mev....porcelaine mez....crystal amez....diamond emez...topaz imez...ruby yomez....sapphire yamez....amethyst vamez....emerald		muf....rod muv
mob....chasm moab....gulf moeb....ravine moib....cave moub....ditch moyob....depression moyab....shaft	....	meb....mountain meab....hill meeb....knob meib....mound meub....ridge meyob....bump		mub....promontory muf....pole
mos....floor	mas....wall	mes....door	mis....window	mus....stairs
som....furniture	sam....chest	sem....table	sim....chair siim....bench	sum....bed suam....cushion
nod....point	nad....line naad....rail naed....lane naid....stripe nab....rank naab....organization nap....order naap....system	ned....plane nyed....grid	nid....volume	nud....column
nog....degree	nag....measure sag....number syag....count jag....age xag....frequency	neg....level	nig....space
nox....expense noz....jewel	nax....price nas....money naz....value nam....store	nex....savings	nix....income	nux....payment nun....merchandise
nyox....waste	nyax....accumulation	nyex....storage	nyix....demand	nyux....supply
nof....fabric nov....linen	naf....cloth naaf....drape naef....canvas naif....velvet nauf....sail nayof....denim nayaf....veil	nef....knit	nif....wire niv....thread
nyof....film nyov....ribbon	nyaf....knot	nyef....sack nyev....bag nyem....box	nyif....cord nyiv....lace	nyuf....button
fob....vegetation	fab....tree faab....sap faob....wood fayob....bark fayeb....leaf afab....apple tree efab....pear tree ifab....cherry tree ufab....prune tree yofab....apricot tree yafab....peach tree yefab....quince tree yifab....walnut tree yufab....hazelnut tree alofab....blackberry bush defab....pine tree dyofab....cocoa plant fefab....date palm fifab....banana tree fufab....coconut palm fyofab....pomegranate tree fyifab...fig kafab....olive vine lafab....orange tree lefab....mandarin tree lifab....lemon tree lufab....grapefruit tree lyofab....lime tree rafab....acorn tree refab....beechnut tree rifab....chestnut tree safab....tea plant sefab....coffee plant sifab....pepper plant sufab....strawberry tree syofab....red current tree vafab....grape vine vefab....ivy bush	feb....treetop	fib....trunk	fub....branch fuf....pipe fuv....nail
fyob....root	fyab ....fruit afyab....apple efyab....pear ifyab....cherry ufyab....prune yofyab....apricot yafyab....peach yefyab....quince yifyab....walnut yufyab....hazelnut alofyab....blackberry defyab....pine cone dyofyab....cocoa fefyab....date fifyab....banana fufyab....coconut fyofyab....pomegranate fyifyab...fig kafyab....olive lafyab....orange lefyab....mandarin lifyab....lemon lufyab....grapefruit lyofyab....lime rafyab....acorn refyab....beechnut rifyab....chestnut safyab....tealeaf sefyab....coffee bean sifyab....pepper sufyab....strawberry syofyab....red current vafyab....grape vefyab....ivy
	sar....instrument	sir....machine		sur....motor
tob....man toyb...woman toob....male tooyb....female	tab....body taab....lymph taeb....muscle taib....bone taob....flesh taub....nerve tayob....skin tayab....fat tayeb....hair tayib....cartilege tayub....gland	teb....head teab....eye teeb....ear teib....nose teob....cheek teub....mouth teyob....neck	tib....trunk tiab....chest tiayb....breast tilab....nipple tieb....lung tiib....heart tiub....belly tiyob....kidney tiyab....bladder tiyeb....testicles tiyib....ovary tiyub....penis tiyuyb....vagina tikab....esophagus tikeb....stomach tikib....liver tikub....pancreas tikyob...bowels tikyab...large intestines tikyeb...anus	tub....arm tuab....shoulder tueb....upper arm tuib....elbow tuub....forearm tuyob....wrist tuyab....hand tuyeb....fist tuyib....palm tulob....fingernail
tyob....leg tyoab....hip tyoeb....thigh tyoib....knee tyoub....tibia tyoyob....ankle tyoyab....foot tyoyeb....heel tyoyib....sole tyoyub....toe tyolob....toenail
tof....clothes	taf....suit tayf....dress	tef....hat	tif....waist coat tilaf....brassiere	tuf....sleeve
tyof....pants tyoyf....skirt tyoyaf....shoe
tov....linen		tev....scarf teiv....handkerchief teyof....necktie teyov....collar	tiav....shirt tiayv....blouse tiuv....underwear tiuyv....panties	tuav....shawl tuyav....glove
tyoyav....sock tyoyayv....stocking
tol....nutrition	taol....meat tyal....meal	tel....food teil....soup	til....drink	tul....dish tuil....sauce
tod....family	tad....husband tayd....wife	ted....father teyd....mother	tid....uncle tiyd....aunt	tud....godfather tuyd....godmother
tyod....father-in-law tyoyd....mother-in-law	tyad.... grandfather tyayd....grandmother	tyed....relative		tyud....tutor
top....soul	tap....physique	tep....mind	tip....sentiment	tup....member
tom....building	tam....house taam....home taym....pavillion	tem....hall em....place tyem....residence yem ....enclosed space	tim....room	tum....compartment
toj....death	taj....birth	tej....life	tij....wakefulness	tuj....sleep
toz....art toyz....craft	daz....dance saz....sculpture	tez....culture teyz....cult dez....theatre drez....poetry dyez....cinema teaz spectacle teiz....perfume tyez....magic teuz....voice deuz....song seuz....tone	diz....comedy siz...painting	tuz....skill duz....music
vob....vegetable avob....wheat avob....wheat evob....rye ivob....barley ovob....cereal uvob....buckwheat yovob....millet yavob....hop yevob....rapeseed yivob....rice yuvob....oat favob....cotton fevob....flax fivob....hemp fuvob....jute gavob....sunflower gevob....corn 'givob....tobacco levob....beet luvob....carrot savob....fern sevob....thistle sivob....nettle zavob....strawberry plant zevob....basil zivob....thyme zuvob....rosemary	vab....grass	veb....tuft	vib....stem	vub....twig
	vyab....seed avyab....green bean evyab....lentil ivyab....pea ovyab....legume uvyab....broad bean yovyab....peanut 'yevyab....chickpea yivyab....soybean zavyab....strawberry
vol....legume avol....bread ovol....bran apavol....white cabbage 'bavol....tomato bevol....eggplant bivol....squash buvol....cucumber byovol....artichoke epavol....Brussels sprout favol....leek fevol....onion fivol....shallot fuvol....garlic gavol....pumpkin gevol....melon givol....watermelon lavol....potato levol....beet livol....radish luvol....carrot lyovol....turnip lyavol....Jersualem artichoke pavol....cabbage pevol....cauliflower upavol....kale vavol....lettuce vevol....spinach vivol....sorrel vuvol....dandelion vyovol....chicory vyavol....watercress zavol....parsley
vos....flower avos....lily evos....narcissus ivos....poppy lavos....lily of the valley levos....jonquil livos....geranium lovos....daisy luvos....forget-me-not uvos....rose yavos....hydrangea yevos....lilac yivos....violet yovos....cornflower yuvos....carnation voz....color avoz....white evoz....yellow favoz.... beige ivoz.... red livoz.... lemon yellow ovoza....blank uvoz....pink yavoz.... mauve yevoz.... lilac yivoz.... purple yovoz....blue	vaz....green yovaz....blue-green
pot....animal	pat....bird apat....cock, rooster epat....duck fapat....raven fepat....crow fipat....magpie fupat....owl gapat....ostrich gepat....peacock gipat....peafowl ipat....turkey rapat....eagle repat....vulture ripat....kite rupat....buzzard sapat....partridge sepat....quail sipat....woodcock supat....lark tapat....parrot tepat....parakeet upat....goose vapat....nightingale vepat....canary vipat....canary yapat....pigeon zapat....swallow zepat....swift"	pet....land animal apet....horse epet....bull fapet....camel fepet....dromedary fipet....giraffe gapet....elephant gepet....rhinoceros ipet....ass kapet....squirrel kepet....polecat kipet....badger kupet....otter sapet....hedgehog sepet....porcupine sipet....mole upet....ram vapet....hart vepet....reindeer vipet....deer vupet....chamois yapet....hog yepet....dog yipet....cat yopet....goat yupet....rabbit zapet....tortoise pelt....insect apelt....spider fapelt....ant fepelt....cockroach kapelt....louse kepelt....flea kipelt....bug kopelt....vermin	pit....fish apit....trout epit....perch gapit....whale ipit....pike rapit....shark repit....dolphin ripit....sperm whale rupit....walrus sapit....herring sepit....barbel sipit....anchovy supit....gilt-head tepit....turbot upit....carp vapit....eel yapit....gudgeon yepit....stickleback yipit....whiting yopit....tench
pyot....wild animal rapyot....lion repyot....tiger ripyot....leopard rupyot....wolf tapyot....ape tepyot....bear yapyot....boar yepyot....wolf yipyot....tiger		pyet....reptile fepyet....slug fipyet....leech gapyet....crocodile gepyet....cayman kapyet....lizard kepyet....gecko lapyet....boa lepyet....cobra lipyet....viper lopyet....snake vapyet....snail

2nd Group Root Morphemes

The vowels of 2nd Group Root Morphemes also have certain values:

• Positive-Intermediate-Negative Values:

• POSITIVE a, ya oppose NEGATIVE o, yo
• INTERMEDIATE e, ye
• POSITIVE i, yi oppose NEGATIVE u, yu

Some examples:

POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE
ag- big	eg- normal	og- small
az- strong	ez- moderate	oz- weak
va yes	ve maybe	vo no
ak- win	ek- play	ok- lose
yad everything	yed anything	yod nothing
ig- fast		ug- slow
im- wet		um- dry
fi- good		fu- bad
kyi- heavy		kyu- light

• Directional Values:

VOWEL	CONTACT	DIRECTION	EXAMPLE
a-	free movement	from above onto	aber apply
-a	movement with contact	from above onto	baer lean
ya-	free movement	upward	yaper rise
-ya	movement with contact	upward	pyaser jump
o-	free movement	from below upward	ober remove
-o	movement with contact	from below onto	boer uphold
yo-	free movement	downward	yoper descend
-yo	movement with contact	fall	pyoer fall
u-	free movement	toward the center	uper come
-u	movement with contact	toward the center	buer give
yu-	free movement	near	yuber bring
-yu	movement with contact	near	byuer touch
i-	free movement	away	iper leave
-i	movement with contact	away	bier take
yi-	free movement	far away	yiper move far away
-yi	movement with contact	far away	pyier originate
e-	stop		eper intervene
-e	pause		peser wait
ye-	in		yeper enter
-ye	in		byexer contain

Special Values of Certain Vowels:

• The prefixes a-, an- have to do with one, single, singular and are opposed to:
• The prefixes ya-, yan- meaning together, plural.
• The prefix yan- contrasts with yon- meaning apart.

Some examples:

auta individual, private	yauta communal
at I, me	yat we, us
anla singular	yanla plural
yanper join	yonper separate
yanmel continent	yonmel island
adut the one person	yadut everybody

Chart with Morphemes and Meanings

The 2nd Group root morphemes, containing roots other than nouns, come from a combination of the classifier consonant and the stem vowel (which is sometimes zero). The vowel can be pre- or post-iotated and modified with the scalar enhancer consonants r, l, and w. Here is a chart showing the principle root morphemes of this group. The root morpheme itself is in boldface, sometimes followed by derived words incorporating that root.

POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE	POSITIVE	OPPOSITE
ja before, pre- →jana previous →japer precede	je during →jena current →jeper continue	jo after, post- →jona next →joper follow	ji since	ju until
aj past →ajna old	ej present →ejna new	oj future →ojna next	ij beginning →ijna initial	uj end →ujna final
jwa- →jwaa early	jwe- →jwea punctual	jwo- →jwoa late	yij opening →yija open →yijber open	yuj closure →juja closed →yujber close
ga more →gaber add →galer multiply →gra too much →gwa most	ge equal →geber equate →gean equality →gre enough  gwe average	go less →gober substract →goler divide →gro insufficient →gwo least	gi- point →gin point →gia sharp	gu- angle →gun angle →gua dull
gya- fat →gyaxer fatten		gyo- thin →gyoxer emaciate	gyi- solid →gyian solidity	gyu- fragile →gyuan fragility
ag- big →agaxer magnify →agla huge	eg- normal →egaxer normalize →egan normality	og- small →ogaxer miniaturize →ogla tiny	ig- fast →igay quickly →igper rush	ug- slow →ugay slowly →ugper amble
yag- long →yagaxer lengthen	yeg- re- →yegxer re-do	yog- short →yogaxer shorten	yig- hard →yigaxer harden	yug- soft →soften
ka- find →kaxer find →kader reveal →kaxwas trove	ke- seek →kexer seek →keder inquire →kexwas pursuit	ko- hide →koxer hide →koder cover up →koxwas stash	ki- →kia diagonal →kim slope	ku- →kua lateral →kun edge →kum side
ak- win →akun gain	ek- play →ekun risk	ok- lose →okun loss	ik- full →ikber fill up	uk- empty →ukber empty out
kya- variable →kyaser change	kye- random →kyeser happen	kyo- fixed →kyoser stand still	kyi- heavy →kyiaxer weigh down	kyu- light →kyuaxer lighten
yak- expect →yakwa expected	yek- try →yekwa attempted	yok- be surprised →yokwa unexpected	yik- difficult →yikan difficulty	yuk- easy →yukan ease
va- yes →vader affirm	ve- maybe →veder equivocate	vo- no →voder deny	vi- beautiful →vila gorgeous	vu- ugly →vula hideous
av- for →avon favor	ev- than evon condition	ov- against →ovon hindrance	iv- happy →ivan happiness	uv- sad →uvan sadness
vya- true →vyan truth	vye- relative →vyen relation	vyo- false →vyon error	vyi- clean →vyisa pure	vyu- dirty →vyusa foul
yav- innocent →yavder acquit	yev- fair →yevder judge	yov- guilty →yovder accuse	yiv- free →yivxer release	yuv- captive →yuvxer capture
	f- want →fer want		fi- good →fider praise	fu- bad →fuder malign
fya- holy →fyader bless		fyo- profane →fyoder curse	fyi- useful →fyin worth	fyu- damaging →fyun harm
af- allow →afwa allowed	ef- need →efwa necessary	of- ban →ofwa prohibited	if- love →ifwa beloved	uf- hate →ufwa despised
yaf- able →yafer can	yef- obliged →yefer must	yof- unable →yofer cannot	yif- brave →yifer dare	yuf- afraid →fear
ba- →baer lean on →baler press →barer crush →baxer shake →abaxer stroke →abalxer rub	b- →ber put be at →beser stay →bexer hold →beler keep	bo- →boxer carry →boler support →oboler drop	bi from →bier take →bixer pull →bilxer yank →birxer uproot	bu to →buer give →buxer push →bulxer shove →burxer kick
bay with	bey by	boy without
ab on →aber put on →abem top	eb between →eber block →ebem gap	ob off →ober take off →obem bottom	ib away →iber receive →ilber obtain	ub toward →uber send →ulber deliver
yab up →yaber raise →yalber lift →yaper rise	yeb in →yeber introduce →yelber insert →yeper enter	yob down →yober lower →yolber down →yoper descend	yib far →yiber remove →yilber banish →yiper flee	yub near →yuber bring near →yolber abduct →yuper come
bya- →byaxer erect	bye- →byeer behave →byen manner	byo- →byoxer hang	byi since →byiser spring from	byu up to →byuser reach
pa- motion →paser move →paxer move (tr.)	p- →per go →peser wait →pexer trap	po- rest →poyser pause →poser stop →poxer stop (tr.)	pi- motion away →pier leave →piser withdraw →pixer catch	pu- motion toward →puer arrive →puser jump →puxer throw
pya- strong upward motion →pyaser jump up →pyaxer launch	pye- strong inward motion →pyeser bump into →pyexer strike	pyo- strong downward motion →pyoser plunge →pyoxer knock down	pyi- strong motion away →pyiser spring pyixer snatch	pyu- strong motion toward →pyuser pounce →pyuxer ram
za in front of →zaper precede	ze in the middle of →zeber balance	zo behind →zoper succeed	zi- right →zituyaba right-handed	zu- left →zutuyaba left-handed
zay forward →zayper advance	zey across →transit	zoy back →zoyper recede
az- strong →aza strong	ez- medium →eza medium	oz- weak →oza weak	iz- straight →izper go straight	uz- curved →uzper turn
zya- wide →zyaber spread	zye through →zyeteatuwa transparent	zyo- narrow →zyober restrict	zyi- flat →zyixer flatten	zyu- round →zyuper rotate
yaz- vertical →yazber stand upright	yez- horizontal →yezber lay flat	yoz- perpendicular →yoza perpendicular	yiz- beyond →yizper surpass	yuz- around →yuzper surround
da- →daler talk	d- →der say →drer write →dryer print de- →deler declare	do- →doler be silent	di- →dier ask →dider question →diler request →direr demand →din story	du- →duer suggest →duder answer →duler insist →durer prod →dun word
	dye- →dyeder read →dyen book		dyi- →dyier phone	dyu- →dyuer call →dyun name
ta- →taxer remember →tajer be born	t- know →ter know te- →texer think →teser mean →tejer live	to- →toxer forget →tojer die	ti- learn →tier learn →tider understand →tixer study →tin doctrine, -ism →titam school →tijer wake	tu- teach →tuer teach →tuder explain →tuxer instruct →tun science, -ology →tutam institute →tujer sleep
tya- →tyan race	tye- →tyen craft, occupation →tyeer be familiar with →tryen industry		tyi- →tyier get acquainted	tyu- →tyuer acquaint
sa- →san form →saxer make →saun kind	s- →ser be →son thing (abstract) →sat being se- →sexer build	so- →soer undergo	si- →sin image →siun sign	su- thing →sun thing
sya- →syan type	sye- →syen style		syi- →syin subject	syu- →syun object
as- →aser become	es- →eser exist	os- →oser vanish	is- →iser be the result	us- →user be the cause
xa- →xaer execute →xaler accomplish	x- →xer do xe- →xen action →xeler conduct		xi- →xier result	xu- →xuer bring about →xuler provoke
	xye- →xyen practice →xyel exercise	xyi- →xyier wear out	xyu- →xyuer proceed
ax- →axer act →alxer operate	ex- →exer function	ox- →oxer be idle	ix- →ixen effect	ux- →uxer cause
	yex- →yexer work →yelx labor →yelx drudgery		yix- →yixer use →yilxer hire →yirxer exploit	yux- →yuxer help →yulxer serve →yurxer slave
na- →nax cost →nas money →naz value →nam shop	ne- →nex thrift →nes savings	no- →nox spending →nos expense →noz jewel	ni- →nix earning →nizer deserve	nu- →nux payment →nuz award →nun merchandise →nunam market
nya- →nyaxer accumulate →nyan stack	nye- →nyexer store →nyem box →nyef bag	nyo- →nyoxer waste →nyos surplus	nyi- →nyixer order →nyixut client	nyu- →nyuxer deliver →nyuxut supplier →nyus package
hav so that	hev whether	hov lest
hay hi	hey hey	hoy bye	hiy voici	huy voila
hyay bravo	hyey thanks	hyoy what a shame
ha- the	he- some	ho- which?	hi- this	hu- that
hya- every	hye- any	hyo- no	hyi- same	hyu- other

Vowel Patterns

Note that that in 2nd Group core words there is a three-way contrast with the root vowels a, e, o and a two-way contrast with the root vowels i and u, as in the chart below, where the root vowels are underlined:

PATTERN TYPE	POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE
3-WAY (a-e-o)	aza strong	eza medium	oza weak
2-WAY (i-u)	fia good	--	fua bad

Meaning of the Classifier Consonant

Most human qualities are presented in the 2nd Group root morphemes that contain the consonants f or v.

Root morphemes relating to time all have the letter j.

The letters g and k relate mostly to physical qualities, measurements, and actions.

Parallelism in Root Morphemes

Root morphemes exhibit both vertical and horizontal parallelism in meaning as shown in some sample charts below:

aza	za	va	vyaa	yava
strong	front	yes	true	innocent
eza	ze	ve	vyea	yeva
moderate	middle	maybe	relative	fair
oza	zo	vo	vyoa	yova
weak	back	no	false	guilty

ja	jwa	aja	kaer	aker
before	early	past	find	win
je	jwe	eja	keer	eker
during	on time	present	seek	play
jo	jwo	oja	koer	oker
after	late	future	hide	lose

fia	via	vyia	fyia	iva	yiva	ifer
good	beautiful	clean	proud	happy	free	to love
fua	vua	vyua	fyua	uva	yuva	ufer
bad	ugly	dirty	ashamed	sad	bound	to hate

tab	tib	tub	tyob	tayob	tayeb	tyab
body	trunk	arm	foot	skin	hair	ovary
fab	fib	fub	fyob	fayob	fayeb	fyab
tree	tree trunk	branch	root	bark	leaf	fruit
vab	vib	vub	vyob	vayob	vayeb	vyab
plant	stem	twig	root	peel	leaf	seed

Ordered List of Root Morphemes

O	A	E	I	U
o zero o- un-	a one an- mono- ayn- whole	e two en- bi- eyn- half-	i three in- tri- iyn- terci-	u four un- quadri- uyn- quarti-
-o (future tense)	-a (past tense) -a (adjective) -ay (adverb)	-e (present tense)	-i (plural)	-u (hypothetical mode)
ob off	ab on	eb between	ib away	ub toward
of- must not	af- may	ef- need to	if- love	uf- hate
og- small	ag- big	eg- normal	ig- fast	ug- slow
oj future	aj past	ej present	ij beginning	uj end
ok- lose	ak- win	ek- play	ik- full	uk- empty
	-al gas	-el food -yel oil	-il liquid
om- cold	am- hot		im- wet	um- dry
	-am house	-em place	-im room
-on (issue)	-an (abstract quality	-en (present gerund)	-in (-ism)	-un (thing)
op- get off	ap- get on	ep- stay	ip- go away	up- come
	-ar instrument	-er (infinitive)	-ir device	-ur machine
os- be absent	as- become	es- exist	is- be the result	us- be the cause
ot one	at I	et you	it he	ut self -ut one who
ov against	av for	ev- neutral	iv- happy	uv- sad
ox- be idle	ax- act	ex- operate	ix- result	ux- cause
oy but	ay and	ey or
oz- weak	az- strong	ez- moderate	iz- straight	uz- curved
bo- support byo- hang boy without	ba- lean on bya- stand bay with bax- gesture	b- put be- have be at bel- carry bex- hold byex- strike	bi from bi- take bix- pull byi since	bu to bu- give bux- push byu as far as
bok illness byok pain	bak health	bek treatment byek cure	bik care	buk wound bruk- mutilate
do- be silent	dal- speak -ad (language)	d- say del- declare dyed- read dr- write drye- print deu- voice	di- ask did question dil- request dir- demand	du- suggest dud answer dul- insist dur- prod
dob state	dab government	deb leader	dib administration	dub minister
dom city	dam airport	dem park	dim pool
dop military	dap air force	dep army	dip marine
dot society	dat friend	det mate	dit citizen	dut gentleman
	daz dance	dez theatre dyez cinema drez poetry	diz comedy	duz music
			fi- good fiz honor	fu- bad fuz shame
fyo- profane	fya- holy		fyi- worth	fyu- waste
go less glo few gro insufficiently gwo least gyo- thin	ga more gla very gra too gwa most gya- thick	ge equal gle quite gre enough gwe average	gin point	gun angle
gya- fat	gyo thin		gyi- solid	gyu- delicate
ho- which hyo- no hov don't hoy! bye! hyoy! boo!	ha the hya- every hav that hay! hello! hyay! hurrah!	he some hye- any hev if hey! hey! hyey! thanks!	hi this hyi- same hiy... voici...	hu- that hyu- other huy...voila...
jo after jwo late joy then	ja before jwa early jay already	je during jwe on time jey still	ji since jiy ago	ju until juy hence
job time jwob hour	jab year jwab minute	jeb season jweb second	jib month	jub day
jod occasion				jud date
jog- young	jag- old
ko- hide	ka- find	ke- seek	ki- slant	ku- side
kyo- fixed	kya- mobile	kye- random	kyi- heavy	kyu- light
lo- (dis-)
mo- mon dark	ma- man light
mob cliff	mab?	meb mountain		mub promontory
mof galaxy	maf cloud	mef brick		muf pole
mog ash	mag fire	meg stone		mug metal muk mineral
moj night	maj day
mok cosmic dust	mak electricity	mek dust		muk mineral
mol nature	mal air	mel soil	mil water	mul matter
mom space	mam sky	mem land	mim sea	mum underground
mop orbit	map wind	mep road	mip river	mup tunnel
mor universe	mar star	mer planet	mir world	mur satellite
mos floor	mas wall	mes door	mis window	mus stairs
mov smoke	mav flame	mev porcelain		muv rod
moz- black	maz- white	mez- crystal
no- spend noz jewel	na- money naz value nya- stack	ne- save nye- store	ni- consume nyi- order	nu- supply nyu- deliver
nod point	nad line nab row nap order	ned plane	nid volume	nud column
nof textile nov linen nyov ribbon nyof film	naf cloth	nef web nyev bag nyef sack	nif thread niv strand nyiv lace nyif rope	nuf leash nyuf knob
nog grade nok degree	nag measure nak meter sag number syag count jag age xag frequency	neg level	nig space nik liter
		nem place -em place nyem box -yem enclosure	-im room
po- stop pyo- fall	pa- move pya- jump	p- go pyex- attack	pi- leave pix- catch	pu- arrive pux- throw pyux- bump
pop- travel	pap- fly	pep- drive	pip- sail	pup- burrow
pot animal pyot wild beast	pat bird	pet land animal	pit fish
som furniture	sam armoire	sem table	sim chair	sum bed
son matter syoz fantasy	san form saz sculpture	s- be	sin image siz painting	sun thing syun object suz artifact
	sar instrument -ar instrument		sir machine -ir machine	sur apparatus -ur apparatus
tob human tyob leg -t person	tab body	teb head tyeb brain	tib trunk	tub arm
tod family	tad spouse	ted parent	tid uncle	tud godfather
tof clothing	taf suit	tef hat	tif vest	tuf sleeve
toj death	taj birth	tej life	tij- awake	tuj sleep
tol nourishment	tyal meal -al gas	tel food -el food -yel oil	til drink -il liquid	tul dish
tom building	tam house	tem hall	tim room	tum cell
top soul	tap physique	tep mind	tip psyche	tup member
tos- feel	tas-	t- know tes- mean tye- recognize tea- see tee- hear tei- smell teu- taste teud- shout	ti- learn	tu- inform
tox- forget	tax- remember	tex- think	tix- study	tux- teach
toz- skin color	taz- statue	tez- culture tyez- magic	tiz-	tuz- art
vo no voy not	va yes vay indeed	've maybe vey possibly	vi- beautiful	vu- ugly
vob plant vol vegetable voz color	vab grass vaz- green	veb tuft	vib stem	vub twig
vyo- false	vya- true	vye- relative	vyi- clean	vyu- dirty
-w- (passive voice)
xo-	xa- execute	x- do xey- behave xeus- noise	xi- result	xu- affect
yob down	yab up	yeb in	yib far away	yub near
yof- cannot	yaf- can	yef- should	yif- dare	yuf- fear
yog- short	yag- long		yig- hard	yug- soft
			yij- open	yuj- close
yok- surprise	yak- expect	yek- try	yik- difficult	yuk- easy
yom ice	yam fire
yon- apart	yan- together	-yen manner
yop- descend	yap- ascend	yep- enter	yip- move away	yup- approach
yot they	yat we	yet you	yit they	yut selves
yov- guilty	yav- innocent	yev- just	yiv- free	yuv- bound
yox- be idle		yex- work	yix- use	yux- serve
yoz- concave	yaz- convex	yez- horizontal	yiz beyond	yuz around
zo behind	za before	ze middle	zi right	zu left
zoy back	zay ahead	zey across
zyo- narrow	zya- wide	zye through	zyi- flat	zyu- round

Rules for Deriving New Words

Derived words, that is, words that are built from root morphemes and other words, are formed following certain very simple rules of vocabulary-building:

These word-building rules govern:

1. Combining whole words
2. Affixation
3. Scaling Words through numerically-ordered Vowels
4. Combining partial words
5. Word-building by adding ordinal vowels
6. Swapping endings
7. Scientific word-building
8. Feminizing words
9. Geophysical vowel codification
10. Directional and positional vowel codification
11. Mnemonic markers
12. Creating nuances of meaning

Rule #1: Combining Whole Words

Compound words are formed by the combination of two or more words. When compounding, the determining word is placed very simply in front of the determined word.

• mar star + tun science → martun astronomy
• mag fire + meb mountain → magmeb volcano
• tul meal + dren document → tuldren menu
• nax cost + aga big → naxaga expensive
• nax cost + oga small → naxoga cheap
• amar sun + yap ascent → amaryap sunrise
• amar sun + yop descent → amaryop sunset
• mam sky + par vehicle → mampar airplane
• map wind + yaf power → mapyaf windpower
• dom city + teas view → domteas cityscape
• tej life + tun science → tejtun biology
• man light + tam house → mantam lighthouse

Such compounds sometimes consist of more than two agglutinated words, for example:

• mam sky + par vehicle + tam house → hangar

Rule #2: Affixation

Affixes can be prefixed or suffixed to verbs, nouns, and other parts of speech.

Prefixes

Adverbs and prepositions can serve as prefixes, especially for forming new verbs, eg.:

PREFIX	BASE VERB	COMPOUNDED VERB
go less	ber put	gober subtract
yeb in	ber put	yeber* introduce
oyeb out	ber put	oyeber* oust
yuz around	ber put	yuzber surround
ob off	ber put	ober* remove
ig fast	xer do	igxer accelerate
ug slow	xer do	ugxer brake
ja before	xer do	jaxer prepare
je during	xer do	jexer continue
oj future	xer do	ojxer plan
ab on	per go	aper1 get on
yeb in	per go	yeper* enter
oyeb out	per go	oyeper* exit
zay ahead	per go	zayper advance
zoy back	per go	zayper retreat
ja before	per go	japer precede
jo after	per go	joper follow
yuz around	per go	yuzper circulate
va yes	der say	vader affirm
vo no	der say	voder deny
fi good	der say	fider praise
fu bad	der say	fuder malign
ja before	der say	jader predict
ja before	dren writing	jadren preface
jo after	dren writing	jodren postscript

*Note: If the prefix is an adverb or preposition ending in b and is being affixed to the verb per go or ber put, then the b of the prefix is dropped. See the next section for this:

Prefixes Ending in b with Verbs per and ber

Prepositional prefixes ending in b lose the b before verbal elements based on per (go) and ber (put), as shown in the following chart:

PREFIX	BASE VERB	NEW VERB
yab up	ber put	yaber raise (NOT: yabber)
yab up	per go	yaper rise (NOT: yabper)
ab on	ber put	aber put on, apply
ab on	per go	aper get on, mount
yob down	ber put	yober take down
yob down	per go	yoper descend
ob off	ber put	ober take off, remove
ob on	per go	oper get off, dismount
yeb in	bux a push	yebux impulse
yeb in	pyoser fall	yepyoser collapse

Prefixing with Whole or Clipped Words

The two or three first letters of a root morpheme can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending a is often dropped¹, as is the er or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped.

PREFIX	BASE VERB	COMPOUND VERB
oza weak	der say	ozder whisper
yaga long	der say	yagder ramble
aja past	der say	ajder evoke
yoga short	der say	yogder summarize
tyoyab foot	per go	tyoyaper walk
dreer write	sar tool	dresar pencil
tuyob hand	dren writing	tuyodren manuscript
mam sky	mil water	mamil rain

¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending a is retained when an adjective is compounded with xer or ser. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs.

Prefixing with Prefixes Per Se

PREFIX	MEANING	EXAMPLES
o	un-, expresses negation, opposition, opposite meaning	data friendly → odata unfriendly
lo	un-, same as o but used where o is not clear	gla many → logla rare
yo	un-, same as o but more intense	dat friend → yodat enemy
av	pro-	fatin religion → avfatina pro-religious
ov	anti-, counter-	dropek war → ovdropeka anti-war
hyas	all-, pan-, omni-	tea aware → hyastea omniscient, all-knowing
ja	before, ante-, pre-, fore-	taj birth → jataja pre-natal
jo	after, post-	judrer to date → jojudrer post-date
yiz	beyond, meta-	tapa physical → yiztapa metaphysical
ey(n)	semi-, hemi-, half-	eyseuz demi-tone, eylevelbaya semi-sweet, eyntepa half-wit
e(n)-	bi-, duo-, two-	ejaba biennial, entyoba biped, enteba two-headed
i(n)-	tri-, three-	invoza tricolor, ijib trimester, inzyun tricycle
u(n)-	quadri-, four-	untyoba quadriped, unkuma quadrilateral, ungona quadripartite
a(n)-	uni-, singular	anxer unite, asana special, auta individual, private
ya(n)-	multi-, together, plural	yanxer assemble, yasana general, yauta common, public
yo(n)-	dis-, se-, apart	yonxer separate, yoniler unstick, youta alone, isolate
yeg-	re-, again	yeganxer reunite, yegder repeat, yegvader reaffirm

Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad

Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad:

ENGLISH PREFIX	MEANING	ORIGIN	ENGLISH EXAMPLE	MIRAD EXAMPLE
a-, an-	without, un-, -less	GREEK	atonal	oseuza
ab-	away	LATIN	absence	ibsen
ab-	not, un-	LATIN	abnormal	olega, ozeta
ad-	to, toward	LATIN	advent	upen < ub-
after-	after	GERMANIC	aftermath	joxwas
anti-	against	GREEK	antidote	ovbokil
arch-	chief, first	GREEK	archangel	aatat
auto-	self	GREEK	autocracy	utdab
back-	back	GERMANIC	backstairs	zomus
bene-	well	LATIN	benefactor	fixut
bi-	two	GREEK	bicameral	entima
by-	beyond	GERMANIC	bypass	yizper
cent(i)-	hundred	LATIN	century	sojab
circ(um)-	around	LATIN	circulate	yuzper
co-	together	LATIN	cooperate	yanexer
con-, com-, cor-, col-	with	LATIN	convene	yanuper
counter-, contra-	against	LATIN	contradict	ovder
cross-	across	GERMANIC	crosswind	zeymep
de-	un-, reverse	LATIN	desalinate	omimolxer, mimolober
de-	down	LATIN	descend	yo(b)per < yob + per
deci-	ten	LATIN	decimeter	alonag
di-	two	GREEK	diode	enmep
dia-	throughout	GREEK	diachronic	zyajoba
dicho-	double	GREEK	dichotomy	engorbun
di(s)-	apart, un-	LATIN	disappear	oteaser
dys-	bad	GREEK	dysfunction	fuexen
ec(to)-	out	GREEK	ectomorph	oyebsan
en-, em-	in	GREEK	endemic	yebdita
endo-	within	GREEK	endomorphic	yebsana
equi-	equal	LATIN	equilateral	gekuma
eu-	good, nice	GREEK	euphemism	vidun
ex-, e-	out	LATIN	extract	oye(b)bixer
extra-	outside	LATIN	extraordinary	yizega
fellow-	fellow	LATIN	fellow-traveler	yanpoput, dat-
fore-	front	GERMANIC	foreskin	zatayob
gyro-	round, wheel	LATIN	gyroscope	zyunzebar
half-	half	GERMANIC	half-dead	eyntoja
hemi-	half	GREEK	hemisphere	eynzyunid
hect(o)-	hundred	GREEK	hectometer	asonak
hept(o)-	seven	GREEK	heptogonal	yeguna
hetero-	different	GREEK	heterogeneous	hyusauna
hexa-	six	GREEK	hexagongal	yaunguna
high-	high	GERMANIC	high-flying	yabpapea
homo-	same	GREEK	homogeneous	hyisauna
hyper-	over, too much	GREEK	hyperactive	graaxeya
hypo-	under, too little	GREEK	hypothermia	groaman
idio-	peculiar	GREEK	idiopath	asanbak
ill-	poorly	GERMANIC	ill-mannered	fubyena
in-	in	LATIN/GERMANIC	incoming	yebupea
in-	not, un-	LATIN	inadequate	ogrea
infra-	below	LATIN	infrared	oybivoza
inter-	between	LATIN	international	ebdooba
intra-	amid	LATIN	intramural	eybmasa
intro-	into	LATIN	introduce	yebber
iso-	equal	GREEK	isometric	genaga
kilo-	thousand	GREEK	kilogram	arokyik
macro-	big	GREEK	macrometer	agnagar
magn(i)-	big	LATIN	magnify	agaxer
mal-	badly	LATIN	malformed	fusana
many-	many	GERMANIC	many-hued	glavoza
maxi(m)-	biggest	LATIN	maximize	gyaxer
mega(lo)-	big	GREEK	megacephalic	agteba
meso-	middle	GREEK	mesomorph	zesanat
meta-	beyond	GREEK	metaphysical	yizmula
micro-	little	GREEK	microcosm	ogmir
mid-	middle	LATIN	midday	zejub
milli-	thousand	LATIN	milligram	arokyik
mini(m)-	tiny	LATIN	miniskirt	gyotyoyf
mis-	wrongly	LATIN	misunderstand	vyotider
multi-	many	LATIN	multilateral	glakuma
neo-	new	GREEK	neophyte	jogagsat
non-	not	LATIN	nonentity	oseas
nona-	nine	GREEK	nonagon	yuungun
oct(a)-	eight	GREEK	octagon	yigun
omni-	all	LATIN	omniscient	hyastea
ortho-	correct	GREEK	orthodontist	izteupibtut
out-	better	GERMANIC	outplay	gafieker
over-	too much	GERMANIC	overeat	grateler
pan-	all	GREEK	pantheon	hyastotyan
para-	alongside	GREEK	paraphrase	yeztesder
penta-	five	GREEK	pentagon	yoongun
per-	through	LATIN/GREEK	perpendicular	zyepyonada
poly-	many	GREEK	polyandry	glatadan
post-	after	LATIN	postscript	jodren
pre-	before	LATIN	preview	jateaxer, za-
pro	for	LATIN	pro-life	avtejina
pro-	forward	LATIN	progress	zaynogper
pseudo-	falsely	GREEK	pseudonym	vyodyun
quadri-	four	LATIN	quadrilateral	unkuma
quasi-	resembling, nearly	LATIN	quasi-scientific	yubtuna
quint-	five	LATIN	quintet	younatyan
re-	again	LATIN	redo	yegxer
rect(i)-	straight	LATIN	rectilinear	iznada
retro-	backwards	LATIN	retrogress	zoynogser
semi-	half	LATIN	semi-sweet	eynlevelaya
sept-	seven	LATIN	septempartite	yegona
sext-	six	LATIN	sextuplicate	yaungeyxwas
sub-, sup-, sur-	below	LATIN	submarine	oybmimpar
super-, supra-	above	LATIN	superscript	aybdren
syn-, sym-, syl-	with	GREEK	symphony	yanduzutyan
tele-	far	GREEK	telephone	yibdalar
tetra-	four	GREEK	tetragon	ungun
trans-	across	LATIN	transfer	zeyber
tri-	three	GREEK/LATIN	trigram	indresin
ultra-	beyond, extremely	GREEK	ultranationalist	gwadoobina
un-	not	LATIN	untie	oyanxer
under-	below	LATIN	underarm	oybtub
under-	not enough	LATIN	underactive	groaxeya
uni-	one	LATIN	unicycle	anzyus

Suffixes

Mirad has semantic suffixes, grammatical suffixes, and part-of-speech-changing suffixes

• Semantic Suffixes

Semantic suffixes are generally formed from the two last letters of a root morpheme. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material.

ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIX	SUFFIXED DERIVATIONS
mil water	-il liquid	teabil tear < teab eye
		teubil saliva < teub mouth
		tayebil sweat < tayeb skin
		mamil rain < mam sky
tam house	-am house	apatam chicken coop < apat chicken
		apelatam beehive < apelat bee
		melyexam farmhouse < melyex agriculture
		datibam hostel < datib guest-reception
nem place	-em place	vobyexem plantation, farm < vob plant + yex work
		vabem field < vab grass
		abem top, surface < ab above, upper
		obem bottom < ob below
nof cloth	-of material	tof clothes < t- human
		misof curtain < mis window
		faof wood < fa(b)- tree
		tayof leather < tayo(b) skin
sar tool	-ar instrument	par vehicle < p- motion
		zyupar rotor < zyup turn
		gorbar knife < gorb cut
		syaagar computer < syaag computation
sun thing	-un thing	dun word < d- utter, say
		gorfun piece, scrap < gorfer rip, shread, tear
		zyiun plaque, plate < zyia flat
		vyun spot < vyua dirty
tin doctrine	-in -ism	totin theism, religion < tot- god
		Kristin Christianity < Krist Christ
		vyisatin puritanism < vysiat puritan, clean person
		otofin nudism < otofa nude
fuf pipe	-uf cylinder object	manuf candle < man light
		tiibuf artery < tiib heart
		miluf toilet < mil water
		movuf cheminee < mov smoke
yel oil	-yel oil, gel, wax, pulp	kafyel olive oil < kaf olive
		apelatyel wax < apelat bee
		levyel jam, jelly, confiture < leve sugar, sweet
		bekyel salve < bek care, treatment
		megyel cement < meg stone
		yanyel paste < yan together

• Grammatical Suffixes

Mirad has only a few grammatical or derivational (non-inflexional*) suffixes:

DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX	BASE WORD → SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-er (verb infinitive)	sag- cipher → sager to count nab rank → naber to rank yex work → yexer to work
-n (deverbal or deadjectival noun)	yexe works → yexen working via beautiful → vian beauty yuba near → yuban proximity, nearness
-a (adjective)	yib- far away → yiba remote mor universe → mora universal ake wins → akea winning
-y (deadjectival adverb)	iga- quick → igay quickly yiba remote → yibay remotely

*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker -i fall under the latter category.

• Augmentative Suffixes

AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX	ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-ag (augmentative)	tam house	tamag mansion
-ayg (affectionate augmentative)	sem chair	semayg big old chair
-yag (pejorative augmentative)	apet horse	apetyag nag

• Diminutive Suffixes

DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX	ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-og (diminutive)	tam house	tamog hut
-oyg (affectionate diminutive)	tam house	tamoyg cottage
-yog (pejorative diminutive)	tam house	tamyog shack

• Suffixes Forming Nuanced Adjectives

ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-aya	full of, -ous, -y	miek dust	miekaya dusty
-oya	empty of, -less, -free	vyun spot	vyunoya spotless
-ika	full of, -ous, -y	miek dust	miekika dusty
-uka	empty of, -less, -free	miek dust	miekuka dust-free
-ea (present active particple)	doing X, -ing, -ant, -ent	ilp flow	ilpea flowing, fluent
-yea	given to doing X, -ive	vyod lie	vyodyea mendacious, given to lying
-wea (present passive participle)	being Xed	vyixer to clean	vyixwea being cleaned
-yena	like, -ly, -ic	tat angel	tatyena angelic
-(a)wa (past passive participle)	Xed	oter to ignore	otwa or otawa unknown
-uwa (potential passive participle)	-able, liable to be Xed	teater to see	teatuwa visible

• Other Suffixes

SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-an	abstract quality, -ness, -hood, -ity	iva happy	ivan happiness
		via beautiful	vian beauty
		ama hot	aman heat
-at	person who has the quality of	yova guilty	yovat guilty party
		oga little	ogat little person
-ut	agent, practitioner, one who does X, -er, -ant, -ent	yuxer to help	yuxut helper, assistant
		vyoder lie	vyodut liar
-eat	one who does X	vyixeat cleaning person
-(a)wat	one who has been Xed	tujber to kill	tujbwat or tujbawat murder victim
-(a)was	what is/was Xed	ter to know	twas or tawas what is known, fact
-et	a person a level down	ted father	tedet son
		tid uncle	tidet cousin
		tad spouse	tadet brother
-es	item of lesser importance	nas money	nases change, coin
-ob	child of, offspring	tob man	tobob infant
		apet horse	apetob foal
-un < sun	concrete thing	viber decorate	vibun ornament
-on < son	abstract thing	kyiser weight down	kyison problem
		ifer to love	ifon love
-tun	science, ...ology	tej life	tejtun biology
		tob man	tobtun anthropology
-in < tin	doctrine, -ism	tot god	totin theism, religion
		dot society	dotin socialism
-yan	collection, aggregate	fab tree	fabyan forest
		mar star	maryan constellation
-ar < sar	instrument, tool, device	per go	par vehicle
		teab eye	teabar eyeglasses
-ur < sur	machine	yalb lift	yalbur elevator

Many of the above suffixes and prefixes can be combined as in the following example:

• ov- against, anti- + dot society + -in ism + -at person having the quality of + -yena like, -ish → ovdotinatyena anti-socialistic

Rule #3: Scaling Words through Numerically-ordered Vowels

Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to root morphemes of the 1st group. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the root morpheme stem as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called first-level ordinal scaling.

• First-level Ordinal Scaling

t...b	m...r	j...b	m...s	t...m	d...b	f...b	s...m
tob man	mor universe	job time	mos floor (1st,2nd,etc.)	tom building	dob state	fob plant	som furniture
tab body	mar sun	jab year	mas wall	tam house	dab government	fab tree	sam armoire
teb head	mer planet	jeb season	mes door	tem hall	deb leader	feb treetop	sem table
tib trunk	mir earth	jib month	mis window	tim room	dib office	fib tree trunk	sim chair
tub arm	mur moon	jub day	mus stairs	tum wing	dub ministry	fub branch	sum bed
tyob leg		jyob* hour				fyob root
		jyab* minute
		jyeb* second

* Easier to pronounce as jwob, jwab, and jweb.

• Second-level Ordinal Scaling

A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem.

Examples:

mi...p	me...p	tu...b	tyo...b
mip river	mep way	tub arm	tyob leg
miap stream	meap road	tuab shoulder	tyoab hip
miep brook	meep path	tueb upper arm	tyoeb thigh
miip rivulet	meip trail	tuib elbow	tyoib knee
miup torrent	meup track	tuub forearm	tyoub shin
miyop trickle		tuyob wrist	tyoyob ankle
		tuyab hand	tyoyab foot
		tuyeb fist	tyoyeb heel
		tuyib palm	tyoyib sole
		tuyub finger	tyoyub toe
		tulob fingernail	tyolob toenail

• Third-level Ordinal Scaling

A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word.

Example:

...tuyub
tuyub finger
atuyub thumb
etuyub index
ituyub middle finger
utuyub ring finger
yotuyub pinky

So, to sum up, we have:

t...b	tob = man
FIRST-LEVEL	tub arm
SECOND-LEVEL	tuyub finger
THIRD-LEVEL	atuyub thumb

• Scaling with Prefixed Numbering

We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering.

Example:

...dob	...pet	...mer
dob state	pet animal	mer planet
adob empire	apet horse	Amer Mercury
edob kingdom	epet bull	Emer Venus
idob principality	ipet ass	Imer Earth
udob duchy	upet ram	Umer Mars
yodob marquisate	yopet goat	Yomer Jupiter'
yadob county	yapet pig	Yamer Saturn
yedob dominion	yepet dog	Yemer Pluto

Rule #4: Portmanteau Compouding

When forming a compound word, the generic consonant (the last one) of the determinant (first word) is the same as the classifier consonant (first) of the determined (2nd word), the generic consonant is suppressed so as to avoid two of the same consonants in a row. This is also called portmanteau compounding.

• dom city + mep way → domep boulevard
• pat bird + teub mouth → pateub beak
• pat bird + tub arm → patub wing
• teb head + bok illness → tebok headache

When forming a compound word, the principal word has one or two prefixed vowels, this vowel or these vowels come at the beginning of the compound word.

Examples:

• tuyub finger → atuyub thumb → iatuyub right thumb

Codifying the Negative and Opposite Senses

In the codification of core words and derived words of the 1st group, the negative sense or opposite sense is obtained by adding the prefixes o and yo, the latter being more intense.

• mola natural → omola unnatural, artificial
• tobyena humane → otobyena inhumane
• data friendly → yodata inimical
• poos peace → yopoos turmoil

In the codification of core words and derived words of the 2nd group, the opposite sense is obtained by prefixing lo dis-, un-, de- if followed by a consonant, or ol if followed by a vowel, eg.:

• fwa wanted → lofwa unwanted
• yuvxer to tie up → loyuvxer to untie
• axaxer to activate → olaxaxer to deactivate
• afwa allowable → olafwa disallowed

Rule #5: Codification by the Addition of Ordinal Vowels

a) When you wish to form a compound word with words from a same family of vowels, if the ordinal vowel is an o, you replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word.

NUMERAL PREFIX	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	ORDINAL VOWEL	GENERIC CONSONANT	MEANING
a	d	o	b	republic
	d	e	b	leader
a	d	e	b	president

NUMERAL PREFIX	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	ORDINAL VOWEL	GENERIC CONSONANT	MEANING
i	d	o	b	kingdom
	d	e	b	leader
i	d	e	b	king

b) If, on the other hand, the two words are already subordinate, then the vowel of the determinant is placed between the ordinal vowel of the determined and the generic consonant.

Examples:

• mil water ↗ mal air ⇒ mial steam, vapor
• mel soil ↗ mil water ⇒ meil mud
• tul meal ↗ til drink ⇒ tuil soup

c) You can also form new compound words by applying the Rule # 6 above (a and b).

Examples:

• adob republic ↘ dab government ⇒ adab government of the republic
• adab government of the republic ↘ deb leader ⇒ adaeb president of the republic
• (Applying Rule #8 on feminizing words by post-iotation) ⇒ adaeyb Madam President of the Republic

Rule #6: Swapping Endings

When the generic consonant of a core word is replaced by that of another core word, all of the vowels of this latter word undergo the transformation required by the new generic consonant.

Examples:

TOB

man ↘

TOF

clothing

NOF ↗

cloth

TYOYAB

foot ↘

TYOYAV

sock

NOV ↗

linen

BODY PART	APPAREL	CLOTH/LINEN
tob man	tof clothes	tov lingerie
tab body	taf suit	tav robe
teb head	tef hat	tev scarf
teab eye	teaf blinder	teav eye patch
teeb ear	teef ear phone	teev ear muff
teib nose	teif noseguard	teiv handkerchief
teub mouth	teuf muzzle	teuv mask
teyob neck	teyof necktie	teyov collar
tib trunk	tif waistcoat	tiv sweater
tiab chest	tiaf vest	tiav shirt
tyob leg	tyof pants	tyov underwear
tyoyab foot	tyoyaf shoe	tyoyav sock
tyoyib knee	tyoyif knee pad	tyoyiv knee sock
tyoyob ankle	tyoyof ankle bracelet	tyoyov ankle sock
tuyob wrist	tuyof cuff	tuyov wristband
tuyab hand	tuyaf glove	tuyav mitten

Rule #7: Scientific Vocabulary-building

Chemical Elements

The names of chemical elements are formed from a number representing the element's atomic number (number of electrons), followed by a letter combination indicating whether it is a metal or metalloid, and followed, if pertinent, by a combination of letters indicating whether it is a gas or liquid. The table that follows shows how this composition works:

ELEMENT	ELECTRON COUNT	METAL GENERIC = m
silver	47 = ulye	ulyem
aluminum	13 = ali	alim
iron	46 = elya	elyam
gold	79 = yelyum	yelyum
copper	29 = elyu	elyum
tin	50 = yolo	yolom
		METALLOID GENERIC = ms
phosophorus	15 = alyo	alyoms
carbon	6 = ya	yams
		GAS = al LIQUID = il
hydrogen	1 = a	amsal
nitrogen	7 = ye	yemsal
oxygen	8 = yi	yimsal
mercury	80 = yilo	yilomsil

The words amsal, yemsal, and yimsal each carry three pieces of information.

The first letter indicates their classification by number of electrons.

The two following letters: mc indicates metalloids; The two last letters: al indicates that they are a gas.

The word yilomil also carries three pieces of information:

The three first letters: 'yi-l-o show classification by number of electrons.

The fourth letter, m, indicates that it's a metal.

The two last letters, il, indicates that it's a liquid.

Other Non-elemental Substances

Non-elemental natural and man-made substances and alloys are formed using mnemonic components.

• steel = elyamyig < elyam iron + yig(a) hard
• plastic = sanyel < san- shape + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• rubber = yugyel < yug- soft + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• cement = megyel < meg stone + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• glass = zyev < zy(e) (see) through + (m)ev porcelain
• bronze = elyumyig < elyum copper + yig(a) hard
• paint = vozil < voz color + -il liquid
• ink = dril < dr(er) write + -il liquid
• coal = yamsun < yams carbon + -un substance
• glue = yanil < yan together + -il liquid
• paste = yanyel < yan together + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• resin = defabyel < defab pine tree + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• wood = faof < fa(b) tree + (n)of material, tissue
• leather = tayof < tayo(b) skin + (n)of material, tissue
• cement = megyel < meg stone + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• concrete = megyelyig < meg stone + -yel viscous matter + yig hard
• tar = movgyin < mov smoke + gyin solid
• lava = magmebil < mag fire + meb mountain + -il liquid
• fuel = magil < mag fire + -il liquid
• shampoo = tayel < taye(b) hair + -(y)el oil, wax, gel, gum
• detergent = vyunobil < vyu(a) dirty + -(u)n substance + ob(er) remove + -il liquid
• soap = vyil < vyi(a) clean + -(i)l liquid
• cheese = bilyig < bil milk + yig(a) hard
• butter = bilyug < bil milk + yug(a) soft
• syrup = gyalevil < gya extremely + lev(el) sugar, sweet + -il liquid
• gravy = taobil < taob flesh, meat + -il liquid
• alcohol = fil < (levaf) ferment + -il liquid
• wax = apelatyel < apelat bee + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• honey = apelatil < apelat bee + -il liquid
• brick = mef < m(el) earthen + (no)f hard material
• porcelain = mev < m(el) earthen + (no)v soft material
• gem = mez < m(el) earthen + (no)z value, precious

Atomic and Subatomic Particles

From the word mul matter, substance, stuff, we get the following derivatives:

• mul matter, substance, stuff

• mula material, substantial, physical

• omula immaterial, unsubstantial, non-physical

• ovmul anti-matter
• omul nothingness, void, nihil

• omulxer anihilate

• moza mul black matter
• multun physics

• multuna physics-related
• multut physics scientist

• mulog particle

• muloga particulate
• mulogxer crush, crumble, pulverize
• vamulog proton
• omulog neutron
• vomulog electron

• vomuloga electronic
• vomulp electricity

• vomulpa electric, electrical

• vomulpaxer electrify

• mules element

• mulesa elemental
• mulesyan compound

• yanmul mix, mixture, chemical

• yanmula chemical
• yanmultun chemistry

• yanmultuna chemical
• yanmultut chemist

• gwomul atom

• gwomula atomic

• obgwomula subatomic

• zemul nucleus

• zemula nuclear

Rule #8: The Feminization of Words

To form the feminine of a word or to indicate that an object or thing belongs to females, post-iotate (append a y) to the ordinal vowel of the word.

Examples:

MALE-RELATED	FEMALE-RELATED
tob man	toyb woman
tad spouse, husband	tayd wife
tadet brother	taydet sister
ted father	teyd mother
tedet son	teydet daughter
tid uncle	tiyd aunt
tidet cousin	tiydet female cousin
apet horse	apeyt mare
epet bull	epeyt cow
tiav shirt	tiayv blouse
tyof pants	tyoyf skirt
tulyuxut waiter	tulyuxuyt waitress

Note that personal pronouns can be feminized as well. The unfeminized form is either masculine or neutral with respect to gender.

MASCULINE	FEMININE
at I / me	ayt we / us women
et you	eyt you gals
it he / him	iyt she / her
yat we / us	yayt we females / us women
yet you guys	yeyt you gals
yit they / them	yiyt they / them (f.)

This process works for the possessive adjective derivatives of these pronouns:

• iyta her
• yeyta you gals'

The animate demonstrative pronouns (animate deictic determiners) can also be feminized:

• huyt that female person, she, her
• huyti these females, they, them

The generic pronouns ot one, yot they (generic) and (y)ut are not normally feminized.

Rule #9: Geophysical Vowel Coding

Geophysical vowel coding, as it's name indicates, occurs on vowels by giving them a particular geophysical meaning.

• a = air, gas, skyward
• e = soil, ground
• i = water, liquid, juice, etc.
• u = concrete thing, material, mineral, underground
• o = abstract thing, initial item, outer space

This codification occurs on the ordinal vowel of 1st Group core words only.

Examples:

m...m	m...p	d...p	p...t	m...l	p...p
mom outer space	mop galaxy	dop military	pot animal	mol nature	pop travel
mam sky	map wind	dap air force	pat bird	mal air	pap flight
mem land	mep way	dep army	pet (land) animal	mel soil	pep ride
mim sea	mip river	dip navy	pit fish	mil water	pip sea voyage
mum underground	mup tunnel	dup submarine force		mul mineral	pup tunneling

Vowel coding also allows for arriving at other combined-concept word categories by placing a vowel having the value ascribed to it by Rule # 9 just a before the generic consonant of the initial word. (See Rule #5)

Examples:

COMBINED-CONCEPT WORD	CODIFICATION
pait aquatic bird	pat bird + liquid / sea
piat flying fish	pit fish + skyward / air
diap naval aviation	dip navy + skyward / air
meil mud	mel soil + liquid / sea

Rule #10: Directional and Positional Vowel Coding

Directional and positional vowel coding works along lines of the charts below. Those vowels preceded by a y (iotated vowels) are, for this analysis, considered to be vowels pure and simple. Those vowels that are capitalized are positional in nature and serve as prefixes to 1st group words. Those vowels that are italicized are directional as prefixes to 2nd group words. The vowels that are underlined are directional in nature and are infixed just after the classifying consonant of 2nd group words, mostly verbs.

	A a a ya ya
U u u yu u	E e e ye ye	I i i yi yi
	O o o yo yo

VOWEL	FUNCTION	ATTACHMENT	MEANING	EXAMPLE
A	positional	1st group prefix	above, north	zamer north
a	directional	2nd group prefix	on, onto	aber put on, ab on
a	directional	2nd group infix	on, onto	baer lean on
ya	directional	2nd group prefix	up	yaber lift up, yab up
ya	directional	2nd group infix	upward	pyaser jump up
O	positional	1st group prefix	under, south	zomer south
o	directional	2nd group prefix	off, under, below	ober take off, ob off
o	directional	2nd group infix	from below, downward	boer support
yo	directional	2nd group prefix	down	yober lower, yob down
yo	directional	2nd group infix	down with contact	pyoser fall down
U	positional	1st group prefix	left, west	zumer west, utuyab left hand
u	directional	2nd group prefix	toward	uper come, ub toward
u	directional	2nd group infix	to, toward with contact	puer arrive, bu to
yu	directional	2nd group prefix	near	yuber bring, yub near
yu	directional	2nd group infix	up to, as far as	byuer touch, byu up to, as far as
I	positional	1st group prefix	right, east	zimer east, ituyab right hand
i	directional	2nd group prefix	away	iper go away, ib away from
i	directional	2nd group infix	away with contact	pier depart, bi to
yi	directional	2nd group prefix	far away, far from	yiper go far away, yib far
yi	directional	2nd group infix	since, starting from	byier originate, byi since
E	positional	1st group prefix	center, middle equator	zemer equator, eb between
e	directional	2nd group prefix	staying in the middle, between	eper stay
e	directional	2nd group infix	stopped in the middle, at	beer hold, be at
ye	directional	2nd group prefix	inside	yeber contain, yeb in
ye	directional	2nd group infix	inside	byeer keep

Examples of verbs undergoing the rules of directional coding:

With ber put (transitive):

aber put on	eber hold	ober take off	iber receive	uber send
yaber raise	yeber contain	yober lower	yiber put away	yuber bring
baer lean on	beer keep	boer hold up	bier take	buer give
byaer lift	byeer conserve	byoer hang	byier obtain	byuer reach for

With per go (intransitive):

aper get on	eper stay	oper get off	iper go away	uper come
yaper rise	yeper enter	yoper descend	yiper put away	yuper bring
paer stand	peer wait	poer fall	pier depart	puer arrive
pyaer get up	pyeer stick around	pyoer get down	pyier originate	pyuer reach

Rule #11: Codifying Mnemonic Markers

By changing the classifying or generic consonant of a derived word, a new, but related meaning can be obtained. Also, the classifying consonant can be replaced with an entire or partial word. The relationship among the altered word forms is therefore mnemonic. Here are some examples:

teub mouth → teud cry     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ teuz voice     (z = precious, art, etc.)

→ deuz song     (d = communicate, utter, social)

tayab fat → fayab vegetable fat     (f = vegetable)

→ mayab mineral fat     (m = nature, mineral)

tub arm → fub branch     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vub twig     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ dub minister     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ xub department     (x = do, work)

→ patub wing     (pat = bird)

→ pitub fin     (pit = fish)

tayob skin → fayob bark     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vayob peel     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ piyetayob shell     (piyet = mollusk)

→ pitayob scale     (pit = fish)

→ epeytayob cowhide     (epeyt = cow)

tayeb hair → fayeb leaf     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ pitayeb scale     (pit = fish)

→ potayeb fur     (pot = animal)

→ patayeb feather     (pat = bird)

→ vosayeb petal     (vos = flower)

→ mayeb foil     (m = nature, mineral)

→ gorbayeb blade     (gorb = cut)

taob flesh, meat → faob wood     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vaob hay     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ epeytaob beef     (epeyt = cow)

→ kovaob thatch     (ko = cover + v = plant)

→ fyaob pulp     (fy(ab) = fruit )

→ faof board, plank     (f = vegetable, tree, etc. )

teater see → teaxer look     (x = do, teab = eye)

→ teaper visit     (p = go)

→ teaser seem     (s = be)

→ teader testify     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ izeader indicate     (iz = direct )

→ izteaxer aim     (x = do)

→ beaxer watch     (b(eer) = keep)

→ abeaxer survey     (ab = over)

→ yoneater discern     (yon = apart, t = know )

→ vyaleaxer check     (vyal = accurate )

→ yageaxer stare     (yag = long )

Suppressing Syllables for Brevity

Sometimes, syllables of longish words can be omitted for brevity as long as no confusion of meaning results. Here are some examples:

• vafil wine < vafyabil (vafyab grape + -il liquid)
• bil milk < tilabil (tilab breast + -il liquid)
• ateuder neigh < apeteuder (apet horse + (t)euder emit a cry)
• iteuder bray < ipeteuder (ipet donkey + (t)euder emit a cry)
• bilyig cheese < tilabilyig (tilab breast + -il liquid + yig(a) hard)

Rule #12: Creating Nuances of Meaning

Words following Rule #12 are those that relate to one another through similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances indicated by phonetic devices that activate these nuances.

These nuances are obtained by:

a) Adding a sub-ordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal:

a for a and ya

e for e and ye

i for i and yi

o for o and yo

u for u and yu

Examples:

NORMAL	NUANCED
valay surely	vaalay assuredly
nad line	naad rail
dab government	daab administration
dob state	doob nation
tam house	taam home
vyab rule	vyaab regime, system
job time	joob era, time period

b) Post-iotating ordinal vowels and subordinal vowels. Often, the meaning of the word with the post-iotated vowel is a mitigated nuance of the word without the iotated vowel:

NORMAL	DIMINISHED NUANCE
nad line	nayd ray
vua ugly	vuya plain
ifer love	iyfer like
iva happy	iyva content
tam house	taym cottage
ab on	ayb over
ob off	oyb under
en- two-	eyn- half-
ud that	uyd such
ama hot	ayma warm

c) Adding the sense-augmenting consonants l and r, the latter being the stronger.

NORMAL	AUGMENTED NUANCE	FURTHER-AUGMENTED NUANCE
iva happy	ivla glad	ivra delighted
via beautiful	vila magnificent	vira marvelous
yifa brave	yilfa courageous	yirfa heroic
fua bad	fula awful	fura horrendous
alo hundred	aro thousand	amso million
yufxer intimidate	yulfxer frighten	yurfxer terrorize
aga big	agla huge	agra tremendous

Note: Sometimes the l or r nuance-enhancing consonants come after the generic consonant.

d) Adding consonants other than l and r as generic consonants. Sometimes, more than one nuance-altering consonant is added in the same word:

vala = sure

valta = safe

---

fua = bad

futa = evil [t usually refers to people or animals]

---

vyaa = true

vyala = authentic

vyafa = precise

vyama = real [m usually refers to nature, minerals, etc.]

vyava = exact [v usually refers to veracity]

vyalva = right

vyaba = regular [b usually refers to an organization or organism]

vyada = frank [d usually refers to communicating, talking, writing, etc.]

vyata = reliable

vyasma = concrete

Forming Adjectives

You can form an adjective by adding the suffix a to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized.

Examples:

NOUN	ADJECTIVE
taam home	taama domestic
doob nation	dooba national
tej life	teja vital
tyoyapyaf ability to walk	tyoyapyafa ambulatory
martun astronomy	martuna astronomical
PRONOUN	ADJECTIVE
at I, me	ata my
etut yourself	etuta your own
hiyen this kind	hiyen this kind of
hot? who?	hota? whose?
GERUND	ADJECTIVE
ifeken recreation	ifekena recreational
VERB FORM	ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE)
teje (he) lives	tejea living
tojo will die	tojoa moribund, about to die
tojbu would kill	tojbua lethal
twe is known	twa known

Adjectival Suffixes

Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just a.

Examples:

SUFFIX	MEANING	NOUN	ADJECTIVE
-aya	full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly
		voz color	vozaya colorful
		futax resentment	futaxaya resentful
		tiibil blood	tiibilaya bloody
		yilf courage	yilfaya courageous
-oya	bereft of, -less, un-
		voz color	vozoya colorless, pale
		tajyaf talent	tajyafoya untalented
-ika	full of, -ous, -ful, -y (same as -aya)
		map wind	mapika windy
-uka	bereft of, without, -less (same as -oya)
		nas money	nasuka broke, penniless
-yena	-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of
		tobob child	tobobyena childish, infantile
		tot god	totyena divine, godly
		pit fish	pityena fish-like, fishy
-wa or -awa	-ed, past passive participle (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
		t- know	twa or tawa known
		dal- speak	dalwa or dalawa spoken, oral
		nisbu- sell	nisbuwa sold
-ea	-ing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
		ot- not know	otea ignorant
		tej- live	tejea living, alive
		tuj- die	tujea dying
-yea	-ive, prone to Xing, given to X (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
		tujb- kill	tujbyea murderous
		tex- think	texyea pensive, thoughtful
		tox- forget	toxyea forgetful
		ax- act	axyea active
-uwa	-able, apt to be Xed (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
		ex- operate	exuwa operable
		tos feel	tosuwa palpable
		tex- think	texuwa conceivable
		tel- eat	teluwa edible
-yafa	-able, capable of Xing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyafa sightful, able to see
		dyed- read	dyedyafa literate
-yafwa	-able, possible to be Xed (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyafwa visible
		tax- remember	taxyafwa memorable
		teet- hear	teetyafwa audible
		tel- eat	telyafwa edible
-yofa	incapable of Xing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyofa blind
		tyoyap- walk	tyoyapyofa lame
		teet- hear	teetyofa deaf
		dal- speak	dalyofa dumb, incapable of speaking
-yofwa	un-X-able (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyofwa invisible
		teet- hear	teetyofa inaudible
		tox- forget	toxyofa unforgetable
		dal- speak	dalyofa unspeakable
-ifa	fond of, -phile (	NOUN STEM	ADJECTIVE
		pot animal	potifa pet-friendly
		hyitoob- same-gender	hyitoobifa homophile
		tobot child	tobotifa pedophile
		fitel food	fitelifa gourmand
		doob nation	doobifa patriotic
-ufa	adverse to, hating, miso-	NOUN STEM	ADJECTIVE
		tob human	tobufa misanthropic
		hyut- other person	hyutufa xenophobic
		toyb- woman	toybufa misogynist

Negating Adjectives

The sense of an adjective can be negated with the prefix o or the more intensive yo.

Examples:

• vlea probable → ovlea improbable
• vyafa perfect → ovyafa imperfect
• twa known → otwa unknown
• bosa calm → yobosa worried

Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes

As in English, the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin. Here are the most common:

ENGLISH PREFIX	MIRAD	ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES
un-, a(n)-, in-, non-	o-	obaka unhealthy, oyezyebeya incontinent, oyelpea non-invasive, ototina atheist
anti-, counter-	ov-	ovzuina anti-leftist, oviztida counter-intuitive
pseudo-	kovyo-	kovyotepina pseudo-intellectual
all-, pan-, omni-	hyas-	yadtea all-knowing, omniscient
re-	yeg-	yegtajbwa re-born
mis-	vyo-	vyoseudwa mispronounced
semi-, half-	eyn-	eynlevelaya semi-sweet, eyntija half-awake
ultra-, super-	yiz-, gwa-	gwadoobina ultra-nationalist, yizmola supernatural
under-, hypo-	gro-	grojaga under-aged
over-, hyper-, uber-	gra-	graagxwa overgrown, gratoseya hypersensitive
miso- [see suffixes]
multi-, many-, poly-	gla-	glakuma multilateral, glatadaya polygamous
mal-, ill-	fu-	futeyenxwa ill-conceived, fusanxwa malformed
well-	fi-	fitofabwa well-dressed
quasi-	yuyb-	yuybdaba quasi-governmental
pre-, (a)fore-, pro-	ja-	jateyenxwa pre-conceived, jaigdawa aformentioned
post-	jo-	jodropeka post-war

English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison

Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts:

ENGLISH SUFFIX	MEANING	MIRAD SUFFIX	ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES
-ful	full of	-aya, -ika	vozaya colorful, tuzika skillful
-ous	full of	-aya, -ika	nazika precious, milaya aqueous
-filled	full of	-aya, -ika	movika / movaya smoke-filled
-y	full of	-aya, -ika	movika / movaya smoky,
-ous	of, like	-a	totina religious, vyosa erroneous
-ly	like	-yena	totyena godly, toybyena womanly
-like	like	-yena	patyena bird-like
-ish	like	-yena	tobobyena childish
-y	like	-yena	fyabyena fruity
-ic	like	-yena	tuzyena artistic, silyena acidic
-ic	of, related to	-a	tuna scientific, , beka therapeutic
-ical	of, related to	-a	zyunida spherical, iztexa logical
-ological	pertaining to the study of	-tuna	tejtuna biological
-ist(ic)	pertaining to the doctrine of	-ina	doparina militarist(ic), nasyanina capitalist(ic)
-ophobic (and miso- prefix)	hating, fearful of	-ufa	yudatufa xenophonic, tobyanufa misanthropic
-ophilic (and philo- prefix)	loving	-ifa	tobobifa pedophilic, tobifa philanthropic
-al	like	-yena	pyotyena bestial
-al	of, pertaining to	-a	teja vital, amana thermal
-less	without, empty of	-oya, -uka	tejuka lifeless, toboboya childless
-free	without, empty of	-oya, -uka	yomuka ice-free, vyosoya, error-free

Forming Adverbs

Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-iotating the adjectival suffix a, in other words, by adding a y to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Examples:

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
fia good	fiay well
vyaa true	vyaay truly
gyua easy	gyuay easily
iga quick	igay quickly
auta personal	autay personally

For brevity's sake, the stem of deadjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example:

• It tyoyape ig. He walks fast.
• Yit xa ad fi. They did it well.

Special Adverbs

Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in -ay.

Here are the principal such adverbs:

SPECIAL ADVERB
vay.... indeed, really, certainly, do (cf. va.... yes)
vey.... possibly, may, might (cf. ve.... maybe)
voy.... not (cf. vo.... no)
ga.... more (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
gay.... also, moreover, further, still
ge.... as, equally (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
gey.... even
go.... less (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
goy.... no longer, no more
gla.... very
glay.... quite, rather, so
gle.... so
glo.... not very, not so
gra.... too
gre.... enough, sufficiently, over-
gro.... not...enough, inadequately, under-
gwa.... most, super-
gwe.... average
gwo.... least, sub-

The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow:

• AFFIRMATIVE: Va, at vay se tadsa..... Yes, I am indeed married.
• DUBITIVE: Iyta dud se vey vyosa..... Her response is possibly wrong.
• NEGATIVE: At voy se eta yurxut..... I am not your slave.

The adverbs above beginning with g are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb:

• Et se gla via.....You are very beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].
• Et peya gra ig.'.... You were going too fast [=ADVERB].
• It gra dale.'.... He talks [=VERB] too much.

Other special adverbs, which do not end in -ay, include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions:

SPECIAL ADVERB	EXAMPLES
yab up	Ad pat papa yab bu ad mam. The bird flew up to the sky.
yob down	Teaxu yob bu ad mel. Look down to the ground.
yub near	Pesu yub ad mas. Stay near the wall.
yib far	Ad tobi igpia yib ad yovbyokam. The men fled far from the prison.
ib away	Teaxu ib, diwe. Look away, please.
ub this way	Tyoyapu ub. Walk toward this way.
yeb in, inward, inside	Kyedu odut ogja tyoyapa yeb! Guess who just walked in!
oyeb out, outside	'It tyoyapa oyeb zye ad zama mes. He walked out through the front door.
yuz around	Yit daza yuz yat. They danced around us.
yiz beyond	Et yefe teaxer yiz id titam av yux. You must look beyond this school for help.

Pro-adverbs

There are also adverbial expressions that are agglutinated with deictic and quantitative morphemes to produce what are known as pro-adverbs. These include interrogative pro-verbs like hom? (where?), hoyen? (how?), hoj? (when?), hogla (to what extent?), and their answers, such as hum (there), heyen (somehow), and hyoj (never), hugla (so, to that extent). These words are discussed under the chapter on Determiners in Deictic Pro-adverbs.

Forming Verbs

Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech.

Forming Verbs from Nouns

Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix er:

NOUN	VERB
syag count	syager to count
tof clothes	tofer to dress
tam house	tamer to dwell, live, reside
dyun name	dyuner to name, call
teud cry, shout	teuder to cry, shout, exclaim
taj birth	tajer to be born
tej life	tejer to live
toj house	tojer to die
ej present	ejer to continue
ij beginning	ijer to begin
uj end	ijer to end
yuj sleep	tujer to sleep

Verb Formants

Sometimes an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such verb formants are in this chart:

• -ser to be usually intransitive and stative (unite = become one)
• -xer to do/make usually transitive and dynamic (unite = make one)
• -per to go usually intransitive and a verb of motion (mount = get onto)
• -ber to put usually transitive and a verb of gesture (apply = put onto)
• -ier a stub from the verb to take, usually an action verb benefitting the agent (eat = take food)
• -uer a stub from the verb to give, usually an action verb benefitting the patient (feed = give food)
• -der to say, a verb of communication (affirm = say yes)
• -ter to know, verbs of the perception and knowledge (teater = see_

NOUN	AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB	VERB
yav innocence	der to say	yavder to acquit
yov shame, guilt	aber to apply, put on	yovaber to shame, accuse
yov shame, guilt	ober to remove, take off	yovober to excuse, exculpate
tof clothes	aber to apply, put on	tofaber to dress, don
tof clothes	ober to remove, take off	tofober to undress, strip
det associate	ser to be, become	detser to associate
dat friend	xer to do, make	datxer to befriend
san form	ser to be, become	sanser to form (intransitive)
san form	xer to do, make	sanxer to form (transitive)
tel food	(b)ier to take	telier to eat, consume
tel food	(b)uer to give	teluer to feed, nourish
if pleasure	(b)ier to take	ifier to enjoy
if pleasure	(b)uer to give	ifuer to please
taj birth	(b)uer to give	tajuer to give birth
tej life	(b)ier to take	tejier to come alive
tej life	(b)uer to give	tejuer to bring to life
toj death	(b)ier to take	tojier to drop dead
toj death	(b)uer to give	tojuer to kill
tij wakefulness	(b)ier to take	tijier to wake up
tij wakefulness	(b)uer to give	tijuer to awaken
tuj sleep	(b)ier to take	tujier to fall asleep
tuj sleep	(b)uer to give	tujuer to put to sleep
tax memory	(b)ier to take	taxier to recall
tax memory	(b)uer to give	taxuer to remind
yev justice	der to say, tell	yevder to judge
vyan truth	der to say, tell	vyander to tell the truth
vyon falsehood	der to say, tell	vyonder to tell a lie
il liquid	aker to gain	ilaker to take on liquid
il liquid	oker to lose	iloker to leak, lose liquid
il liquid	(b)ier to take	ilier to soak up
il liquid	(b)uer to give	iluer to pour, water
il liquid	ikser to get full	ilikser to be soaked (intransitive)
il liquid	ikxer to fill up	ilikxer to flood, soak (transitive)
il liquid	ukser to become empty	ilukser to drain (intransitive)
il liquid	ukxer to empty	ilukxer to flush (transitive)
il liquid	ser to be, become	ilser to liquify, melt (intransitive)
il liquid	xer to do, make	ilxer to liquify, melt (transitive)
il liquid	aber to apply, put on	ilaber to wash (transitive)
il liquid	aper to get on	ilaper to float (intransitive)
il liquid	per to go	ilper to flow (intransitive)
il liquid	zyaber to spread	ilzyaber to spray, shower (transitive)
il liquid	zyober to squeeze	ilzyober to squirt (transitive)
il liquid	pyexer to strike	ilpyexer to splash (with liquid)
il liquid	yujer to close	ilyujer to plug

Note that verbs ending in -ser and -ier are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in -xer and -uer are transitive. Also, -ier verbs are inchoative, while -uer verbs are causative (making someone do something).

Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser

The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with -xer to do, make, cause, and the intransitive group with -ser to be, become.

The following chart shows how these verbs are formed:

ADJECTIVE	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
aza strong	azaxer fortify, strengthen, make strong	azaser get strong
oza week	ozaxer weaken	ozaser grow weaker
kyia heavy	kyiaxer weigh down	kyiaser grow heavy
kyua light	kyuaxer lighten, make lighter	kyiaser get lighter
yana together	yanaxer bring together	yanaser get together

The final adjective ending a is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the a makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart:

ADJECTIVE	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
aga big	agaxer magnify	agaser get big
	agxer grow	agxer grow up, mature
iga fast	igaxer accelerate	igaser speed up
	igxer rush	igser hurry up
baka healthy	bakaxer make healthy	bakaser get healthy
	bakxer heal	bakser heal
sana formal	sanaxer formalize	sanaser become formal
	sanxer form, shape	sanser form, take shape

Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per

Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb ber to put, while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb per to go. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in b, the b is dropped. Here are some examples:

PREPOSITON BASE	TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB	INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB
ab on	aber apply, put on	aper mount, get on
eb between	eber block	eper intervene
ob off	ober remove, take off	oper dismount, get off
ib away	iber receive	iper leave
ub toward	uber send	uper come
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise
yeb in oyeb out	yeber insert oyebertake out	yeper enter oyeper exit
yob down	yober lower	yoper descend
yib far	yiber take away	yiper move away
yub near	yuber bring	yuper approach
zay forward	zayber advance	zayper advance, go forward
zey across	zeyber take across, transfer	zeyper cross, go over, transit
zoy back	zoyber set back, return	zoyper retreat, go back, return
iz straight	izber guide	izper aim for
uz crooked	uzber divert	uzper turn, diverge
yiz beyond	yizber take beyond	yizper pass by
yuz around	yuzber take around	yuzper go around

More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of ser and xer, plus the intensifiers y, l and r. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: s for intransitive and x for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions.

GESTURE VERB	GESTURE VERB	MOTION VERB	MOTION VERB
INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE	INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE
	ber put beer have byeer contain beler carry bexer hold	per go
baer lean on	baler press yanbaler compress yobaler depress, suppress yuzbaler hug zoybaler repress barer crush	paer ?
baser gesticulate	baxer make a gesture abaxer caress, pat	paser move	paxer move
byaser stand up	byaxer set up, erect	pyaser jump up	pyaxer shoot, launch
balser budge	balxer rouse abalxer massage	palser get excited	palxer excite apalxer sweep
barser shake	balxer shake abarxer rub		aparxer brush
beser stay	bexer hold zoybexer restrain yobexer detain, hold down	peser wait	pexer trap
byeser behave	byexer hit	pyeser run into, bump into	pyexer strike, knock yonpyexer break yopyexer knock down yanpyexer fight apyexer attack ovpyexer offend kunpyexer sideswipe tuyapyexer slap
balser adhere	balxer retain		pelxer pound, beat apelxer assault yonpelxer shatter, burst
		yanperser implode yonperser explode	perxer blast, bomb
boser calm down boyser rest	boxer quieten, quell	poser stop poyser pause	poxer stop
byoser hang	byoxer hang	pyoser fall yonpyoser decay	pyoxer drop, throw down yopyoxer topple
biser originate	bixer pull yanbixer contract yonbixer distract yubixer attract yibixer distract oyebixer extract yebixer push in		pixer catch
bilser spring	bilxer yank		pilxer snag, capture yipilxer abduct
buser be destined	buxer push, drive zyobuxer squeeze yebuxer expel abuxer impose	apuser assault	puxer throw, thrust
byuser bump into	byuxer touch yanbyuxer contact	pyuser run into	pyuxer crash
bulser swoop	bulxer shove	pulser lunge, pounce	pulxer thrust zyapulxer splatter

Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb baxer (and its intransitive partner baser) as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart:

PREFIX	VERB
	baxer gesture, make a bodily motion
ab on	abaxer caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub
iz straight	izbaxer point
teb head	tebaxer nod
va yes	vatebaxer nod yes
vo no	votebaxer nod no
ve maybe	vetebaxer shrug
tuyab hand	tuyabaxer wave
tub arm	tubaxer flail, swing
teubab tongue	teubabaxer lick
teab eye	teubaxer wink
patub wing	patubaxer flap
tiyub tail	tiyubaxer wag
	baser gesticulate
ig- fast	igbaser jerk
zay forward	igzaybaser lurch
zoy back	zoybaser recoil
yob down	yobaser bow, bend down
ku- side	kubaser slide
ig- fast	igkubaser slip
iz straight + uz curved	izuzbaser sway, swagger, swish
zi right + zu left	zizubaser wiggle, wobble, totter

Forming Frequentative Verbs

A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by affixing the syllable eg to the verb stem. Here are some examples:

REGULAR VERB	FREQUENTATIVE VERB
paser move	paseger shake, shudder
pyaser jump	pyaseger bounce
paper fly	papeger flutter, flit
braser shake	braseger shudder, quivver, vibrate
teupixer bite	teupixeger nibble
ilzyaber spray	ilzyabeger sprinkle

Word Families

The core words serve as nuclei for the word families. The nuclei represent an idea, an element, a type, a gesture, a movement that can be categorized or classified. Thus, the word families formed according to word-building rules represent large word groups that have meaningful relationships among them.

This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word teub mouth:

ceux sound

xeus noise

xeuz tune

teuz voice

deuz song

seuz tone

deus accent

Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum:

teb head	deb leader	xeb boss	feb treetop
tub limb	dub minister	xub subsidiary	fub branch	vub twig	patub wing	petub paw	pitub fin
teub mouth	pateub beak	peteub muzzle
tayeb hair	patayeb feather	pitayeb scale	fayeb leaf	vosayeb petal	potayeb mane
tayob skin	tayof leather	petayob hide	fayob bark	vayob peel
tyob leg	fyob root	vyob plant root
tib trunk	fib tree trunk	vib stem
tulob nail	petulob claw	fulob thorn	defulob needle	mulob pin, prick
tiibuf artery	fuf pipe	muf stick, rod	movuf cheminee	fauf log	manuf candle
til drink	teabil tear	teubil saliva	dril ink	mil water	mamil rain	tayobil sweat	bil milk

The xer (Do) Family

The verb xer means to do. Many words are built from this core word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in xer contrast with those ending in ser, in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object).

Core Words

This chart shows the core verbs in the xer family:

axer act	exer function	oxer abstain	ixer effect	uxer cause
alxer activate	elxer operate	olxer fail	ilxer react	ulxer influence
arxer perform
xaer execute	xeer exercise	xoer undergo, submit	xier result	xuer affect
	xeyer behave
xaler accomplish	xeler practice	xoler fail	xiler undertake	xuler achieve
	yexer work	yoxer be idle	yixer use, hire	yuxer help, serve
	yerxer struggle	yorxer resign	yirxer exploit	yurxer slave

Creating Derived xer Words with Prefixes

Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words:

Keep in mind that xer can mean do, make, or cause in the following derived terms:

PREFIX	BASE	DERIVATION
ana single	xer make	anaxer unify
an- one-	xer make	anxer unite
yana together	'exer operate	yanexer cooperate
yan- together	yexer work	yanyexer collaborate
yon- apart	xer make	yonxer split
ge- equal	xer make	gexer copy
ja before	xer make	jaxer prepare
je while	xer do	jexer continue
ig- fast	xer do	igxer rush
ug- slow	xer do	ugxer delay
oj future	xer do	ojxer plan
yeg- re-	xer do	yegxer redo
sa(n) shape	xer make	saxer create
se(n) being	xer make	sexer build
lo- un-	sexer build	losexer destroy
mel soil	yexer work	melyexer plough
tea(b) eye	xer do	teaxer look
o- un-	yirxer hire	oyirxer fire
mag fire	xer cause	magxer burn
yuf fear	xer cause	yufxer frighten
dofun crime	xer do	dofunxer commit a crime
gra too much	xer do	graxer exaggerate
yeg- re-	axer act	yegaxer react
fu- bad	xeyer behave	fuxeyer misbehave

Using xer to Build Verbs from Adjectives

Hundreds of verbs can be created with adjectives and xer as a suffix like -ify, -ate, -ize in English.

ADJECTIVE	VERB
aga big	agaxer magnify
goa lesser	goaxer diminish
fia good	fiaxer improve
jwoa late	jwoaxer retard
uva sad	uvaxer sadden
via beautiful	viaxer beautify
ebdooba international	ebdoobaxer internationalize

Note: Sometimes, the adjectival ending -a is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, agaxer means to magnify, make bigger, but agxer is more idiomatic and means to grow.

The passive of xer, xwer to be done can be used to mean to happen or to become. For example:

• Hoj hus xwa? When did that happen?
• At uvaxwa ham wa at teata ad tobob. I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.

Using xer for All-Purpose Idioms

The verb xer can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example:

• xer deuz to perform a song
• xer ifpop to take a cruise
• xer ebdid to conduct an interview

The ser (Be) Family

Core Words

The core verb ser means to be and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in ser are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in xer, which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in ser often are stative, i.e. linking verbs.

Summary:

aser become

eser exist, there to be

oser cease to be

iser start out

user end up

Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives

The core verb ser can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning become X, and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in xer. If the adjectival ending a is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense.

ADJECTIVE	STATIVE VERB
aga big	agaser get big
aga big	agser grow
uza curved	uzaser curve, bend, bow
kyaa mobile	kyaser change, vary
mayna clear	maynaser clear up
iga fast	igaser become fast, accelerate
iga fast	igser rush, hurry

Stative verbs in -ser are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in -xer. Here are some comparative examples:

• It agxe vafyabi. He grows grapes. (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC)
• Vafyabi voy agse fi him. Grapes do not grow well here. (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE)

• His kyaxa yata teji. This changed our lives.
• Yata teji kyasa hujub. Our lives changed on that day.

• Ha mapi uzaxa ha fabi. The winds bent the trees.
• Ha fabi uzasa je ha mapilag. The trees bowed during the storm.

• Wo igxu at. Don't rush me. (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC)
• Igsu! Hurry up! (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE)

Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns

The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning to become X

NOUN	STATIVE VERB
meg stone	megser petrify, become rock
abnod peak	abnodser peak, climax
mus scale, stair	musser escalate
yom ice	yomser freeze
maf cloud	mafser cloud over
il liquid	ilser liquefy, melt

Creating Dynamic Verbs from Inherently Stative Verbs

Some verbs with stems ending in -j are inherently stative. Their dynamic/transitive counterparts end in -ber. Here are some examples:

STATIVE VERB	DYNAMIC VERB
tojer die	tojber kill
tajer be born	tajber give birth (to), bear
tejer live	tejber bring to life
tijer be awake	tijber awaken
tujer sleep	tujber put to sleep
ijer begin	ijber begin (something)
ujer end	ijber finish, put an end to
yijer open up	yijber open up (something)
yujer close	yujber close, bring to a close

The ber (Put) and per (Go) Families

The core words ber to put and per to go, combined with positional/directional prefixes and various nuance-creating consonants, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in ber are transitive verbs, while those ending in per are mostly intransitive.

Common ber/per Verbs Built from Postional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels

PREFIX	GESTURE	MOTION	PREFIX	GESTURE	MOTION
ab on	aber put on	aper get on		baer lean	paer stand
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise		byaer lift	pyaer jump
ob off	ober remove	oper dismount		boer hold up	poer hang
yob down	yober lower	yoper descend		byoer hang	pyoer fall
ub toward	uber send	uper come	bu to	buer give	puer arrive
ib away	iber receive	iper go away	bi from	bier take	pier leave
yub near	yuber bring	yuper approach	byu up to	byuer touch	pyuer reach
yib far	yiber take away	yiper move far away	byi since	byier emanate	pyier originate
eb between	eber block	eper intervene	yeb in oyeb out'	yeber inject oyeber eject	yeper enter oyeper exit
za front	zaber advance	zaper advance	zay forward	zayber promote	zayper proceed
zo behind	zober put behind	zoper follow	zoy back	zoyber put back	zayper return
ze middle	zeber balance	zeper mediate	zey across	zeyber transfer	zeyper cross
zu left	zuber put to the left	zuper go left	uz crooked	zuber turn	zuper detour
zi right	ziber put to the right	ziper go right	iz straight	ziber guide	izper head
zya all over	zyaber spread	zyaper tour	zye through	zyeber interject	zyeper permeate
zyu round	zyuber rotate	zyuper roll	yuz around	yuzber turn	yuzper circulate
yiz beyond	yizber take beyond	yizper surpass	zyag stretched out	zyagber stretch	zyagper stretch out
ja before	jaber prepare	japer precede	aj past	ajber pass	ajper pass
jo after	jober delay	joper follow	oj future	ojber postpone	ojper wait?
je during	jeber continue	jeper continue	ej present	ejber present	ejper present oneself
yan together	yanber assemble	yanper join	bay with	bayber impart	bayper accompany
yon apart	yonber take apart	yonper separate	boy without	boyber deprive	boyper go without
ki oblique	kiber bend	kiper slant
ku side	kuber set aside	kuper avoid

The der (Say) Family

Words ending in der have to do with communicating, thus saying, talking, writing, reading.

daler speak	der say deler announce	doler be silent	dier ask diler request direr demand	duer suggest duler urge durer instigate
	drer write dryener print	droer erase
	dyeder read dyes book		dider ask	duder answer
	deser pronounce drez verse		din story	dun word dyun name drun phrase
draf card	dref paper dryef notebook	drof cardboard		dyuf sheet dyuv page

Many words are created by prefixing elements to der to say, tell, eg:

va yes	vader affirm
vo no	voder deny
ve maybe	veder guess
vyaa true	vyader swear
vyoa false	vyoder lie
fyaa holy	fyader bless
fyoa profane	fyoder curse
oza weak	ozder hint
yeg re-	yegder repeat
ve maybe, yova guilty	veyovder indict
va yes, yova guility	vayovder convict
ja before	jader predict

Animal noise verbs are created by replacing the final -t of an animal name with der:

yepet dog	yepeder bark
yipet cat	yipeder mew
epeyt cow	epeyder moo
epat duck	epader quack
ipat turkey	ipader gobble

Names of languages can be formed by replacing the final -m of the country name with -d. Then, the verb meaning to say in x language or speak in x language can be formed by adding -der or -daler, eg:

Anglam England	Anglad English	Anglader say in English	Angladaler speak in English
Fransam France	Fransad French (language)	Fransader say in French	Fransadaler speak French

The name of the language discussed in this book is Mirad, which comes from mira, meaning global, world. Thus, say in Mirad is Mirader and speak Mirad is Miradaler. A speaker of Mirad is a Miradut or Miradalut. Duhev et Mirade? Do you speak Mirad?. Hey Miraduti, ansu! Hey, speakers of Mirad, unite!

Words for various communicational art forms begin d- and end in -z, eg:

daz vidaz	dance ballet
dez	theater
diz	comedy
drez	poetry
duz	music
dyez	cinema
deuz	song

The ter (Know) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with t, meaning human and mental states and activities like knowing, thinking, feeling, etc.:

Summary:

	tep mind, intellect teptija conscious teptuja unconscious tepaza smart tepoza stupid tepiga witty tepsin imagination	top soul toptun psychology	tip sentiment tipaga generous tigoga stingy tipifa kind tipufa mean tipyija tolerant tipyiva liberal tipyiga stern tipyuga lenient
taxer remember taxier memorize taxuer remind	texer think vatexer believe vatexuer persuade vetexer suspect votexer doubt votexuer dissuade vyatex reason ter know oter ignore ten knowledge twas datum tyer1 recognize tyier get acquainted tyuer acquaint tez culture tyez magic ten knowledge tyen technique tyenyan technology tyenier train (oneself) tyenuer train teyen idea teyentun philosophy teyenyan ideology teyenier conceptualize	toxer forget	tixer study	tuxer teach
tayoter feel	teser mean tesier infer tesuer imply tester understand tesder explain testier realize testun semantics	toser feel	tier learn tin doctrine iztis intuition vyatis wisdom	tuer inform tun science tuin theory tuz art

1. Note that tyer recognize, know, be familiar with is used instead of ter know when referring to a person, much like Fr. connaître be familiar with (a person) vs. savoir know (a fact, how to), eg. It voy te hav at tye it. He doesn't know that I know him.

Suffixing -tun science to words forms many -ology terms. An -ologist is rendered with -tut, eg:

tep mind	teptun psychology	teptut psychologist
tieb lung	tiebtun pneumology	tiebtut pneumologist
toj death	tejtun thanatology	tejtut thanatologist
pat bird	pattun ornithology	pattut ornithologist
pit fish	pittun ichthyology	pittut ichthyologist
pot animal	pottun zoology	pottut zoologist
mul matter	multun chemistry ("materiology?")	multut chemist
ko- hidden, dren writing	kodrentun cryptology	kodrentut cryptologist

Some -ology words in English refer to theories or pseudo-science and are translated into Mirad with the ending -tuin:

mar star	martuin astrology (cf. martun astronomy)	martuit astrologist
sag number	sagtuin numerology (cf. sagtun mathematics)	sagtuit numerologist
nif string	niftuin string theory	niftuit string theoretician

Words in English referring to doctrines, dogmas, or -isms are translated into Mirad with the ending -tin, eg:

dot society	dotin socialism
Buda Buddha	Budatin Bhuddism
gwa most, fis good thing	gwafistin optimism
vyaa true	vyatin orthodoxy, truism
an- one, fyaat god	anfyaatin monotheism

The general word for school is titam (house of learning). The various levels of schools are translated with this word scalarized numerically.

atitam	primary school
etitam	secondary school, high school, lycee
ititam	college
utitam	university

The word pre-school, kindergarten is represented with jatitam (lit. pre-school), while post-graduate school is rendered with joutitam (lit. pre-university).

Some other, related terms:

• enjab ititam two-year college
• dovyap titam law school
• yexyen titam trade school, vocational school
• zetitam middle school
• tutam academy
• tiut pupil
• tixut student
• tixutyan student body
• tuxut teacher
• tuut educator
• tuen education
• tut professor, scholar
• tit disciple, learner
• titameb principal
• ititameb dean
• tuxutyan faculty
• tuxim lecture hall, classroom
• tixim study hall
• tityan class
• tiun lesson
• tiundyes lesson book
• aa tinag first grade
• ea tinag second grade

The job (Time) Family

Here are the most important words derived from job time. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for time. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by job in Mirad, and the other refers to a point in time, an instance or occasion, i.e. a countable noun concerning frequency, translated by jod in Mirad.

Calendar Time Units

TIME	SEASONS	MONTHS	DAYS OF THE WEEK
job time	jeab spring	jiab January	juab Monday
jab year	jeeb summer	jieb February	jueb Tuesday
jeb season	jeib autumn	jiib March	juib Wednesday
jib month	jeub winter	jiub April	juub Thursday
jub day		jiyob May	juyob Friday
jwob* hour		jiyab June	yuyab Saturday
jwab* minute		jiyeb July	juyeb Sunday
jweb* minute		jiyib August
		jiyub September
		jilob October
		jilab November
		jileb December
OTHER
yejab week	asojab century	amlojab millennium

* These would normally be jyob, jyab, and jyeb, but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the y is replaced by a w.

Times of Day

TIMES OF DAY
maj daytime
ijmaj dawn
imaj morning
eymaj noon
joeymaj afternoon
ujmaj dusk
umaj evening
moj night
eymoj midnight

General Time Words

GENERAL TIME WORDS
job time
jod time, instance, occasion
xag frequency
jud date
jag age

Scalar Time Periods

SCALAR TIME PERIODS
joob eon
joab era
joeb period
joib epoch
joub age
joyob chron
joyab term

Some Parallel Time Terms

taj birth	aj past	ja before	jana previous	ajna former, old	jaga old	jwa early	jwana pre-mature
tej life	ej present	je during	jena current	ejna new		jwe on time	jwana mature, ripe
toj death	oj future	jo after	jona next	ojna future	joga young	jwo late	jwona stale
tij wakefulness	ij beginning	ji since		ijna initial	jiga fresh, vibrant
tuj sleep	uj end	ju until		ujna final	juga tired, jaded

Time Questions and Answers

WHEN	HOW OFTEN	HOW OLD
hoj? when?	hoxag how often?	hojaga? how old?
haj hu when	haxag hu as often as	hajaga hu as old as
hej sometime	hexag sometimes	hejaga of a certain age
hij now	hixag this often	hijaga this old
huj then	huxag that often	hujaga that old
huyj at such a time	huyxag so often	huyjaga so old
hyoj never	hyoxag not once	glejaga rather old
hyaj always	hyaxag at all times	grajaga too old
hyej anytime	hyexag however often	grojaga underaged
hyij (vyel) at the same time (as)	gexag (vyel) as often (as)	gejaga (vyel) of the same age (as)
hyuj (vyel) some other time (then)	ogexag (vyel) not as often (as)	ogejaga (vyel) not as old (as)
be jobi at times	awa jod once	awa (jab) jaga one year old
be hujobi in those times	ewa jodi twice	ewa (jabi) jaga two years old
byu jobuj forever	gla jodi many time	alo (jabi) jaga ten years old
byi huj since then	aloni bi jodi hundreds of times	gajaga (vyel) older (than)

How old are you? is expressed as Hojaga se et?. A typical response is At se ali (jabi) jaga. I am thirteen (years old). If the quantity of time is months, than the answer would be like the following: Iyt sa ewa jibi (jaga). She was two months (old).

Persons of Various Ages:

awajagat one-year-old

alojagat ten-year-old

aloyjagat teenager

grojagat minor

grejagseat adolescent

grejagat adult

gajagat older person, elder, superior

grajagat over-aged person

jaygat youngish individual

yiloyjagat octogenarian

yuloyjagat nonagenarian

asoyjagat centenarian

jogat youngster, youth, boy

joyayt young girl

gojagat younger person, cadet

jagat oldster, veteran, old person, old man, elder

jagayt old lady

jaygat oldish person

zejagat middle-aged person

gwajogat a person as young as possible, youngest person

gwajagat the oldest person, eldest

The sag (Number), xag (Frequency), nog (Measure), nod (Point) Families

The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc.

Summary:

...AG WORDS	N..[DBP] WORDS
ag size	nod point
sag number	nad line
syag count	ned plane
syaag calculation	nid volume
nog degree	nab rank
nag measure	nap order
neg level	naab organization
nig space	naap system
jag age	nyap rule
xag frequency	nyed grid
yag length

Shapes

Summary:

zyus circle

zyuys oval

zyunid sphere

unizgun rectangle

ungekun square

ungun quadrangle

unoizgun rhombus

ingun triangle

yoongun pentagon

ginid cone

yagunid cube

inguginid pyramid

fufnid cylinder

amezsan diamond

tosan cross

uznad arc

ilpsan wave

gunsan wedge

amarsan star

The tom (Building), em (Place) Families

The stems in this family end mostly in -m, meaning place. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers.

Summary:

FULL WORDS	ENDINGS
tom building	-em general place
tam house	-am indoor place
tem hall	-yem enclosed space
tim room	-im room
tum cell	-yeb container

The a (One) yan (Together) Families

The stems in this family are based on a one, and yan together and their opposites, o zero and yon apart.

Summary:

SINGLE	NULL
a- one	o- zero, un-
awa one	owa zero
an- uni-, mono-	on- non-
yan- together, con-	yon- apart, dis-
hya- all	hyo- none
-aya -ful	-oya -less
ay and	oy but

Collective Nouns

The suffix -yan is used to form collective nouns. Here are some examples:

SINGLETON	COLLECTION
fab tree	fabyan forest
vyap rule	vyapyan regimen, system
vos flower	vosyan bouquet
uzun ring	uzunyan chain
ut person	utyan group
toom apartment	toomyan apartment complex
teyen idea	teyenyan ideology
tyen technique	tyenyan technology
tixut student	tixutyan student body
tit pupil	tityan class
telar eating utensil	telaryan cutlery
sir machine	siryan machinery
pat bird	patyan flock

An extension of yan is nyan, meaning stack, pile, accumulation, crowd, and so is a bit more intensive:

SINGLETON	COLLECTION
pet land animal	petnyan herd
ut person	utnyan crowd
dit citizen	ditnyan populace
taib bone	taibnyan skeleton
yaut public persona	yautnyan commune
dun word	dunnyan list
vaob hay	vaobnyan haystack

The following confusing terms should be kept distinct:

NOUN	VERB
aut individual, person	auta personal
anut private individual	anuta private
utyan group	utyana collective
autyan people	autyana popular
autyanin populism	autyanina populist
autyandab republic, democracy	autyandaba republican, democratic
yaut constituent, commoner	yauta common, collective, public
yautyan community, constituency, public	yautyana communitarian
yautnyan commune, collective	yautnyana communal, collective
yautin communism	yautina communist
dot society	dota societal
dotin socialism	dotina socialist
dit citizen	dita civilian, civic
dityan citizenry, population	dityana of the citizenry, populational
ditnyan populace	ditnyana popular
ditnyanin populism	ditnyanina populist
yanav party (political)	yanava partisan
yaniv party (fun)	yaniva festive
yanut associate	yanuta general, public
yanutyan association	yanutyana associational

The tob (Man) Family

The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant t, designating human, and end in b, meaning organism, body, or organ or p, having to do with the non-corporeal aspects of man, such as mind and emotion.

Summary

-B	-P
tob human, man	top soul, psyche
tab body	tap physique
teb head	tep mind
tib trunk	tip sentiment, emotion
tub arm	tup member
tyob leg

All the names of the parts of the body are derived from these core words in a hiearchical fashion using stem vowel scalarization, as can be seen from the sample chart below of the body parts relating to arm and leg (not the parallelism):

tub arm	tuab shoulder	tueb upper arm	tuib elbow	tuub forearm	tuyob wrist	tuyab hand	tuyeb fist	tuyib palm	tuyub finger	tulob fingernail
tyob leg	tyoab hip	tyoeb thigh	tyoib knee	tyoub tibia	tyoyob ankle	tyoyab foot	tyoyeb heel	tyoyib sole	tyoyub toe	tyolob toenail

Bodily Functions and Gestures

The following chart shows how gestural and bodily movements and functions are derived from bodily parts:

ORGANISM	GESTURES, MOVEMENTS, FUNCTIONS
tob human tobij embryo	tobijier conceive, tobijuer impregnate, tobijer ovulate, tobijbeler gestate, tobtojber murder, tobaxer humanize
tab body	tabazaxer work out', tabmelukxer entomb, tabteaxer autopsy
tayeb hair	tayebarer comb, tayeboker go bald, tayefarer brush, tayeborber shave, tayelber shampoo, tayevarer mop
tayob skin	tayobiler sweat, tayobober flay tayoboser itch, tayoser feel like, tayoter feel, tayoxer palpate, tayobdriler tattoo, tayotyofxer numb
teb head tebabun scalp tebzan face	tebabunober scalp, tebbaxer nod, tebober decapitate, tebzaner face
teab eye teababun eyelid teabyeb eyelash teabil tear	teaser seem, teater see, teatyofxer blind, teaxer look, teaxuer show, teazuer amaze, teabizer aim, teaper visit, teabyujiger blink teababuner blink teababyexer bat an eyelash teabiler tear up
teeb ear	teeter hear, teeser sound like, teeper attend, teeder rumor, teeyofxer deafen, teexer listen
teib nose	teiter smell, teiser smell like, teitier take a whiff of, teituer reek, teixer smell, teseuxer snore, teizber perfume, teipulxer sneeze, teibalier sniff, teibalegier sniffle, teibiler run at the nose, teibukxer blow the nose
teub mouth teubil saliva teubsin expression deuz song seux sound seuz tone teuz voice toleuz taste teuv mask teuf muzzle	teubier swallow, yijteuber yawn, teuser taste like, teuter taste, teutier sample, teutuer offer a taste, teuxer taste, teuder shout, ivteuder laugh, uvteuder groan, ivteuber smile, uvteuber frown,vyoivteuder mock, ufteuber scowl, uvseuxer grumble teubiler salivate, teubiloker drool, teubilokeger dribble, teubiloyeber expectorate, teubilpuxer spew, teubiluer spit, teubilier slurp teubsiner grimace deuzer sing, yandeuzer harmonize, yagdeuzer chant seuxer ring seuxder pronounce, voyseuxder mispronounce zoyteuzer echo, uvseuzer sigh teuzuer vote, teuzier poll, teuzibarer telephone toleuser taste like, toleuter taste, toleuxer savor, fitoleuser taste good, futoleuser taste bad teuvuer mask teufuer muzzle
teubab tongue	teubaxer wag the tongue, teubabaxer lick
teubib gum	teubixer chew, teubixeger ruminate
teupib tooth	teupixer bite, teupixeger nibble, yebteupixer crunch
teubob lip	teuboxer kiss, teuboxeger smooch, teubobaxer smack the lips
teyob neck	teyobabaxer neck, teyopixer collar teyovyixer cough, teyozyober choke teyopyoxer hang
tib trunk	tibuzer bow
tibuj tail tibuf train	tibujbarxer wag tibufer trail
tieb lung tiebal breath tiebbok cold	tiexer breath, tiebyujber suffocate teibukxer cough tiebalier inhale, tiebaluer exhale, tiebaloker belch tiebbokier catch a cold
tiib heart tiibil blood	tiibiler bleed tiibiloker bleed out, tiibilglalser clot, tiibilier suck blood, tiibiluer let blood
tikeb stomach tikebil chyme	tikebier digest, tikebukxer vomit
tikyeb anus tikyebal flatulence tikyebil feces	tikyebaler fart tikyebiler defecate
tikyob bowels	tikyobier ingest, tikyobober disembowel
tub arm	yantubier embrace, tubbaxer wave
tuyab hand	tuyaxer handle, tuyaber handle, tuyabalxer shake hand, tuyabexer manipulate, tuyabier grab, tuyabirer wrestle, tuyasiuner wave, tuyabuer hand out, tuyadrer write out longhand, tuyapixer clasp tuyapyexer clap
tuyeb fist	tuyepeker fistfight, tuyebalxer shake one's fist, tuyepyelxuer pound, tuyepyexer box
tuyib palm	tuyibabaxer pat, tuyibaber palm, tuyibuer palm off, tuyipyexer slap
tuyob wrist	tuyoxer wave
tuyub finger	tuyubarxer wag one's finger, tuyubifeker fiddle, tuyubizder point out, tuyuibeaxer indicate, tuyugiber poke, tuyupyexer tap, tuyuxer palpate
tulob fingernail paltulob claw	tuloxer scratch, tuloxefer itch patuloxer claw, patulober grip
tyoib knee	tyoixer kneel, tyoiper crawl
tyoyab foot	tyoyabarer stomp, tyoyakyeper hobble, tyoyapyexer kick, tyoyapyexuer kick
tyoyeb heel	tyoyeber spurn
tyoyib sole	tyoyiber supplant
tyoyub toe	tyoyubaxeger wiggle one's toe, tyoyuzyuper pirouette

The bak (Health) Family

Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine:

Summary:

bak health
bek treatment	byek cure
bok illness book fatigue	byok pain byork torture
bik care
buk injury bruk mutilation

bak health

baka healthy, sound

bakay healthily, soundly

bakan healthiness, soundness, well-being

bakat well person, healthy person

obaka unwell, ill, unsound

obakan illness

Bak! Gesundheit!

bakam health clinic

bakamut health clinician

bakxer heal, make well

bakxen healing

bakxut healer, doctor

bakxwa healed

bakser get well, heal

baksea healing

bakxwat patient

bakser get well, heal

egbakser recover

egbaksen recovery

egbaksea recovering, in recovery

egbaksa recovered

egbakim recovery room

baktun health science, medecine, hygiene

baktuna health science-related, medicinal, hygienic

baktut health scientist, medical scientist, hygienist

bakxetyen practice of medecine, medecine, health practice

bakxetyenut health practioner

baktyentun health technology

fibak well-being

fibaka well, salubrious, in good health

fibakan wellness, salubriety

fibakxer make well, heal, bring back to health

fibakxen healing

fibakxwa recovered, healed

fibakser heal, get well

Fibaksu ig! Get well soon!, Have a speedy recovery!

Fibak bu et! To your health!

fibakden salutation, greeting

fibakder salute, greet, say hello

fubak ill health, sickness

fubaka ill, sick, in poor health, unwell

fubakan illness, sickness, poor health

fubakxer make ill, make sick, sicken

fubakxea sickening

fubakxwa sickened

fubakser get ill, get sick

baktel health food

baktea health conscious

bakdub health ministry, health department, health administration

tepbak mental health

fitepbaka sane, in good mental health

fitepbak sanity, mental health

futepbak insanity, mental illness

futepbaka insane, mentally ill

futepbakat insane person, mentally ill person

futepbakser go insane

futepbakam insane asylum

tapbak physical health

topbak spiritual health, salvation

teabaktun opthamology

teabbaktuna opthamological

teabbaktut opthamologist

teubak oral hygiene

teubaktun oral hygienics

teubaktuna oral hygienic

teubaktut oral hygienist

baak sanitation

baaka sanitary

baakxer sanitize

baakxwa sanitized

baakxen sanitization

baakxil sanitizer

baakan sanitariness

obaaka unsanitary

obaakan unsanitariness

bek treatment, therapy, remedy

beker treat, nurse, remedy

beken treatment, nursing

bekun remedy

bekam sanatorium

bekwa treated, nursed

beka therapeutic, clinical, remedial

bekut nurse

bekuyt female nurse

bektun medecine, medical science

bektuna medical

bektut doctor, physician, medical scientist

abektun surgery

abektuna surgical

abektut surgeon

bekam clinic, hospice, treatment center

bekwat patient

bekil medicine, remedy, drug

bekila medicinal, pharmaceutical

bekiluer medicate, drug

bekiluen medication, drugging

bekilnam pharmacy, drugstore

bekilnamut pharmacist, druggist

bekiltun pharmacology

bekiltuna pharmacological

bekiltut pharmacologist

bekildren prescription, drug prescription

fubeker mistreat

fubeken mistreatment

fubekwa mistreated

fibeker treat well, pamper

fibeken good treatment, pampering

fibekwa well-treated, pampered

bekuwa treatable, remediable, curable

bekuwan treatability, remediability, curability

obekuwa untreatable, unremediable, uncurable

obekuwan untreatability, unremediability, uncurability

tepbek psychiatry, psychiatric care

tepbekut psychiatrist

tepbeka psychiatric

tepbekwat psychiatric patient

tuyabek manicure

tyoyabek pedicure

byek cure

byeka therapeutic

byeker cure

byekwa cured

byekeya curative

byekuwa curable

obyekuwa uncurable

byekam sanatorium

bik care, custody, vigilence, caution

biker care, care for, watch over, monitor

bikam clinic

bikames dispensary

yanbikam polyclinic

bikuer provide care, care for, give care

bikuut caregiver

bikier take care, watch out, be cautious

Bikiu! Watch out!, Take care!

biken custody, caretaking

bikut custodian, caretaker, nurse

bikam care facility

bikeya careful, watchful, vigilent, cautious

bikeyan carefulness, watchfulness, vigilence

bikeyay carefully

obikeya unvigilent, unwatchful, careless

bikoya careless, uncautious

bikoyan carelessness, uncautiousness

bikoyay carelessly

bikwa cared for

bikwat patient under care

obik danger, threat, peril

obikaya dangerous, perilous

obikuer endanger, threaten, emperil

obikueya dangerous, perilous

azla bik intensive care

azla bikim intensive care unit, ICU

azla bikimut ICU nurse

bok illness, sickness, bad health

boka ill, sick, infirm

bokam hospital, infirmery

bokamber hospitalize

bokamben hospitalization

bokambwa hospitalized

bokxer make ill, sicken

bokxeya sickening

bokxwa sickened

bokser get sick, get ill, grow ill, grow infirm

bokat sick person, ill person, patient

bokatam hospital, infirmery

boktun pathology

boktuna pathological

boktut pathologist

boktunay pathologically

tayobbok skin disease

tepbok mental illness, insanity

tepbokat mentally ill person

bokil poison, venin

bokila poisonous, venimous

bokiluer poison

bokiluen poisoning

bokiluwa poisoned

bokilier take poison, poison oneself, ingest poison

ovbokil antidote

ambok inflammation

amboka inflammatory

amatan fever

amata feverish

amatser come down with a fever

vyusbok infection

vyusbokxer infect

vyusbokxen infection

vyusbokxwa infected

vyusbokser get infected

tiebok pneumonia

tiebokier catch pneumonia

tieboyk cold

tieboykier catch a cold

ombok flu

ombokier catch the flu:

tiyobok kidney disease, renitis

tikebok liver disease, hepatitis

tiibok heart disease

tikabok gastritis

tayobok dermatitis

teibok rhinitis

tikubok enteritis

booka tired, fatigued, worn out

book fatigue

bookan tireness

bookxer tire, fatigue, wear out

bookxwa tired, fatigued, worn out

bookser get tired, grow fatigued

byok pain

byoker hurt, ache

byokea aching, painful, hurting

byokaya painful

byokoya painless, pain-free

byokoyan painlessness, analgesia

byokoyxer relieve pain, analgesize

byokoyxil analgesic, pain reliever

byokuer punish, hurt, inflict pain, induce pain

byokueya punishing, pain-inducing

byokuen punishment, penalty, pain-inducement

tikabyok stomach ache

tebyok headache

teebyok ear ache

byook suffering, misery

byooker suffer

byookea suffering, miserable

byookut sufferer

byookuer make suffer, inflict

byork torture, agony

byorker writhe in torture, agonize

byorkuer torture, antagonize

byorkueya tortuous, agonizing

byorkuut torturer

byorkuwat torture victim

byorkuwa tortured:

buk injury, harm, trauma, wound

buker injure, harm, wound, traumatize

bukwa injured, harmed, wounded

bukwat injured person, casualty, wounded

buken injury, harming, wounding

bukeya injurious, harmful, traumatic, traumatizing

bukuwa vulnerable

bukuwan vulnerability

obukuwa invulnerable

obukuwan invulnerability

obuk safety

bukun injury, wound, trauma

kyebuk danger, risk, peril, threat, potential harm

kyebukaya dangerous, risky, perilous, theatening

kyebukuer endanger, put at risk, imperil, threaten

kyebukuen endangerment

kyebukuwa endangered

bukes scratch, minor injury

bukesuer scratch

bukesuwa scratched up

bukesier get a scratch

buyk sore

sumbuyk bedsore

tayobuyk skinsore

jobuk scar

jobukxer scar

jobukxen scarring

jobukxwa scarred

jobukser get scarred, scar

bruker mutilate, mangle

bruken mutilation, mangling

brukwa mutilated, mangled

tiibtun cardiology

tiibtuna cardiological

tiibtut cardiologist

tiebtun pneumology

tiebtuna pneumonology

tiebtut pneumonologist

tiyobtun renology

tiyobtuna renological

tiyobtut renologist

tikebtun hepatology

tikebtuna hepatological

tikebtut hepatologist

taptun physiology

taptuna physiological

taptut physiologist

The tod (Family) Family

Stems in this family begin with t for human and end in d for society and have to do with families and family relationships.

Summary:

tod = family
tad husband	tayd wife	tadet brother	taydet sister
jatad fiance	jatayd fiancee	taodet brother-in-law	taydet sister-in-law
ted father	teyd mother	tedet son	teydet daughter
tid uncle	tiyd aunt	tidet cousin	tiydet female cousin
tud brother-in-law	tuydet sister-in-law	tudet nephew	tuydet niece
tyod father-in-law	tyoyd mother-in-law	tyodet son-in-law	tyoydet daughter-in-law
tyad grandfather	tyayd grandmother	tyadet grandson	tyaydet granddaughter
tyed relative	tyeyd female relative
tyid godfather	tyiyd godmother	tyidet godson	tyiydet goddaughter
tyud tutor	tyuyd nanny	tyudet pupil	tyuydet female pupil

tod family

toda familial

toyd home

todama domestic, household

todamuyt housewife

todana familiar

tad spouse, husband

tayd wife

tada marital, spousal

tadser get married, wed

tadsen marriage, wedding

tadsa married, wedded

otadsa unmarried, unwed

tadsenxel wedding

tadxer marry

otadsat unmarried person, bachelor

otadsayt spinster

tadokat widower

tadokayt widow

tadokatan widowhood

tadoker be widowed

tadet brother

tadeta fraternal

tadetan brotherhood, fraternity

taydet sister

taydeta sisterly

taydetan sorority, sisterhood

taodet brother-in-law

tayodet sister-in-law

ted father

teyd mother

teda paternal, parental

teyda maternal

tedan paternity, parentage

teydan maternity

tedif papa

teydif mama

tedet son

teydet daughter

tedeta filial

teodet son-in-law

teyodet daughter-in-law

tid uncle

tida avuncular

tiyd aunt

tidet cousin

tiydet cousin

tud brother-in-law

tuyd sister-in-law

tudet nephew

tuydet niece

tyod father-in-law

tyoyd mother-in-law

tudet son-in-law

tuydet daughter-in-law

tyad grandfather

tyayd grandmother, grandchild

tyadyena grandfatherly

tyaydyena grandmotherly

tyadet grandson

tyaydet granddaughter

tyadyan grandparents

tyedetyan grandchildren

tyed relative

tyeyd female relative

tyedyan kin, kindred, kinfolk, kith

tyeda related, kindred, kin

tyedan relateness, kinship

tyedser become related

tud godfather

tuyd godmother

tudet godson, godchild

tuydet goddaughter

tuder serve as godfather

tuyder serve as godmother

tyud tutor

tyuyd female tutor

tyudet pupil

tyuydet female pupil

aytyuder adopt

oyted orphan

oyteyd female orphan

oytedser become orphaned

oytedsa orphaned

oytedam orphanage

oytad widower

oytayd widow

oytadser become widowed

oytadsa widowed

oytadsen becoming widowed

otad celibate person, bachelor

otayd unmarried female

otadan celibacy

yontad divorce'

yontayd divorcee

yontader divorce

yontadsen get divorced

yontadxer divorce

yontadsa divorced

yontadxen divorce

jatad fiance

jatayd fiancee

jatadser become engaged, become entrothed

jatadsa engaged, betrothed

jatadsen engagement, betrothal

ajted ancester

ajteda ancestral

ajtedan ancestry

ajtedyan ancesters

jaut ascendant

jautan ascendance

jout descendant

joutan descendence

tobot child, boy

toybot female child, girl

tobotan childhood, boyhood

toybotan girlhood

tajat baby, baby boy, infant, infant boy

tayjat baby girl, infant girl

tajatan infancy, babyhood

tajatyena infantile, babyish

tobog young man, little fellow

toybog young woman, little lady

joga young

jogat young person, young man, youth, boy, juvenile

jogatan youth, boyhood, juvenility

joygat young lady, girl, female juvenile

joygatan young ladyhood, girlhood

grojoga minor

grojogat minor

grojoygat female minor

jaga old, aged, elderly

jagat old person, old man, elder, senior

jagatan old age, elderliness, seniority

jaygat old woman, female elder, old lady

lojaga teenage, teenaged

lojagat teenager, teenaged boy, teen

lojaygat teenaged girl

lojag teens, teenhood

gyejaga old enough, mature, adult

gyejagaser reach adulthood, become an adult

gyejagat adult

gyejagatan adulthood

zejaga middle-aged

zejagat middle-aged person::

jagser grow

jagsen growth

jagsa grown

jagsat grown-up

jagaser grow old, get old, age

jagasen aging, getting old

jagasea getting old, aging

grajaga too old, over-aged

grajagan advanced age

The dot (Society) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with d for society and end in t for human.

Summary:

dot society

dat friend

det comrade, mate

dit citizen

dut gentleman, sir

dout bourgeois

auta personal

yauta public

Societal Vocabulary

dot society

dota social, societal, public

dotser socialize

dotxer socialize

dotxen socialization

dotxwa socialized

dotay socially

doteya sociable

doteyan sociability

dotyena social, civil

odotyena unsocial, uncivil

odotyen uncivility

dotsyen civilization

dotsyenser civilize

dotsyenxer civilize

dotsyenxwa civilized

odotsyenxwa uncivilized

yodota savage, wild, barbarous

yodatan savagery, wildness, barbarity

yodotat savage, barbarian

dotin socialism

dotina socialistic

dotinat socialist

doyt association, club

doyta associational, associate

doytaser associate

doytaxer associate

doytaxen association

dotyux public service

dotyuxut public servant

dotyuxutyan bureaucracy

dotvalan social security

dat friend, ally

data friendly, allied

datan friendship, alliance

datyena friendly, amicable

datyenan friendliness

dayt female friend, girlfriend

daat buddy

daatan buddyship

daayt girl buddy, girlfriend

odata unfriendly

odatan unfriendliness

datser befriend

yodat enemy

yodata inimical

yondatan enmity

ovdata hostile

ovdatan hostility

det comrade, mate, fellow

detan comradeship, fellowship

aydet companion, mate, fellow

aydetan companionship, company

popdet travel mate, traveling companion, fellow traveler

pepdet fellow passenger

teldet dining companion

titamdet school mate

timdet roommate

sumdet bedmate

memdet fellow countryman

tildet drinking companion

jobdet contemporary

tejdet life mate

tapdet sex mate

tapdetser copulate, have sex, share sex, mate:

dit citizen

ditan citizenship

dityan citizenry

dita civilian, civil

dita yux civil service

dita yuxut civil servant

dityena civil

dityenan civility

dityenaxer civilize

dityenaxwa civilized

odityenaxwa uncivilized

ditbyen civility

doita civic

doitan civicism

ditser become a citizen

ditsen becoming a citizen

mirdit world citizen, cosmopolitan

mirdita cosmopolitan

dut sir, mister, master, senor

abdut master

abduter master

abduten mastery

duyt madam, ma'am, lady

duytyan mesdames, ladies

duut sire, lord, don, gentleman, milord

abduut overlord, don

abduuter lord over, dominate

abduuten domination

dutyan sirs, messieurs, ladies and gentlemen

duyut lady, dame, mylady, gentle lady

duyutyan ladies, mesdames

duyuytet young lady, demoiselle, damsel

duyuytetyan mesdemoiselles

dutet young man, squire, esquire

dout bourgeois, member of the middle class, burgess

douyt bourgeoise

doutan bourgeoisie

doutyan bourgeoisie

ibdat host

ibdayt hostess

ibdata hospitable

ibdatan hospitality

datiber host, welcome, greet, receive a guest

datibut host

datibam hostel, inn, hotel, guesthouse

datuper visit, be a guest

Datupu! Welcome!

aut person

auta personal

autay personally

autyan public

autyana public

anuta particular, individual

anutay particularly

anutan individuality

yanuta public, communal

yanutan communality, community

yanutyan public, community, commune

yanutaxer publicize

yanutaxen publication

yanutaxwa published, publicized

yanutaxut publisher

yanutaxam publishing firm

yonuta private

yonutay privately

yonutan privacy

yonut private person, individual

agaut personnage, vip

utyan group

utyanser group

utyanxer group

utyanxen grouping

utyanxwa grouped

grautyan crowd

grautyanxer crowd

grautyanser get crowded

grautyanxwa crowded::

utnyan people, population

utnyana popular

utnyanan popularity

utnyanaxer popularize

utnyanaxen popularization

utnyanber populate

utnyanben population

outnyanbwa unpopulated

utnyanika populous

utnyanuka unpopulous, deserted

yauta common, collective

yautan commonality, collectivity

yautana communitarian

yautxer collectivize

yautxen collectivization

yautin communism

yautina communist, communistic

yautinat communist

utbyen personal manner, behavior

utbyenyan mores

ajutbyen tradition

ajutbyena traditional

oajutbyena untraditional

utyanbyen custom

utyanbyena customary

utyanbyenay customarily

utyanbyenxer customize

utyanbyenxen customization

utyanbyenxwa customized

jubyen habit

jubyena habitual, usual

jubyenay habitually, usually

jubyenser habituate, get used to, accustomize oneself

jubyenxer habituate, accustomize, train

jubyenxwa habituated, accustomed, used to

ojubyenxwa unaccustomed

The tof (Clothes) Family

The stems in this family of words begin with t for human and end in f or v, which are reminiscent of nof cloth and nov lingerie. The words have to do with clothing.

Summary:

BODY PART	CLOTHING ITEM
tob man	tof clothing
tab body	taf suit, tayf dress
teb head	tef hat
teyob neck	teyof necktie
tuab shoulder	tuaf shawl
tib trunk	tif vest
zetib waist	zetif belt
tiab chest	tiav shirt, tiayv blouse
tilab breast	tilav bra
tuyab hand	tuyaf glove
tyob leg	tyof pants, tyoyf skirt

tof clothing, apparel, garment, item of clothing

tofyan clothes, clothing, gear

tofer wear

otofer go naked, go nude

otofen going naked, going nude

otofea naked, nude, going naked, going nude

otofin nudism

otofina nudist

otofinat nudist

tofut wearer

tofsam clothes closet

oytofa nude, naked

oytofan nudity, nakedness

oytofat nude, nude person, naked person

oytofayt female nude

tofaber put on, don, clothe, dress

tofabim dressing room

tofabwa dressed

egtofaber put clothes back on, redress

egtofabwa redressed

tofober undress, disrobe, take off, strip

tofobwa undressed, disrobed, naked, nude, stripped

tofoben undressing, disrobing, getting naked, stripping

abtof outerwear

obtof underwear, undergear

tofvyixar laundry machine, clothes washer

tofvyixen laundry

tofvyixer launder, do the laundry, wash clothese

tofvyixim laundry room

tofvyixam laundromat

tofnyeb laundry basket, clothes hamper

tofsam cubbord, armoire

tofimes clothes closet

taf suit, outfit

tayf dress, robe, outfit

abtaf coat

abtaaf overcoat

abtaayf cardigan

pontav pijamas

abtayv work blouse

abtaves overalls, apron, smock

tafut tailor

tayfut dressmaker

tayfuyt couturiere

ozyemilaf raincoat:::

tef hat, headgear

atef cap, baseball cap

etef beret

itef bonnet

utef top hat

yotef derby hat

yatef shapka

zyakuntef wide-brimmed hat

yiktef hardhat, helmet

tebuz crown

eytebuz diadem

tebuzaber crown

tebuzaben coronation

tev scarf

teyov collar

aybtev scarf, headdress, veil

yabtev headband

teaf eye patch

teabkof blindfold

teef earmuffs

teebuz earring:

teif muffler

teibuz nose ring

teiv handkerchief

teyof tie, necktie

abteyof scarf

aybteyof head scarf

teyofes bowtie

teyobuz necklace

teyof belar tie rack

teyof nivar tie tack

tuaf shawl

eytuaf sash

aybtuaf shoulder strap, shoulder pad

eybtuabuz epaulette

tif jacket, suit coat, waist coat, blazer

tifes vest

fotif bulletproof jacket

zetif belt

zetif fyafar belt buckle (fyaf < fom+nyaf = metal fastener/clasp)

zetiv sash

tiav shirt, long-sleeved shirt

tiavog short-sleeved shirt

tiayv blouse, long-sleeved blouse

tiayvog short-sleeved blouse

nefiaf pullover, sweater

tiabuz broche

eytiav tank top

tilav brassiere, bra

tilabuz tit ring

tiuf corset, bodice

tiuv underwear, underpants

atiuv boxers

etiuv briefs

itiuv jockstrap

utiuv g-string

yotiuv longjohns

yatiuv loincloth

tiuyv panties, underwear, knickers

utiuv g-string

zetiubuz belly button ring

tuf sleeve

otufa sleeveless

tuyaf glove

eytuyaf mitten, mit

tuyafyem pocket

tuyafyember pocket

tapyentuyaf boxing glove

fotuyaf gauntlet

tuyafyag fireman's glove

tuyubuz ring

tuyof cuff

tuyobuz bracelet

tuyubuz ring

tyof pants, trousers

yovoztyof bluejeans

abtyof overalls, trousers

vityof slacks, dress slacks

tyofyog shorts, bermudas, cutoffs

tyofyag long pants

tyoyf skirt

tyoyfes petticoat

obtyoyf slip

tyofober depants

tyoif kneepad

tyoiv kneesock

tyouf puttee

tyoyaf shoe

tyoyayf high-heels

abtyoyaf boot

yebtyoyaf slipper

faotyoyaf wooden shoe

atyoyaf patent leather shoe

etyoyaf tennis shoe

ityoyaf sandal

utyoyaf:

tyoyav sock

tyoyayv stockings

tyoyafut shoemaker, cobbler

tyoyafaber shoe

apetyoyaf horse shoe

apetyoyafut blacksmith

apetyoyafam blacksmith shop

apetyoyafaber shoe a horse

tyoyafnyiv shoe lace::

tyoyafeyub shoe horn (teyub = horn):

tyoyafobwa barefoot

otyoyafa barefoot, shoeless

otyoyafan shoelessness, barefootedness

tyoyef talon, spur

tyoyev ankle sock

tyoyif sole, shoe sole

tyoyuf heel

yabtyoyuf highheel

tiyuf train, dragnet, tail, tassle

tiyabuz cock ring

The tom (Building) and em (Place) Family

The stems of words in this family begin with t for human and end in m for place. The words have to do with buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and places:

Summary:

WORD	ENDING
tom building	-m place
tam house	-am enclosed place
tem hall	-em location, place
tim room	-yem enclosure, box
tum cell	-yeb container
	-yef bag

tom building, habitation, habitat, residence, apartment building

toma habitational, residential

tomer inhabit, live, reside

tomut inhabitant, resident

toym residence, dwelling

toymer reside, dwell

toem domicile

tomof tent

toom lodging

toomer lodge

ogtom abode

toomes lodge

tomes apartment

tomtun architecture

tomtuna architectural

tomtut architect

tombuer rent out

tombier rent

tombiut renter

tombiwas rental unit

utomut owner, proprietor

utomutan owernship, proprietorship

tomnas rent

tombelut concierge

zyutom tower

tomxer build, construct

tomxut builder, construction engineer

tomxen building, construction

tomxwas edifice, construction

otomxer demolish, tear down, destroy

otomxen destruction, demolition

egtomxer rebuild

egtomxwa rebuilt, reconstructed

egtomxen rebuilding, reconstruction

tomxem construction site

tomsan structure

tomsana structural::

tyem residence

tyemut resident

tyemer reside

tyema residential

tam house

agtam mansion

ivagtam palace

ivagtama palatial

potam hotel

ogtam cottage

ogtames cabin:

taam home, household, domain, dominion

taama domestic, tame

taamaxer domesticate, tame

taamaxen domestication, taming

taamaxwa domesticated, tame

taym pavillion

tamper go home

tamuper come home

tamupen home-coming

tamber settle, set up home

tambut settler

tamben settling

tambun settlement

tameb head of household, master

tameber dominate

tamebeya dominant

tambeyan dominance

tameyb mistress

tamab dominion, domain

yebeytam courtyard, inner courtyard

zatam facade

param garage

tamzam front yard

tamzom back yard

tamkum side yard

tamyan block of houses

tamuer house, shelter

tamuen housing

tamier take up residence, move in, settle, settle in

tamien taking up residence, moving in, settlement

tamiut settler

tem hall

telem cafeteria, refectory, mess hall

tujem dormitory

abtem gallery

yuzyujem court, courtyard

obtem cave, cellar

yagtem gallery

dyedem lecture hall

dezyem performance hall

dazyem dance hall

duzyem music hall

kutem side hall

zatem lobby, foyer

zetem central hall, main hall

tim room, chamber

telim dining room

tujim bedroom

datim salon, living room, parlour

zyotim hallway, hall

zyotiym corridor

zatim antechamber, frontroom, lobby

zotim backroom

yextim bureau, office, den

yexim laboratory, lab

ifekim playroom

miltim bathroom

milim water closet

tofmilbim laundry room

telxim kitchen

abtim attic

obtim basement

yebtim inner room, inner chamber, chamber

tiym nook

kutim side room

tilim bar

tutim classroom

uzkumim bay

yebmilim bath, bathroom

yontim compartment, apartment

movim smoking den

mimpartim ship cabin

milabim shower room, shower

milpunsim shower room

fatim sacristry

bekim hospital room, treatment room

datuputim guestroom

dyedim lecture room

magelim kitchen

tapektim exercise room

fadiim chapel

teasibarim den, t.v. room

novim linen closet, closet

pestim waiting room

ebtim room in between:

tum cell, compartment

tuma cellular, compartmental

tumaxer compartmentalize

tumaxen compartmentalization

The mos (Floor) Family

The stems in this family begin with m, meaning place and end in s, meaning thing. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. masonry.

Summary:

MASONRY
mos floor
mas wall
mes door
mis window
mus stairs

mos floor

omos ground floor

amos first floor

emos second floor

abmos top floor, attic

obmos basement

ebmos mezzanine

ebmospar elevator, lift

mas wall

mays partition, bulkhead

abtammas roof

abmas roof

aybmas ceiling

obmas foundation

oybmas floor

oybmasaof parquet

agmas great wall

massin mural

uzabmas vault

abzamas balcony

abkumas ledge, cornice

obzamas porch, portico

masyan masonry

mastyen masonry

mastyena masonic

mastyenut mason

yebmas inner wall

yebmasber wall in

yebmasbwa walled-in

oyebmas outer wall

eybmasa intramural

domyuzmas city walls

zamas front wall

zomas back wall

ebmas partition

ebmasber partition

ebmasbwe partitioned

yonmasber wall off, partition

yonmasben walling off, partitioning

yonmasbwe walled off, partitioned

mes door, portal

meys gate

zames threshold, front door, entryway

zamesag porte-cochere

zomes back door

eymes half-door

mesmep doorway, entrance, gateway

mesnyuf door knob

mestuyar door handle

mesazyujar door lock

mesyuznad door frame

zyup mes revolving door

zoyzap mes swing door

mis window

mises ticket window

misag dormer window

abmis fanlight

misof curtain

eymis shutter, flap

vozzyefmis stained glass window

cinmis picture window

miszyef window pane

zamisabun awning

mus stairway, stairs, staircase

muys ladder, scale, step ladder

muysa scalar

muysaxer escalate

muysaxen escalation

omuysaxer de-escalate

musyaper go up the stairs, climb, scale

musyaput climber

musyapen climbing

musnog step, stair rung

pasmus escalator

musim stairwell

musmep stairway

magmus fire escape

igirpmus fire escape

musabnod climax

musabnoda climactic

The som (Furniture) Family

The stems in this family begin with s, meaning thing, and end in m, meaning place. The words all have to do with furniture.

Summary:

FURNITURE
som furniture
sam armoire, chest
sem table
sim chair
sum bed

som furniture, furnishing

somber furnish

somben furnishing

sombwa furnished

osombwa unfurnished

somyan real estate, furnishings, furniture

somxer make furniture

somxut carpenter

somxen carpentry

comiper move

milsom sink

sam armoire, chest

telarsam china cabinet

telsam cupboard

tofsam closet

dyensam library

masam cubboard

tovsam chest of drawers

sem table

semes board, chart, blackboard, tablet

semof table cloth

dresem desk

dalsem pulpit

cemnyem drawer

bemer sit down to the table

tilsem bar, counter

yagsem counter

agsem banquet table

yuzsem round table

yuzsem ebdal round table discussion

yopissem chart, blackboard, whiteboard, pull-down chart

jaber la sem set the table

sim chair

siym seat

agsim armchair

panetsim rocking chair

zaypzoypsim rocking chair

yagsim couch, divan, sofa

eysim stool

tilsem eysim bar stool

parsim car seat, coach seat

yagyuksim bench

siim bench

bimer sit, sit down

bimea seated, sitting

tobobsim high chair

zyupsim swivvel chair

debsim throne

mimkumsim beach chair

amulpsim electric chair

sum bed

suam cushion, bed cushion

suaym pillow

suem mattress

malsuem air mattress

yezsuem futon

suav pillow case, pillow slip

suev sheet

absuef bedspread, bed cover

suef blanket, cover

obsuev liner

suim box spring, spring

sumnyan bedding

bumer go to bed, recline, lie down

bumea in bed, reclining, lying down, recumbent

summuf bed post

jaber la sum make the bed

eonsum twin bed

eysum day bed

igsum day bed, temporary bed, cot

suym couch

iksum full-size bed, queen-size bed

agsum king-size bed

ogsum cot

nyanxwa sum bunk bed, stacked bad

kusum side bed, bunk, cot

milsum waterbed

pyowa sum hammock

tabsum sleeping bag

tomofsum sleeping bag

summanar bed lamp

The sar (Machine) and par (Vehicle) Family

Stems having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in s for thing and end in r for tool. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with p for mobile.

Summary:

MACHINES/TOOLS
sar instrument, tool, implement
sir machine
sur apparatus
syir motor, engine
syur device

Note that the part of the above words minus the initial s are used as endings for many tools, machines, and devices.

Vehicles

Vehicle words all end in par, where the initial p signifies going and the final ar indicates instrument.

VEHICLES
par vehicle, car
mampar airplane
mempar automobile
mimpar boat, ship
mumpar subway
mompar spaceship
kyipar truck
naadpar train
yautpar bus
enzyuspar bicycle
enzyuspur motocycle
yuglapur sled

par vehicle, car

para vehicular

parizber drive, steer

parizbut driver

parizbar steering wheel

parposem parking lot, car park

parposember park

parposam garage, carport

pep ride

peper ride

pepier ride off

aypeper run over, ride over

zeypeper ride across

ifpep pleasure ride

peput rider, passenger

mempar automobile, car, land vehicle

autpar car, automobile, private vehicle

yautpar bus, public vehicle, omnibus

nusyixpar taxi, taxicab, cab

jobyixpar rental car

parog cart, carriage, buggy

apetparog horse and buggy

elyanad rail

elyanadpar train

elyanadpares train car

elyanadpar posem train station, railroad station, railway station

iga elyanadpar high-speed train

igmep elyanadpar express train

ema elyanadpar local train

elyamep iron road, railroad

obniufpar cable car

abniufpar tram

ebdompar intercity bus, coach

parilp traffic

parilp siunman traffic light. traffic signal

parilp yanbar traffic jam, traffic congestion

paper fly

papier fly away, take flight

papuer alight

aypaper fly over, overfly

oypaper fly under

zyepaper fly through

yepaper fly into

oyepaper fly out

mampar airplane, plane

mamparizber pilot a plane

mamparizut pilot

mampareb pilot

mamparem airport

mamparyem hangar

mampartam hangar

mempier take off

mempien takeoff

mempuer land

mempuen landing

mempuen mani landing lights

mempuem landing strip, runway

mampop flight, air travel

mamyuxut flight attendant

mamper fly

mampier fly away

mampiem departure zone

mampuem arrival zone

mimpar ship

mimpayr boat

mimparizber pilot a ship, navigate, sail

mimparibut ship's captain

mimpareb ship's captain

mimparyexut crew member, airline attendant

mimparyexutyan ship's crew

mimpop sea voyage, cruise

mimpoper cruise, sail

mimpier set sail

mimpuer dock

mimpuem dock, harbor

mimper sail, cruise, navigate

piper cruise, sail

piput sailer, seafarer

pip cruise, sea voyage

mimof sail

mimofpar sailing ship

mimofper sail

kyimimpar cargo ship

dropekpar warship

dopekpar battleship

mamparbelea mimpar aircraft carrier

anzyuspar unicycle

enzyuspar bicycle

inzyuspar tricycle

enzyuspur motorcycle

kyipar truck

kyipares wagon, cart

zyuskyipares wheelbarrow

nyemkyipar van

bixpar tractor

pop travel, trip, voyage

poper travel

zyapoper travel around, travel widely

poput traveler,, voyager

ifpop vacation travel, leisure trip

ifpoput tourist, vacationer

ifpopen tourism, pleasure-tripping, vacationing

popizbut travel guide

popyuxam travel agency, travel bureau

popyuxut travel agent

podet travel mate, traveling companion, fellow-traveler

potam hotel

potaym inn, hostel

parpotam motel

igpotam motel

potamdat hotel guest

potamdatibut hotel receptionist, hotel host

datibam hostel, guesthouse, inn

pomep itinerary

pomepdaf travel map

podaf travel map

podryen travel brochure

ponyem suitcase, luggage

Tools, machines, and devices

sar instument, tool, device, utility

sara instrumental

saryan instrumentation, toolset

sarser be instrumental, help, be a tool

sarxer utilize, make use of

sarnyem toolbox

sartim toolshed

-ar instrument

anteabar monocle

anzyuspar unicycle

yanifar stitching needle

yanivar needle

yanar link, joint, juncture, nexus, yoke

yonofar ripping device, scissors

yonrar knife, cutter

obmimpar submarine

igefpar ambulance

ograsteaxar microscope

yagpar train

tejvalxar life-saver

mavxar incinerator, cremator

ekar toy

ifekar toy, plaything

nasekar casino machine

amulp nyeubar battery

azyujar lock

azlaxar intensifier

yezaxar flattener, iron

zyupar wheel, rotor

zyubar wheel, rotor

zyabar spreader

izbar steering wheel

yuzpar circulator, bus, shuttle

zayzoypar shuttle bus

yanbar connector, link

gonbar divider

gabar adding machine, abacus

ukbar drain

ijbar starter

yijbar opener, key

yujbar lock

zyulbar spinner

ababar lid, cover, top

ovababar protective device, shield

ebar holder

ibar receiver

ubar transmitter

yuzpar bus, omnibus, circulator

yanbarar squeezer

ibabarxar eraser

braxegar vibrator

zayzyoybraxar rocker:

pyapar hovercraft

pyaxar launcher, shooter

pyaxunogar pistol

kupasar skate

zyuskupasar roller skate

tapasar exercise machine

zayzoypasar swingset

apaxar wiper

apalxar broom, sweeper

aparxar brush

bexar holder, railing

tuyabexar handle

kyimempar truck

kyimimpar cargo ship

kyimampar cargo plane

belar cart, carriage, carrier, wagon, barrow

mamparbelar aircraft carrier

tolbelar grocery cart

tuyabelar hand cart

tobotbelar baby carriage

anzyusbelar wheel barrow

zeybelar transporter, ferry

milzeybelar ferryboat

pexar trap, catcher

klepet pexar mouse trap

byexar drum

obyexar protective device, guard

olovpyexar shield, fence, fender

yonpyerxar bomb

yonpyerxuar bomber

ovpyexar barrier, barricade

booxar tranquilizer

poxar stopper

parpox nagar parking meter

zaybux mampar jet plane

mansinpuxar projector

ilpuxar fountain

zyalpuxar spray nozzle

pulxar shooter

bixar pulley

zobixar tractor

yobixar ripcord

obyexar protector, shield

pyexeguar whip

byexar container

byeelar preservative

pyorar plunger

ilbiar absorber

bixar tractor, pulley

bubixar piston

yubixar magnet

zobixar tug

iftayobyuxar tickler

par vehicle, car, automobile, craft

mampar airplane, aircraft, plane

mempar land vehicle, car, automobile

mimpar ship, vessel, boat

enzyuspar bicycle

inzyuspar tricycle

kyipar truck, cargo vehicle

yagpar train

elyanadpar train, locomotive, rail vehicle

ifpop mimpar cuise ship

yuzpar obiter

zyupar wheel, rotator

zyulpar helicopter

tyoyapar walker

mampar airplane, aircraft, plane

malapar flotational device

milapar float

mimpar ship, boat, watercraft

kyimimpar cargo vessel

ifpop mimpar cruise ship

malof mimpar sailboat

yagmimpar long boat

mipar riverboat

mialpar steamboat, steamship:::

zoyzaypar shuttlebus

zoyzaybar swing

mipar riverboat

yuzpar circulator, circulator bus, tour vehicle

yuzbar girdle, belt, cincture

anzyuspar monocycle

enzyuspar bicycle

inzyuspar tricycle

unzyuspar four-wheeled vehicle

zyuxar rotator

zyufufar roller, rolling pin

zyumepar circulator bus, tour vehicle

mopar orbiter

uzdopar bow

uzyupatub mampar helicopter

yabexar supporter

vyadesar dictation device, dictaphone

izeadar indicator

dryeynxar editor

sardrar typewriter

bardrar printing press, press

geldrar copier::

dryenar printing press

dryenesar ticket machine

judar calendar

dyufbuar sheetfeeder

drar pencil

yilemdrar lead pencil, pencil

drilar ink pen, pen

lodrar eraser

drear feather pen

vozdrar crayon

meyagdrar chalk, stick of chalk

domep manar street lamp

mompar subway train, metro, underground

parzyep siunar traffic signal

dopar weapon, armament

dopyonar sword

doparyonar bayonette

adopar gun

tuyab adopar handgun, pistol

zyup adopar revolver

edopar rifle

idopar shotgun

udopar musket

dapar fighter jet

depar tank

diepar aircraft carrier

dipar battleship

obdipar submarine

fuseuxar noise-maker

fyuseuxar noise-maker

faogorbar axe, hatchet, chopper, adz

gedrar copier

gorbar knife

faogorbar axe

taogorbar cleaver

tayegorbar shaver

degorbar paper cutter

taogorbar dagger

gorfar scissors

zyigiar sword

gixar sharpener

gibar poker

igxar accelerator

ugxar brake

yugxar mill

yuglaxar polisher

ijbar starter, ignition switch

ijar starter

tobijovar contraceptive

yijbar opener

yijar key

melyijbar shovel, hoe

manyijbar light switch

ilyijbar spout, decanter, sluice

yujbar stopper, plug, stopgap

misyujbar shutter

kyayujbar shutter

azyujar lock, bolt, latch

yujar lock

manyujbar off switch

igyujar blinker

manigyujar blinker, light blinker

milyujar spigot, faucet, peg, cock, plug, cork

ilyujar stopper, plug, cork

tujbar sleep inducer

melukxar shovel

ilukxar drain

yuvar chain

izbar steering mechanism, guidance

yizogateaxar ultramicroscope

momyuzmepar obiter

jwobar watch

tuyojwobar wrist watch

jwodar hour hand

jwadar second hand

judar calendar

keteaxar scanner

kyapar sled, sleigh

kyabar motor

kyenekar gaming machine

kyoxar stick, rod, peg, anchor, lock

kyinar scale

kyinzebar scale, weights

kyiunmimpar cargo vessel, cargo ship

kyiunmampar cargo plane

kyiunmempar truck

kyiunpar truck

maluar air pump, inflater

melukxar hoe, digger, ditch digger

mialpar steamship

mamilovar umbrella

milapar flotation device

mimpar boat, ship

mimpopar cruise ship

malofpar sailboat

ilapar flotation device

ilukar drain

iluar spout

iliar straw, sipper

ilzyabar spray

ilbar squirt:::::

drilar ink pen

amul ogunteaxar electron microscope

amulpa manar electric lamp

amula syagar electronic computer

amulp ijujar electric switch

amulpa kyabar electric motor, electric engine

yanmulxar mixer

mompar subway

mumpar orbiter

mampar airplane, aircraft

mempar land vehicle, vehicle, car, auto, automobile

mimagpar ocean-going vessel, oceanliner

mimpar ship, boat

mipar riverboat

miampar boat, lake craft

mompar subway, metro

mumpar spaceship

manar light, lamp

mimmanar lighthouse

sommanar lamp

tuyamanar flash light

mansar lantern

manyijar light switch

zoymanar reflector

kumanar reflector

manigar flasher

manigesar sparkler:

moynxar umbrella

magxar burner

magijar lighter

abmagxar grill

yebmagxar oven, stove, kiln, furnace

magelar cooker

ummagelar oven

magyelar frying pan, fryer

magilar boiler

mogxar incinerator

amanar thermometer

amxar heater

aymar warmer

oymxar cooler

oyoymxar defroster

iymxar humidifier

umxar drier

yamxar burner

yamijar lighter

abyamxar grill

yebyamxar oven, stove, kiln, furnace

yamelar cooker

umyamelar oven

yelyamelar frying pan, frier

yamilar boiler

mekobar dust mop, dust remover

mekxar grinder, mill

mekesxar grater, granulater

mekilxar crusher, grinder, mill

ebmospar elevator, lift

mestuyar door handle

mesazyujar door lock

elyanadpar train, locomotive

elyanaadpar train, locomotive

nasgoun sagar coin counter

nofxar spinning wheel

nofyonar shears, scissors

favofar cotton gin

nyafar fastener

fyafar metal fasterner, clasp, buckle

gofar scissors

nefar knitting needle

nifar needle

nivar pin

niifduzar string instrument

niyofibar plug

fuyufar fork

zyufuvar screwdriver

fuvabar hammer

apyenar hammer, pound

defgorbar shredder, paper shredder

mimofpar sailboat

syagar counter

syaagar computer, calculator

meksyaagar electronic computer

syagar counting machine

judar calendar

gar to the power of, exponentiated by

apet pyexeguar horsewhip

klapet pexar rat trap

upelat pyexar flyswatter

zyupatupar helicopter

pitpix mimpar fishing boat

gar exponentiated by

kyasanxar transformer

mansinar camera, still camera

passinar movie camera

zoysinar reflector

siunar signal

axar activator, on switch

loaxar deactivator, off switch

yilxpar taxi, taxicab, cab

gexar copier

passinmar movie star

summanar bed lamp

teabar eyeglasses, glasses

teetar hearing aid

teetyuxar hearing aid

teexar earphone, headphone, earpiece

teuzibar telephone, phone

duzar musical instrument

seuxpaandrar oscilloscope

seuxibar radio, radio receiver

seuxubar radio transmitter:::

seuxdrar recorder

xeusar noise-maker

biliar milking machine

tuyabar handle

tyoyapar walker

tofvyixar laundry machine, clothes washer

teyof belar tie rack

teyof nivar tie tack

zetif fyafar belt buckle (fyaf < fom+nyaf = metal fastener/clasp)

tolar eating utensil

telar fork

teilar spoon, soup spoon

tilar spoon

bilyig mekxar grater

bilyug telar butter knife

mekxar mill, grinder

tilyeb yijbar bottle opener

zyufuv yijbar cork screw

yujunobar cork screw, bottle opener

vafil oymxar wine cooler

ilyujar tap, spigot, faucet

bi ilyujar on tap

yavil bi ilyujar beer on tap

mil bi ilyujar tap water

tular dish, piece of china, eating utensil

tularvyixar dishwasher

tuilar saucer

tulyuxar platter

taolgorbar meat cleaver, cleaver, butcher knife

taolmekxar meat grinder

motozaxar toaster, browner

volyanmul telar salad fork

mimolbar salt shaker

sifyolbar pepper shaker

lavol fayobobar potato peeler

magilar boiler

magelar cooker

ummagelar oven

motozaxar toaster

yijmagelar broiler, grill, gridiron

izummagelar roaster

mamegmagelar barbecue grill, charcoal grill

yomxar freezer

fyefmagelar grill

ummagelar oven

yobmagyelar deep fryer

mialbar steamer

barmagelar pressure cooker

utmagelar samovar

motozaxar toaster

yagmagelar slow cooker

nyefavol amxar waffle iron

mamegmagelar barbecue, brazier

yigtayebabar brush

zyabar spatula

mulyonxar sieve, sift, filter

yifyab yonbyexar nutcracker

ama zyibolar hot plate

abimxar baster

bilyug gorbar butter knife

gorbar bolar knife holder

tilar bolar spoon rest

vafyal oymxar wine cooler

amxar heater

umxar dryer

magxar burner

fayobobar peeler

gorbar knife, cutter

zyogorbar slicer

kyigorbar axe, hatchet, chopper

glalgorbar grater

bilyig glalgorbar cheese grater

sangorbar carving knife

vyigorbar trimmer

kugorbar trimmer, edger

yubgorbar shaver

zyegarbar stabbing knife

gorfar scissors, shears

kyegorbar machete

gyigorbar dagger

zayzoygorbar saw

yebgorbar incisor

yonrar cut, split, partition, divide

faogorbar axe, hatchet, chopper, hacksaw, adz, adze

vabgorbar mower, scythe

topvabgorbar machete

fomgorbar hacksaw

yonar knife

dopyonar sword, saber

dopargorbar bayonet

mimdopyonar cutlass

puxgorbar spear

megyonar tomahawk

zyadopyonar battle-ax

potekgorbar hunting knife

tuyagorbar stiletto

pitgorbar fish cutter

gyogar slice, thin section, cutlet

mulyonxar sieve

mulyonxar filter

mulyonxar colander

tejvalxar life-saver

vyapxar regulator

vyanagar ruler

vyiar broom, sweeper

vyisar brush

teubvyisar toothbrush

tayebvyisar hairbrush, brush

vyusukar shovel, hoe

vabgorbar scythe

vabiblar harvester, reaper

vyabogxar miller, grater, granulator, crusher

vozil aparxar paint brush

avozaxar whitener

zeybar conveyance, vehicle, ferry

zeybelar truck, conveyance

zeyubar transmitter

zebar balance, scales

zyateaxar scanner

ilzyabar spray gun

ilzyabegar sprinkler

zyesbar drill

melzyesbar hoe, shovel

zyoxar tightener

zyimgorbar planer

nofzyixar iron

zyitulbar platter

zyimnagar level

zyifar planer

zyufuvar screwdriver

zyupar rotor, cycle

zebzyupar gyroscope

zyubar mill

milzyubar water mill

mapzyubar windmill

igzyupar spin top

zyurbar twister

yuzyubar roller

zyufobar wrinkle remover

|}

The tol (Food) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with t for human and l for liquid or in this case, drinkable or edible substances. The words have to do with food, food preparation, eating and drinking.

Summary:

WORD	ENDING
tol food	-yal juice
tel- eat	-el food
til- drink	-il liquid, drink
tul dish	-yel gel, oil
tyal meal	-eil soup

tol food

tola food, alimentary

tolyan groceries, foodstuffs, provisions

tolamut grocer

tolyanam grocery store

toltun dietetics, food science

toltuna dietary

toltuna vyaab dietary regime, diet

toltut dietitian

tolvyaab diet

tolsam food buffet

toluer feed

toluen feeding, alimentation

tolier feed oneself

tolien feeding oneself

tolkeer forage, forage for food, scrounge for food, seek food

tolkeut forager

tolanyan food chain

toyl nutrition

toyla nutritional

toyles nutrient

toyluer nourish

toylueya nourishing

gretoyluwa adequately-nourished

grotoyluwa malnourished, undernourished

grotoyluwan malnutrition

toylier nourish oneself

toylien nourishing

toloyser go without food, starve, be deprived of food

toloys starvation, hunger, food deprivation

toloysag famine

toloysea starving

toloyxer starve, deprive of food

toloyxwa starved

tolgran food surplus

tolgron food deficit

tolgronag major food deficit, famine

tolnien food consumption, demand for food

tolnuen food supply

tolnuut food supplier

tolneun food reserve

tolniam food storehouse

toleus taste

toleuser taste

toleusoya insipid, tasteless

toleusoyan tastelessness

toleusaya tasty

toleusayan tastiness

toleuxer taste

toleusgab relish

yotoleus disgust

yotoleuser disgust

yotoleusea disgusting

tolar eating utensil

tolaryan place setting

tel cooked food, prepared food, food, edible

telier eat, ingest, consume

teliuwa edible

oteliuwa inedible

teliut eater

telien eating

telam restaurant, eatery, eating establishment

telamut restauranteur

teleus flavor, taste

teleuser savor, taste

teleusaya flavorful, savory, tasty

teleusayan flavorfulness, savoriness, tastiness

teleusoya flavorless, unsavory, tasteless

teleusoyan flavorlessness, unsavoriness, tastelessness

fiteusa delicious, good-tasting

futeusa disgusting, bad-tasting

igtel fast food

igtelam fast food outlet

telar fork

telarpib prong

telyeb plate

uktelyeb bowl

teil soup

teilar spoon, soup spoon

teilarag ladle, soup ladle

teilyeb bowl, soup bowl

taolteil stew, meat stew

yagteil stew

yagteilxer stew

yagteilxwa stewed:

gyoteil broth

sifyabteil chili

aybilteil bisque

vobteil vegetable soup

evyabteil lentil soup

yivobteil rice roup

ivyabteil pea soup

luvolteil carrot soup

levolteil beet soup, borsht

fevolteil onion soup

bavolteil tomato soup

avyabteil bean soup

teilyena soupy

telef hunger

telefa hungry

telefer hunger, be hungry

telefxer make hungry, famish

telefxwa famished

teleftojer die of hunger

telefag famine

telif love of food, gourmandise

telifut gourmet, foodie, food-lover

vitelin epicureanism

vitelina epicurean, epicureanist

vitelinut epicure, lover of good food, gourmet

vitel fine food

teluf foodophobia

grateler eat too much, overeat, gorge

gratelen eating too much, overeating, gourmandise, gluttony

gratelut overeater, glutton, gourmand, gorger

gretelier eat up, eat to satisfaction, get filled up

greteluer satiate

greteliawa full, sated

groteliawa unsatiated, underfed

ogreteliuwa insatiable

ogreteliuwan insatiability

groteler eat too little, undereat

teltun gastronomy, food science

teltuna gastronomic

teltut gastronomist

oteliawa uneaten

oteliawas leftover

oteliawas nyem doggy bag, take-away box

til drink, beverage, potion

tilier drink, imbibe

tilien drinking, imbibing

tiliut drinker, imbiber

tiluer give to drink, water, irrigate

tiluen watering, irrigation

tilsem bar, drink counter

tilsemut bartender

tilam bar, saloon, drinking establishment, tavern

tilsom refreshment stand

tilaym bistrot

tilef thirst

tilefa thirsty

tilefer thirst, be thirsty

telefober quench thirst

telefobeya thirst-quenching

tilefag drought

tiloys water shortage

tiloysag drought

tilgron water shortage, water deficit

tilgronag major water shortage, droubt

tilar spoon

tilarog teaspoon

tilarag soupspoon, ladle

gratila inebriated, drunk

gratilan drunkenness

gratilat drunk, inebriated person

gratiler drink too much, overdrink

gratilut drunkard

gretiler drink moderately

gretilut drink moderately

otilut teetotaler

mil water

mila aquatic

mamegaya mil carbonated water

mamegoya mil still water

tilyeb mil bottled water

fufyuj mil tap water

mipa mil river water

mipij mil spring water

alamil soda water

levalamil soda pop, soda beverage, soft drink, pop

gyalevil syrup

gyalevilaya syrupy

dyofyel gyalevil chocolate syrup

bil milk

tilabil breast milk

tilabiluer breast feed, nurse

tilabiluen breastfeeding, nursing

tilabilier suckle

tilabilien suckling

toybil breast milk, human milk, mother's milk

epeybil cow's milk

yopeybil goat's milk

yivyabil soy milk

aona bil whole milk

yanglal bil yoghurt, curdled milk

eynbil half-and-half

abobwa bil skim milk

abobwa bilgab buttermilk

eya soyon bil two percent milk

bilyena milky, murky

bilyenan milkiness, murkiness

bilyenser get murky, cloud up

bilier milk, draw milk

biliur milking machine

biluer give milk, lactate, nurse

biluen lactation, nursing

yanbilxer amulsify

yanbilxen amulsification

yanbilxwa amulsified

yanbil amulsion

yanbilyena amulsoid

bilun milk product, dairy product

bilunxam dairy, dairy farm

bilunxen dairy production

bilunxut dairyman

bilunxuyt diarymaid

bilyig cheese

bilyigaya cheesy

bilyigika cheese-filled

yanglal bilyig cottage cheese

helveta bilyig swiss cheese

kamamber bilyig camembert

cedar bilyig cheddar cheese

amerika bilyig American cheese

yovoza bilyig blue cheese

gyagor bi bilyig hunk of cheese

gyogor bi bilyig slice of cheese

mekxwa bilyig grated cheese, parmesan cheese

bilyig mekxar grater

bilyig favol cheese souffle

yopeyt bilyig feta, goat cheese

bilyug butter

bilyugaya buttery

bilyugika butter-filled

bilyugaber butter, apply butter

bilyugabwa buttered

evozbilyug margarine

muf bi bilyug stick of butter

bilyug telar butter knife

aybil cream

yomaybil ice cream

igza aybil sour cream

apyexwa aybil whipped cream

gyalevabil pudding

agyalevabil tapioca

egyalevabil mousse

igyalevabil custard

ugyalevabil junket

yogyalevabil yoghurt

fufyab gyalevabil fig pudding

dyofyel gyalevabil chocolate pudding

favol froth, foam, fluff

patobij favol meringue

favolabun icing, frosting

dyofyal cocoa, cocoa drink

dyofyabil chocolate milk

dyofyel chocolate

dyofyel ababwa chocolate-covered

dyofyel umleavol chocolate cookie

dyofyel gyalevabil chocolate mousse

dyofyel gyalevabil chocolate pudding

dyofyel yomaybil chocolate ice cream

dyofyel jotul chocolate dessert

gradyofyelut chocoholic

dryofyelika chocolate-filled, chocolaty

mekil meal, porridge, gruel, mush, grits, grout, pottage

mekxer grind, mill

mekxwa ground, milled

mekxar mill, grinder

mekxwa eopet ground beef

biil juice

biilaya juicy, succulent

biilayan juiciness, succulence

taobiil gravy

tuil sauce

tuilyeb saucer

omtil refreshment, soda, pop

fyab fruit

fyal fruit juice

fyabaya fruity

afyab apple

afyal apple juice, cider

ofilxwa afyal sweet cider

filxwa afyal hard cider

efyab pear

efyal pear juice

ifyab cherry

ifyal cherry juice

ifyab prune

ufyal prune juice

yofyab apricot

yofal apricot juice

yafab peach

yafal peach juice

yefab quince

yefal quince juice

lufab grapefruit

lufal grapefruit juice

fufyab coconut

fufyal coconut juice

vafyab grape

vafyal grape juice

vafyal fayob grape skin

lafyab orange

lafyal orange juice

levelafyal orangeade

lafyalamil orange soda, orange pop

lifyab lemon

lifyal lemon juice

levelifyal lemonade

fifyab banana

fifyal banana juice

fifyab fayob banana peel

zavyab strawberry

zavyal strawberry juice

levob beet

levyal beet juice

luvob carrot

luvol biil carrot juice

bavol tomato

bavol biil tomato juice

bavol teil tomato soup

safayel tea

safayeb tea leaf

safeyelam teahouse

safayelyeb tea urn

safayelsyeb teacup

tilsyeb safyel cup of tea

safayel bay level sweetened tea

safayel boy level unsweetened tea

safayel bay lifyab tea with lemon

sefyal coffee

sefyalam cafe

sefyalyeb coffee urn

sefyalsyeb coffee cup

tilsyeb sefyal cup of coffee

sefyab coffee bean

sefyal bay level coffee with sugar

sefyal bay bilyug coffee with creme

sefyal bay bil cafe au lait

sefyal boy bilyug black coffee

sefmul caffeine

sefmulxwa caffeinated

losefmulxwa decaffeinated, decaf

fil alcohol, alcoholic drink, fermented drink

grafiliut alchoholic

ofiliut teetotaler, non-drinker

filoya alchohol-free

ofila non-alcoholic

filxer ferment

filxwa fermented

ofilxwa unfermented

filxen fermentation

fileynsag proof

60 proof: 60-fileynsaga

filvyunober distill

filvyunobam distillery

filovyunobwa distilled::

levafil liquor, alcoholic drink

levafilyeb liquor bottle

levafilnam liquor store

yugglal mash, pulp, malt, pulpy mass, crushed malt, batter

yugglalxer mash, crush, mill, pulp, beat

vafil wine

vafil ilyeb wine bottle

vafil tilyeb wine glass

ilyeb bi vafil bottle of wine

tilyeb bi vafil glass of wine

tilyeb yijbar bottle opener

yujun cork, plug

zyufuv yijbar cork screw

yujunobar cork screw, bottle opener

vafil oymxar wine cooler

vafilnam wine store

vafilam wine bar

vafilxam winery

vafilxem vineyard

vafilxut wine-grower, wine-maker

vafilxen viticulture, wine-making

vafilxena viticultural

vafiltun oenology

vafiltuna oenological

vafiltut oenologist

vafil faosyeb wine barrel

yigvafil vinegar

yigvafilaya vinegary

gravafiliut wino

vafiltyeut wine connaisseur

vafyab grape

vafyabyan bunch of grapes

umvafyab raisin

umvafyab ovol raisin bran

wa ikxwa vafayeb stuffed grape leaves

vafayb vine

vafaybem vineyard

vafil teuxen wine tasting

ivoza vafil red wine

avoza vafil white wine

uvoza vafil rose' wine

yanbixmul tannin

yanbixmulaya astringent, pungent

yigza sour

levelaya sweet, sugary

fyabika fruity

yavil beer, lager

yavil ilyeb beer bottle

yavil tilyeb beer glass

yavil yolsyeb beer can

yavil faosyeb beer barrel

yavil faosyeyb beer keg

yavil kyitilsyeb beer mug

ilyeb bi yavil bottle of beer

tilyeb bi yavil glass of beer

yolsyeb bi yavil can of beer

yavilam beer bar, tavern, pub, bar

yavilxam brewery

myoza yavil ale, dark beer

Hinda atooza yavil IPA, India pale ale

etoza yavil blond beer, lager

ilyujar tap, spigot, faucet

bi ilyujar on tap

yavil bi ilyujar beer on tap

mil bi ilyujar tap water

yavabil head, beer foam

faosyeb barrel

faosyeyb keg

kyitilsyeb mug

fomsyeb can, tin can

yavobika hoppy::

lavil vodka

lavil yeb lifyal vodka sour

levil rum

level yeb koka rum and coke

alofil gin

alyamsil tonic, sulphur water

alofil yeb alyamsil gin and tonic

gevofil whiskey

burbona gevofil bourbon

irlanda gevofil irish whiskey

boy yom neat, straight up, no ice

bay yom on the rocks, with ice

gevofil yeb lifyal whiskey sour

portugala ivyozvafil port

manigegea vafil sparkling wine

sampanya fil champagne

magxwavafil brandy

konyaka magxwavafil cognac

yanmulxwa til cocktail, mixed drink

ofila til non-alcoholic drink

glofila lite, low-alcohol

glafila high octane, strong

?: tequila (Mexican agave drink)

margarita maragarita

tul cuisine, prepared food, dish

jatul hors d'oeuvres, appetizer

jotul dessert

kutul side dish

agtul main course dish

agtulyan main course

ogtul tapa, small dish

ogtulyan selection of tapas

igtul snack

ebtul snack

tulyan course, spread, selection of dishes

atulyan first course

etulyan second course

itulyan third course

kusem tulyan buffet

utyux tulyan buffer, self-serve spread

tular dish, piece of china, eating utensil

tularsom china cabinet, buffet

tularyan dishes, china

vyixer la tularyan wash the dishes

tularvyixar dishwasher

tularvyixut dishwasher

tularvyixen dishwashing:

tulam restaurant

tulamut restauranteur

tuler dine

tulen dining

tulut diner

tuldet dinner companion

yantulen symposium

dotuler dine in public, dine out

tamtuler dine at home

tulim dining room

agtulim banquet hall

tuluer dish out

tulxer cook, prepare food

tulxut cook

tulxeb chef

tulxim kitchen

tulxen cooking

tulxwa cooked

tamtulxwa home-cooked

jatulxwa pre-cooked

egtulxwa warmed over

gratulxwa over-cooked

grotulxwa under-cooked

otulxwa uncooked, raw

tulur stove, cooker, range

tultun cuisine, culinary science, culinary arts

tultuna culinary

tultut culinary scientist

vitul fine cuisine

vitula gastronomic

vitulay gastronomically

vitultun gastronomics

vitultuna gastronomical

vitultun gastronomist::

tuldras menu

jatuldras appetizer menu

jotuldras dessert menu

agtuldras main course menu

ogtuldras tapas menu

tildras drink menu

tuil sauce

tuilber add sauce, add gravy

tuilar saucer

ama tuil hot sauce

tuilyeb sauce pan

tulyuxut server, waiter

tulyuxuyt waitress

tulyuxutyan server staff

tulyuxar platter

tulnaxdras bill

naxdras bill

diler la naxdras ask for the bill

iber la naxdras receive the bill

nuser la naxdras pay the bill, settle the bill

gorer la naxdras split the bill

yuxnas tip, service fee

yuxnasbuer tip, put down a tip, give a tip

yuxnasbuen tipping

groyuxnasbuer undertip

agyuxnasbuut big tipper

ogyuxnasbuut stingy tipper

yuxnasyeb tip jar

tyal meal, repast

tyalier have a meal, dine

tyaliut diner

tyalim dining room

tyalam diner, restaurant, eatery

tyalim dining room

tyalsem dining table

oyebtyalier eat out, eat outdoors

oyebtyalam outdoor restaurant, cafe

oyebtyalier eat in

atyal breakfast

atyalier have breakfast

etyal lunch

etyalier have lunch

ityal dinner

ityalier have dinner

utyal supper

utyalier have supper

tyalog snack

tyalogier have a snack, snack

tyalogun snack

tyalogunam snack bar

tyalogunur snack machine

zemoj tyalog midnight snack

tyalag banquet

tyalagam banquet hall

tyalagsem banquet table

yomxwa tyal tv dinner, frozen meal

tamibwa tyal home delivery meal

oyebiwa tyal take-out meal

tamtyal in-home meal

tulamtyal restaurant meal

tyalobelun leftovers

obelunyem doggy bag, take-away box

kyasa tyal meal on-the-run

ebtyal in-between meal

igtyal fast-food meal, quick-fix meal

agtyal main meal

yagtyal extended meal

ifpoptyal picnic, excursion meal

oyebemtyal picnic, outdoor meal

vabemtyal picnic, a meal in the field

gonbiwa tyal potluck, potluck meal, shared meal

kyetyal potluck meal

taol meat

taolaya meaty

taolika meat-filled

taoloya meatless

taolgor cut of meat, chop, cutlet

aakebiwa taolgor choice cut of meat, prime choice cut

taolgorbar meat cleaver, cleaver, butcher knife

taolgorbut butcher

taolgorbam butcher shop, chop shop

taolgorber butcher, cut meat, chop meat, chop

taolgorbwa butchered

taolgorben butchery, meat-cutting

taolgorben faof chopping block, cutting board, butcher block

taolmekxar meat grinder

taolgyagor steak, chop,

taolgyogor cutlet

taolzyogor strip, meat strip

taolfuyf sausage

yapet taolfuyf pork sausage

taolfuyfes sausage link:

avol bread

avolaber bread

avolabwa breaded

avolaben breading

avolsom pantry

eymuravol croissant

uzavol twist

zyuavol roll

yazavol bun

yuzavol wrap, gyro, taco

zyiavol pita, flatbread, pide, pizza

gyozyiavol crepe

gyazyiavol pancake

nyefavol waffle

ebavol sandwich

agebavol hero

gevobavol cornbread

umvafyab avol raisinbread

avolek flour

avolekaya floury

avolab crust

motozaxwa avol toast, brown

motozaxer toast, brown

motozaxwa toasted, browned

motozaxar toaster, browner

leavol pasta, dough

leavoler knead, roll out pasta

leavolyan pastry

fuyf leavol maraconi

niif leavol spaghetti

nyov leavol noodle

yagzyi leavol fettucini

leavolut pastry-maker, kneader

umleavol cookie, biscuit

zyiumleavol cracker, biscuit

leyavol cake

fyab leyavol fruitcake

dyofabyel leyavol chocolate cake

leyavol yugglal cake batter

ableyavol pie

fyab ableyavol fruit pie

aybil ableyavol creme pie

afyab ableyavol apple pie

alofyab ableyavol blackberry pie

ifyab ableyavol cherry pie

volyanmul salad, mixed salad, salad greens, greens

volyanmul abyel salad dressing

volyanmul telar salad fork

volyanmulyeb salad bowl

tolmek spice

tolmekaya spicy

tolmekber add spice

tolmekbwa spiced

tolmek somos spice rack

zivol thyme

zevol basil

fuvol garlic

fuvolaya garlicky

fevol onion

fayobober fevol peel an onion

fevol fayob onion peel

zavol parsley

??:nutmeg

mimol salt

mimolber salt

mimolbwa salted

mimolaya salty

mimolbar salt shaker

sifyol pepper

sifyolber pepper

sifyolbwa peppered

sifyolbaya peppery, hot

sifyolbar pepper shaker

tolabwas food topping

tolgabun food additive

mekil meal, grub, porridge

ovob cereal

ovol bran

avob wheat

avomek flour

mozavob buckwheat

gyiavob durum wheat, hard wheat

Hindavob maize, Indian corn, corn

avol bread

evob rye

ivob barley

uvob buckwheat

yovob millet

yavob hop

yavobaya hoppy

yevob rapeseed

yivob rice

yivob zyiglal rice cake

yivob zyuglal rice ball

bilyivob rice pudding

yagvyab yivob long grain rice

kreolama yivob Creole rice

motoza yivob brown rice

yuvob oat

yuvob mekil oatmeal

alovob sorghum, sorgo:::::

gavob sunflower

gevob corn, maize

gevob ab la veb corn on the cob

gevob avol cornbread

gevob mekil cornmeal

givob tobacco

fevob flax

fivob hemp

fuvob jute

ovyab legume

avyab bean, green bean

evoza avyab yellow French bean

avoza avyab haricot bean

ivoza avyab kidney bean

vaza avyab green bean

umxwa avyab dried bean

evyab lentil

evyab teil lentil soup

ivyab pea

ivyab teil pea soup

uvyab bean, broad been

evoza uvyab wax bean

vaza uvyab green bean, French bean

wa uvyab bay yel baked beans

yovyab peanut

yovyabyel peanut oil

mekxwa yovyab peanut butter

mekxwa yovyab ebavol peanut butter sandwich

yevyab chickpea

mekxwa yevyab hummus, chickpea paste

yivyab soy, soybeen

yivyel soy paste

lavol potato

wa yugglalxwa lavol mashed potatoes

wa yaggor lavol French fries

fayobober lavol peel a potato

lavol fayobobar potato peeler

lavol fayob potato peel

lavol volyanmul potato salad

levol beet

levol biil beet juice

livol radish

luvol carrot

lyovol turnip

lyavol artichoke, Jerusalem artichoke

savob mushroom

favol leek

fevol onion

fevol teil onion soup

fevol fayob onion peel

fivol shallot

fuvol garlic

fuvolaya garlicky

pavol cabbage

apavol white cabbage

epavol brussel sprout

ipavol red cabbage

upavol kale

yopavol rutabaga

gorbwa pavol slaw

pevol cauliflower

bavol tomato

bavolog cherry tomato

green bavol green tomato

gyogorber bavol slice a tomato

bevol eggplant, aubergine

bivol gourd, squash

bivoyl zucchini, summer squash

buvol cucumber

silbuvol pickle

buvolbyel tzatziki

byovol gherkin

byvol artichoke

vavol lettuce

vevol spinach

vivol sorrel

vuvol dandelion

vyavol watercress

vyovol chicory, endive

gavol pumpkin

gevol melon

givol watermelon

zavol parsley

zevob basil

zivob thyme

zuvob? rosemary

zavob strawberry plant

zavyab fraisse?

savob fern

sevob thistle

sivob nettle:::

evyab lentil

ivyab pea

uvyab bean

umxwa dried

umxwa fyab dried fruit

yomxwa frozen

apelatil honey yel oil

yelaya oily

yelaber add oil

tulyel cooking oil

gavyel sunflower oil

gevyel corn oil

kafyel olive oil

fuvolyel aioli, garlic and oil

yigvafilyel vinegar and oil

amsalxwa yel hydrogenated oil

oyanilikxwa yel unsaturated oil

toleusgabuil dressing

bavuil ketchup

?: mustard

mayona yigvafuil mayonnaise

toleusgabol condiment leveyel jam, confiture leveyeyl jelly yiglevyel candy

yiglevyelam candy store

yiglevyelxer candy

yiglevyelxwa candied

NUTS

yifyab nut, walnut ayifyab cashew eyifyab almond yufyab hazelnut

EDIBLE FISH AND SHELLFISH

pit fish

pituil fish sauce

apit trout

epit perch

ipit pike

upit carp

yopit tench

yapit stud

yepit stickleback

yipit whiting

tepit turbot

ryapit swordfish

ryepit tuna

ryipit sturgeon

ryupit cod

lipit salmon

l:upit sole

sapit herring

sepit barbel

syopit sardine

sipit anchovy

vapit eel

EDIBLE FISH PARTS

pitaib fishbone

piteob jowl

piteb fish head

piteab fish eye

EDIBLE SHELLFISH AND MOLLUSKS

piit shellfish

apiit lobster

malzyunwa apiit boiled lobster

epiit rock lobster

ipiit scampi

upiit crayfish, crawfish

yopiit prawn

yapiit shrimp

lapiit crab

lapiit ebavol crab sandwich

pyeit mollusk

apyeit oyster

apyeituil oyster sauce

apyeit yagteil oyster stew

epyeit mussel

ipyeit clam

ipyeituil clam sauce

malzyun bubble

malzyunika bubbly, carbonated

malzyunea effervescent

malzyunuka still, uncarbonated, unbubbly

malzyuner bubble

magiler boil

magilwa boiled

magilar boiler

magilen boiling

magilmul yeast, leaven, foam, spume

magilmuler ferment

magilmulwa fermented

magilmulen fermentation

vyaab malt, germinated grain fil alcohol

fila alcoholic

ofila non-alcoholic

filika alcoholic

grafilut alcoholic

yolam antimony, Sb yanglal curd

yanglalxer curdle, coagulate

ganglalxa curdled, coagulated

magilmulwa fermented apelatyel molasses alovobyel sorghum, sorgho, sorgo

CONTAINERS

nyeb container

nunyeb crate, package, case

milnyeb bucket, pail

ibyeb receptacle

ilyeb bottle

tilyeb glass, drinking glass

telyeb plate, dinner plate

telyeyb saucer

tulyeb platter, food platter

nunyeb case, package, crate

yomyeb ice chest

nazunyeb safe, safety deposit box

ilneyeb tank, reservoir

vosyeb flower pot, vase

maagilyeb fuel can

mogyeb ashtray

amulpyeb battery

nozyeb jewelry box

obelunyeb trash can, garbage pail

drilyeb ink well

syeb container, bin, vessel

tilsyeb cup, drinking cup

kyitilsyeb mug, stein

elsyeb pot, pan

magyelsyeb frying pan, skillet

tolsyeb casserole, pan

zyitolsyeb skillet

yolsyeb can, tin, tin can

teilsyeb bowl, soup bowl

milsyeb tank, cistern, reservoir

magilsyeb kettle

magilsyebag cauldron, boiler

ilsyeb carafe, beaker, flask, jug

faosyeb barrel

faosyeyb keg

meksyeb urn

fyeb tin can, can

fyebag tub, canister

milfyeb canteen

milfyebag tub

telfyeb can, food tin, tin can, can of food

zyeb glass container

manzyeb lightbulb

elzyeb jar

ilzyeb bottle, glass bottle

tilzyeb drinking glass, glass

bekilzyeb vial

nyef sack, bag, basket

nyefyan baggage

popnyef suitcase, travel bag

popnyefyan luggage, baggage

yignyef basket

zotib nyef backpack, rucksack

tolnyef grocery bag, grocery sack

defnyef paper sack, paper bag

myelnyef plastic bag

obelunyef garbage bag, trash bag, garbage sack

tafnyef portmanteau

nasyef wallet

nasyeyf purse

nasesyef coin purse

safyalnyef teabag

malnyef airbag, airsack

vyabnyef grain sack

nyem box, case

dofnyem cardboard box, carton

fomnyem metal box, metal case

popnyemag trunk, coffer

tuyabyem pocket

tibyeym pouch, poke

tojatnyem coffin, casket

belnyem briefcase

nyus package, shipment

nyusag crate, bin

fuf pipe

fuyf tube

tilfuyf straw

milfuf water pipe

movuf tobacco pipe, pipe, smoking pipe

miluf toilet, commode

ukxen fuf drainage pipe

nidyuz envelope bakilyuz capsule tim room, chamber

yixuntim utility closest

timog cell, pod

times booth, roomette, compartment

miltimes W.C., water closet, lavabo, washroom

dalibartimes phone booth, telephone booth

milim water closet, bathroom, bath milufim toilet, W.C., bathroom, restroom novim linen closet parim car, wagon, train car tofim clothes closet, closet avolim pantry sam armoire, chest

tofsam chest of drawers

dyensam bookcase

COOKING METHODS

tulxer cook

tulxut cook

tulxam kitchen

tulxen cooking

tulxwa cooked

otulxwa raw

mageler cook

magelut cook

magelim kitchen

magelwa cooked

omagelwa raw

magelar cooker

mageltun gastronomy

mageltuna gastronomic

mageltut gastronomist

gramageler overcook

gramagelwa overcooked

gromageler undercook

gromagelwa undercooked

magyeler fry

magyelwa fried

yobmagyeler deep-fry

yelmageylwa deep-fried

belgamagyeler french-fry

belgamagyelwa french-fried

ummageler bake

ummagelwa baked

ummagelun baked good

ummagelar oven

igmagyeler sautee

igmagyelwa sauteed

motozaxer toast, brown

motozaxwa toasted, browned

motozaxar toaster

mageier boil, poach

magilwa boiled, poached

magilea boiling

yigmagilwa hard-boiled

yugmagilwa soft-boiled

yijmageler broil, grill

yijmagelwa broiled, grilled

yijmagelar broiler, grill, gridiron

izummageler roast

izummagelwa roasted

izummagelar roaster

mamegmageler barbecue, charcoal gril

mamegmagelwa barbecued, charcoal grilled

mamegmagelar barbecue grill, charcoal grill

yagilamxer simmer, braise

yagilamxwa simmered, braised

levelimaber glaze

levelimabwa glazed

imaber baste

imabwa basted

moveler smoke

movelwa smoked

oyomxer thaw

oyomxwa thawed

yomxer freeze

yomxwa frozen

yomxar freezer

ilxer melt, liquefy

ilxwa melted, liquefied

mimolber salt

mimolbwa salted

sifyolber pepper

sifyolbwa peppered

sifyolaya peppery, hot, spicy

tolmekber spice

tolmekbwa spiced

tolmekaya spicy, hot

gorbunogxer mince

gorbunogxwa minced

gorbunogxwa taol minced meat

uglaxer tenderize

uglaxwa tenderized

favofyenxwa fluffed, souffleed

HUMAN ACTIONS WITH FOOD

telier eat, ingest

ogtelier nibble, snack, peck at

iktelier devour, gorge, cram, stuff, wolf, inhale, polish off

igtelier scarf, cram, gobble up

ugtelier graze, munch

iftelier feast, feast on

gratelier overeat, gormandize, eat too much, gluttonize, pig out, binge

teluer feed tilier drink, imbibe

ogtilier sip, nip

iktilier guzzle, gulp, swig, drain

gratilier overdrink, tipple, booze, drink to excess

igtilier slurp, down

iftilier quaff, indulge, enjoy drinking

gratilier drink too much, overdrink, overindulge

tiltojer drink to death, drown oneself

glatilier quaff

tiluer water, give water to teluzbier taste, take a taste teuxer taste teubabaxer lick teubil saliva, spit, sputum teubilxer salivate teubilpuxer spit, expectorate, spew teubiluer spit teubiloyeber spit out, expectorate teubiloker drool, slaver teubilokeger dribble teubixer chew, masticate

teubixeger ruminate, graze

tilabilier suck, suckle tilabiluer suckle, nurse, lactate teubobyeber suck teubyeber swallow

igteubyeber gulp

teubikxer cram into the mouth tikabukxer vomit, throw up, regurgitate tikubier ingest tikubxer digest

tibubxen digestion

teiter smell, detect an odor teitier sniff, smell, take a whiff, savor teixer smell telefer hunger, be hungry, have an appetite

glatelefer crave, be famished

teleftojer starve, starve to death telukser go hungry telikser get full, be sated tilefer thirst, be thirsty tileftojer die of thirst

FOOD DESCRIPTIONS

fiteluza delicious, savory teluzoya tasteless, insipid fiteisa delicious, savory futeluza disgusting, nasty futeisa bad-tasting, disgusting ama hot

amxwa heated

egamxwa re-heated

ayma warm

aymxwa warmed

egaymxwa re-warmed

oma cold

omxwa refrigerated

oyma cool

oymxwa cooled

yomxwa frozen

oyomxwa thawed

yomaya icy yombwa iced ima wet

imxwa glazed, basted

uma dry

umxwa dried

ilxwa melted, liquefied mimolaya salty mimolbwa salted

omimolbwa unsalted

yigza sour yugza bitter levelbwa sweet, sugared tulxwa cooked

otulxwa raw, uncooked

ejsa fresh ajsa stale, flat ojwosa green, unripe jwosa ripe yiga hard yuga soft yigla tough yugla tender

yuglaxwa tenderized

oyuglaxwa untenderized

yoynruwa brittle malzyunika bubbly, effervescent, carbonated malzyunuka still, uncarbonated tolmekaya spicy tomekbwa spiced

otomekbwa unspiced

sifyolyena hot, spicy, peppery, piquant sifyolbwa peppered

osifyolbwa unpeppered

bay lifyal with lemon bay level with sugar boy level without sugar, unsweetened bay biel with cream boy biel without cream, black bielyena creamy, smooth yifyabika nutty, nut-filled gyula plain aza strong oza week eza medium ivoza red avoza white uvoza rose' yanbixmulaya tannic, astringent, pungent yigza sharp, pungent, acrid, biting, caustic magxwa burnt gramagelwa overcooked gromagelwa undercooked magelwa cooked magilwa boiled ummagelwa baked magyelwa fried yobmagyelwa deep-fried yijmagelwa barbecued avolabwa breaded tayobobwa skinned magelwa be zyitolyeb yagilamxwa braised taibobwa boned imabwa basted, glazed uglaxwa tenderized izmagelwa seared barmagelwa broasted motozaxwa browned yiglevyelxwa candied levyelmotozaxwa caramelized fyefmagelwa charbroiled, grilled gromagilwa coddled bielxwa creamed yanmulxwa curdled yagbelwa cured, preserved umxwa dried yagugmagelwa Dutch-oven-cooked magilmulxwa fermented mimolbekwa pickled, brined yugglalxwa pureed, mashed, pulped, beaten kyeyanmulwa scrambled izummagelwa roasted igyelmagelwa sauteed igmagyelwa simmered ikmovxwa smothered moxwwa smoked ikimxwa steeped yagteilxwa stewed braxmagyelwa stir-fried ikxwa stuffed gyaxwa thickened ableveylbwa glazed abimbwa basted, coated mialbwa steamed mulyonxwa sifted mulyonxwa filtered ilogukxarwa strained glamagelwa well-done ezmagelwa medium-well glomagelwa rare gramagelwa over-done gromagelwa under-done gremagelwa done just right, done favofyenxwa souffleed fayobobwa peeled amsalxwa hydrogenated yanilikxwa saturated oyanilikxwa unsaturated bosa organic leveloya sugar-free amonoya calorie-free, zero-cal amonaya caloric gloamona low-calory, low-cal tolvyaaba diet braxwa shaken yuzbraxwa stirred gorbiilmagyelwa fricassee gorbunogxwa minced yebilkxwa soaked pasteuraxwa pasteurized vyisaxwa purified sefmulxwa caffeinated losefmulxwa decaffeinated

COOKWARE

kina magelyeb wok yijmagelur rotisserie fyefmagelar grill ummagelar oven ogilpas ummagelur microwave oven yobmagyelar deep fryer mialbar steamer magilsyeb kettle safayal magilsyeb teakettle magelarabun stovetop barmagelar pressure cooker utmagelar samovar motozaxar toaster yagmagelar slow cooker nyefavol amxar waffle iron sefyal mulyonxur percolator gyamagelsyeb dutch oven mamegmagelar barbecue, brazier gimuf spit, skewer, stick, pick tilfuf straw yigtayebabar brush zyabar spatula mulyonxar sieve, sift, filter ilogukxyeb colander, strainer yifyab yonbyexar nutcracker ama zyibolar hot plate enbirtub tongs abimxar baster zyubea muf rolling pin teabip gimuf toothpick tulnov napkin semov tablecloth tilsyeb leyavol cupcake bilyug gorbar butter knife gorbar bolar knife holder tilar bolar spoon rest avolmuf breadstick uzglal loaf tultaf apron tulimeb tef chef's hat gorben zyifaof cutting board, chop block vafyal oymxar wine cooler

ama hot

aman heat

amxer heat, heat up

amxwa heated

amxar heater

jaamxer pre-heat

jaamxwa pre-heated

egamxer re-heat

egamxwa re-heated

amansag temperature

amon calorie

uma dry

uman dryness

umxer dry, dry out

umxwa dried

umxar dryer

umaman dry heat

mag fire

mageler cook

magelwa cooked

omagelwa uncooked, raw

magxer burn

magxwa burned, burnt

magxea burning

magxar burner

yija mag open fire

fayobober peel

fayobobwa peeled

fayobobar peeler

fayob peel

fifyal fayob banana peel

CUTTING IMPLEMENTS

gorber cut

gorbar knife, cutter

gorbaryan cutlery

gorbun cut

zyogorber slice, cut narrowly

zyogorbun slice, slot

zyogorbar slicer

kyigorber chop, cut heavily, hack, axe

kyigorbar axe, hatchet, chopper

eyngorber dissect, cut in two, halve, cut in halve glalgorber grate, dice, cut into a pile

glalgorbar grater

bilyig glalgorbar cheese grater

glalgorbwa grated

sangorber carve, cut to a form, sculpt

sangorbar carving knife

sangorbut sculptor, carver

sangorbun sculpture, carving

vyigorber trim, cut cleanly

vyigorbar trimmer

kugorber trim, cut along the edge

kugorbar trimmer, edger

yubgorber shave, cut close

yubgorbar shaver

iggorber snip, cut quickly

iggorbun snippet

taogorber cleave, chop, hack, butcher, cut meat

taogorber clever, chopper, butcher knife, meat cleaver

taogorbut butcher

taogorbam butcher shop

taogorbsem butcher block

kyugorber graze, cut lightly bukgorber lacerate, cut to wound, stab

bukgorbun laceration, stab wound

oggorber nick, cut a small bit

oggorbwa nicked

oggorbun nick

gingorber notch, cut at an angle

gingorbwa notched

gingorbun notch

zyegorber pierce, cut through, stab

zyegorbea piercing

zyegarbar stabbing knife

gorfer rip, tear, cut cloth

gorfun scrap, rag, shred

gorfar scissors, shears

yongorfer rip apart, rip asunder, tear apart, tear asunder, tear up, rip up kyegorber slash, cut haphazardly

kyegorbar machete

yaggorber slit, cut long

yaggorbun slit

gyigorber stab, cut sharp

gyigorbar dagger

gorbober shear, cut and remove zayzoygorber saw, cut back and forth

zayzoygorbar saw

teupixer bite, do something hard with the teeth

teupixun bite

teupixeger nibble, do something repeatedly with the teeth teugorber bite, teeth-cut

teugorbun bite

teubixer chew, do something mildly with the teeth brukgorber mangle, cut with mutilation

brukgorbwa mangled

gonxer partition, divide, cut, part

gonx partition, division

oyegorber excise, cut out

oyegorbun excision

yebgorber incise, cut into

yebgorbun incision

yebgorbar incisor

gorfuner shred, cut to shreds, tear up, rip to pieces yonrar cut, split, partition, divide yonber detach, separate, take apart

yonbun detachment

eynyonrer split in two, dichotomize

eynyonren dichotomy

obgorber lop off, cut off, amputate tupober dismember, amputate, remove a limb

tupobwa dismembered, amputated

tebober decapitate, remove a head

teboben decapitation

nadgorber score, cut a line zaygorber cut across, bisect yongorber sever, cut apart uyngorber quarter, cut into four pieces gorbuner segment, make a section

gorbun segment, section

tayegorber tonsure, cut hair, shave

tayegorb haircut

tayegorbam hair cutlery

tayegorbut hair cutter

yongorfer abscind, rip apart zyagorbuer share gorbarer stab, knife faogorber chop

faogorbar axe, hatchet, chopper, hacksaw, adz, adze

vabgorber mow

vabgorbar mower, scythe

topvabgorbar machete

fomgorbar hacksaw yonar knife

dopyonar sword, saber

dopargorbar bayonet

mimdopyonar cutlass

puxgorbar spear megyonar tomahawk zyadopyonar battle-ax potekgorbar hunting knife gorbayeb blade tuyagorbar stiletto pitgorbar fish cutter tayogorber scar

tayogorbun scar

tayogorbwa scarred

eopet beef

eopet gyagorbun beefsteak, steak

mekxwa eopet ground beef

mekxwa eopet ebavol hamburger

hamburgas hamburger

eopet yagteil beef stew

eopet yaggorbun strip steak

uopet mutton

uopet taogorbun mutton chop

yapet pork

yapet taogorbun pork chop

magyelwa yapetzokun bacon

yapetyob ham

yapetyob ebavol ham sandwich

ummagelwa yapetyob baked ham

yupet rabbit

yupet yagteil rabbit stew

vapyet escargot epyeit tyob frog leg epetob veal

epetob gorbunog veal cutlet

ipat turkey

ipat ebavol turkey sandwich

patijob egg

wa kyeyanmulwa patijob scrambled eggs

patijob avoz egg white

patijob zamul egg yolk

patijob evoz egg yolk, yellow part of the egg

patijobayob egg shell

patijob zyiun omelet

magyelwa patijob fried egg

magilwa patijob boiled egg, poached egg

yigmagilwa patijob hard-boiled egg

yugmagilwa patijob soft-boiled egg

yapet ay patijob bacon and eggs

apaytot chicken

wa apaytot patub chicken wings

apaytot teil chicken soup

yelmagelwa patub fried chicken

ummagelwa patub baked chicken

apaytot gyagorbun chicken steak

taol be muf kabob, skewered meat

ADD-ON SUBSTANCES

abgabun topping, coating

abgabuner top off, coat

yebun ingredient gabun additive, garnish

gabuner garnish

toleusgabun condiment, relish tolmek spice, seasoning

tolmekber spice, season

levelabun icing, frosting, glaze

levelabuner ice, frost, glaze

abun coating, topping, coat

abuner coat, top

tuil sauce biil juice taobil gravy zyaygoseger sprinkle

zyaygosegun sprinkle

zyaybun spread favolun froth, foam, fluff, meringue, frost

QUANTITIES AND SHAPES

gon part, portion

gones particle

gonog small part, small portion

goyn:

gonbun share

ujgon butt, end part

goun piece gos piece, morsel, crumb, tidbit, bit, bite

gosog speck, particle

gorf shred, rag

yaggorf strip

gorb cut

uyngorb quarter

eyngorb half

ayngorb whole cut

gorp hunk, chunk

gorpes chip, flake:

gor section

gyagor slab, steak, thick section

gyogar slice, thin section, cutlet

gol division glal mass, bunch, cluster

yanglal curd, lump, clot, glob

glalab stack, pile, heap

zyiglal patty

yugglal mush, mash, soft mass

fuyf tube

fuyfes link

tilfuyf straw

zyun ball, sphere

malzyun bubble

zyunog pellet, bullet, bead

milzyun drop of water

milzyunog water bead

ilzyun drop, drop of liquid

ilzyunog bead of liquid

mekzyun dust bowl

kun side, flank

zakun front end, face

zokun back end, rear

kunad edge, frontier

mul matter, material, substance

zamul kernel, core

yigmul hard substance

yugmul soft substance

yunmul cluster

muf pole, stick, rod

gimuf sharp stick, skewer, spit

faof board, plank nyaun pile, mass, heap, stack

nyaunxer pile up, stack

nyan pile, stack, heap byeb pile, stack vyayb seed zoniub butt ujun end, butt ujgin tip kuned flank abem top abned top, surface, upper plane obem bottom obned bottom, lower plane zaned front, face, frontal plane zoned back, back plane ijun head ounce pound pint gallon ton inch foot yard millimeter centimeter meter avolgos crumb zyigos flake, chip, crisp

lavol zyigos potato chip, potato crisp

gos piece, morsel

goses little piece, bit, tiny morsel

gwos atom, tiniest thing gwo- nano-

gwojweb nanosecond

gones particle vzevyab kernel, nucleus

zevyaba nuclear

vyab grain

vyabes speck

vyabesaya speckled

vyabyena grainy

mekes grain vyayb seed

vyaybes seedlet

vyaybyem pod, seed vessel

vabij seed

vabijoya seedless

vabijyem pod

zyogorf strip gyogorf slice, slit gorfun piece, shred, scrap yaggorf strip, long strip gyagorf slab. hunk fomgyagorf ingot fomgorf bar mulukumnid block, block of matter mulzyun ball of stuff, wad, lump, roll, plug milzyunes water bead, drop gorbun chop, cut, segment, section, slice gyagorbun steak, thick slice gorbunog cutlet, thin slice tayegorbun shaving taolzyun meatball nuad stripe taolzyogorf steak niiv strand glal mass, pile, lump, mob

yugglal soft mass, mash, mush, gob

yugglalxer mash, smash, crush

yanglal curd, clot, lump, conglomeration, coagulation, concretion

yanglalxer clot, curdle, lump together, conglomerate, coagulate

glalgorber grate

glala massive

glalika lumpy

mek powder, dust

mekil mash, mush, crush

fef grate fefyan grating fef grid fef grill fef grille fefyan grillwork nef web nef weave zyezeyer crisscross misnef lattice faibyan framework nefxen reticulation nef net nefyan netting nefyan network ebnyivyan fretwork nefmis screen nefyem basket checkerboard nefsunyen mesh konef maze mufnefyan wattle ebnefea interweaving ebgorbwas intersection zeygorbwas cross-section ebnyiver interlace kofvaob thatch nyef bag nyef sack fyeb tin can, can mulyonxar sieve mulyonxar filter mulyonxar colander

The mor (universe) and mom (outer space) Family

The stems of the words in this family are characterized by the letter m nature. The words, thus, have to do with nature, the sky, ground, water, planets, etc.

Summary:

mor....universe	mom....cosmos	mol....nature	mop....orbit	moj....evening mon....darkness	mof....nebula mov....smoke	mok....dark matter mog....ash	mob....abyss
mar....star amar....sun	mam....sky	mal....air	map....wind	maj....day man...light	maf....cloud mav....flame	mak....electricty mag....fire
mer....planet imer....earth	mem....land	mel....soil	mep....road		mef....brick mev....porcelain	mek....dust meg....rock mez...gem	meb....mountain
mir....world	mim....sea	mil....water	mip....river
mur....satellite amur....moon	mum...underground	mul....matter	mup....tunnel			muk....mineral mug....metal	mub....cave, pit

A few important derivations:

• amar....sun  ("number one star")

• amarnaap....solar system  (the "sun system")
• amaryap....sunrise  ("sun rise")
• amaryop....sunset  ("sun descent")
• amarnad....sunbeam  ("sun line")
• amarmap....solar wind  ("sun wind")
• amarman....sunlight  ("sun light")

• amur....moon   ("number one satellite)

• amurned....lunar surface   ("moon surface")
• amurmoyb....lunar crater   ("moon depression")

• Imer....Earth   ("third planet from the sun"

• imertun....geology   ("earthscience"
• imerzyunad....earth's axis   ("earth turn line"
• imermop....earth's orbit   ("earth's orbit"

• marmaf....galaxy   ("star cloud")

• Amarmaf....Milky Way   ("number one galaxy")

• maryan....constellation   ("collection of stars")
• marmeg....comet   ("star rock")
• mommeg....meteor   ("space rock")
• mammeg....meteorite   ("sky rock")

The following are vehicles and derivatives that are specific to one of the above physical spheres:

mompar....spaceship	momper.... travel through space	momput....cosmonaut, astronaut
mampar....airplane	mamper....fly	mamput....flyer, pilot
mempar....automobile	memper....ride, drive	memput....rider, driver
mimpar....ship obmimpar....submarine	mimper sail, navigate	mimput sailor, navigator obmimput....submariner
mumpar....subway	mumper.... tunnel, go by metro	mumput....metro rider

Names of the Planets

Here are the names of the planets in our solar system. Notice that Earth is the fourth "rock" from the sun.

mer....planet
Amer.... Mercury
Emer.... Venus
Imer.... Earth
Umer.... Mars
Yomer.... Jupiter
Yamer.... Saturn
Yemer.... Uranus
Yimer.... Pluto

Polar Directions

DIRECTIONS	mer....planet
za....front	zamer.... north
zo....behind	zomer....south
zi....right	zimer....east
zu....left	zumer....west

Related terms:

• zamernod....north pole (nod = point)
• zomernod....south pole
• zaomernad....longitude (zao = north-south, nad = line)
• zuimernad....latitude (zui = east-west)
• zemernad....equator (ze = middle)
• merzyun....globe, sphere (planet-ball)
• eymerzyun....hemisphere (half-planet-ball)

Types of Clouds

maf....cloud
maaf.... stratus
maef.... nimbostratus
maif.... cumulus
mauf.... cumulonimbus
mayof.... stratocumulus
mayaf.... allocumulus
mayef.... allostratus
mayif.... cirrocumulus
mayuf.... cirrostratus
malof.... cirrus

Types of Roads and Paths

mep.... way, road, route   →  zeymep.... bridge, crossing   →  aybmep.... overpass, bridge   →  oybmep.... underpass   →  zyemep.... tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare   →  kumep.... side path   →  zomep.... back way   →  ebmep.... aisle   →  tyoyamep.... sidewalk, walkway   →  omep....impasse   →  gunmep....dogleg   →  dinmep....plot   →  pomep....itinerary   →  eynmep....half-way   →  homep?'....which way?   →  yilpmep....escape route   →  yexmep....career   →  yuzmep....circuit   →  tyenmep....career   →  puxmep....trajectory   →  vyamep....right way   →  vyomep....wrong way   →  musmep....stairway   →  izmep.... direct route, straight path, vector   →  yebmep.... entryway, entrance   →  oyebmep.... exit, way out   →  mummep.... subway   →  mammep.... air route   →  elyamep.... railroad, railway   →  mimmep.... sealane

domep.... street   →  agdomep.... highway   →  aagdomep.... main street   →  zyadomep.... broadway   →  igdomep.... expressway   →  uzmep.... byway, detour   →  yuzdomep.... beltway, loop   →  zyudomep.... roundabout, circle, rotary   →  ebdomep....alley   →  anizona domep....one-way street

meap.... avenue

meep.... boulevard

meip.... lane   →  zimeip....right lane   →  zumeip....left lane   →  zemeip....median, middle lane   →  anmeip.... single lane   →  enmeip....double lane

meup.... trail   →  mebmeup....mountain trail

meyp.... path   →  tyoyameyp.... footpath

Types of Stones, Gems, etc.

STONE	GEM	OTHER EARTH SUBSTANCES
meg .... stone	mez .... gem	mek .... dust
meag .... marble	amez .... diamond	miek .... sand
meeg ....slate	emez .... topaz	myek .... powder
meig ....gramote	imez .... ruby	mel .... soil
meug ....clay	vamez .... emerald	meil .... mud
meyag ....chalk	yamez .... amethyst	megil .... cement
meyeg ....limestone	yomez .... sapphire	myel .... plastic
meyig ....alabaster		mil .... water
meyog .... china		mial .... vapor
meyug .... gypsum		miil .... dew
melag .... adobe		mimol .... salt
meleg .... terra cotta		mamil .... rain
melig .... marl		mal .... air
melug .... kaolin		mayl .... gas
melyag .... feldspar		magil .... petroleum
melyeg .... petunse		mug .... metal
melyig .... silica		muk .... mineral
melyog .... pegmatite		mul .... matter
melyug .... flint		mag .... fire
mieg .... coral		mog .... ash
		mav .... flame
		mov .... smoke

Thermal Conditions

ama .... hot	ayma .... warm
oma .... cold	oyma .... cool
ima .... wet	iyma .... humid
uma .... dry	uyma .... arid
yoma .... frozen	yoyma .... chilly
yama .... burning

Weather Phenomena

mamyen .... weather
mamil .... rain
mamyom .... sleet
mamyoym .... snow
yoym .... frost
yom .... ice
mial .... steam
miil .... dew
maf .... cloud
miaf .... fog
mapil .... storm, windstorm
xeusmapil .... thunderstorm
mapilag .... tempest
mimmapil .... hurricane
map .... wind maap .... puff maep .... breeze maip .... gust maup .... gale mayop .... typhoon
mapulz .... tornado, twister, cyclone
mammanig .... lightning
mamxeus .... thunder
mamiluz .... rainbow
jibim .... monsoon
graim .... flood, deluge

Atmospheric Layers

mal .... air
maal .... atmosphere
mael .... troposphere
mail .... stratosphere
maul .... ionosphere
mayol .... exosphere

Rivers and Streams

mip .... river
miap .... stream
miep .... brook
miip .... rivulet
miup .... tributary
miyop .... creek
miyap .... rill
mipuj .... estuary
mipkum .... river bank

Bodies of Water

mim .... sea
mimag .... ocean
miam .... lake
miem .... lagoon
miim .... pond
mium .... pool, basin
miumog .... puddle
immem .... swamp
ebmim .... strait
zyomip .... canal

Land Features

mem .... land
meam .... region meem .... territory meim .... countryside meum .... zone, district meyom .... tract, parcel, acre
meb .... mountain meyb .... mount meab .... hill meeb .... knob meib .... mound meub .... ridge meyob .... bump
mimeib ... cape
yabmimeib .... promontory, headland, bluff
zyimeb .... plateau
magmeb .... volcano
mub .... chasm, precipice, cliff muab .... gulf, gulch mueb .... ravine, valley, dale muib .... cave muyob .... ditch
mimuib .... cove
mimkum .... beach, seaside, coast
uzmimkum .... bay
zyimem .... plain
ummem .... desert
immem .... wetland, swamp
zomem .... hinterland
zyamem ....prairie
memsin .... landscape
yonmel .... island
eynyonmel .... peninsula
yanmel .... continent
zyoebmel .... isthmus
yijmem .... field, meadow

Different Worlds

mir .... world, realm, domain
jomir.... here-after, after-world, metasphere fyajomir....heaven, paradise ebjomir....limbo zejomir....purgatory fyojomir....hell
yizmir....world beyond, spirit world yizmirat....spirit, sprite
fyamir.... sacred world, paradise fyamirat....angel
fyomir....wicked world, hell fyomirat....demon
obmir....nether world
komir....secret realms
mor .... universe
moreb....god moreyb....goddess

mor universe

mora universal

moran universality

moraxer universalize

moraxen universalization

moraxwa universalized

moreb God

moreba divine

moreban divinity

mar star

mara stellar

maryan constellation

marika starry

marikan starriness

marmaf galaxy

amarmaf Milky Way

marmafa galactic

amar sun

amara solar

amaryap sunrise

amaryop sunset

amarman sunlight

amarmas sunshine

amarnad sunray, sunbeam

amarzena heliocentric

amara vyaab solar system

mer planet

mera planetary

mear Mercury

meer Venus

meir Earth

meira earthly, terrestrial

meirat earthling, terrestrial

omeira extraterrestrial

omeirat extraterrestrial

meur Mars

meurat Martian

meyor Jupiter

meyar Saturn

meyer Uranus

meyir Pluto

mir world

mira global

miran globality

Mirad world language, Mirad

mirdit cosmopolitan, world citizen

mirdita cosmopolitan

miraxer globalize

miraxen globalization

miraxwa globalized

famir heaven

famira celestial, heavenly

famirat angel

famirata angelic

zyamira world-wide, worldwide

zyamira nef worldwide web, www

la aona mir the whole world

lyamira worldwide, global

amir north

amira northern, nordic

amirat northerner

amiray northward, northerly

amirnod north pole

emir equator

emira equatorial

emirnad equator

omir south

omira southern

omirat southerner

omiray southward, southerly

omiyra meridional

omirnod south pole

imir east, orient

imira eastern

imirat easterner

imiray eastward

imiray eastward

imiyra oriental

imirytat oriental

umir west, occident

umira western

umirat westerner

umiray westward

umiyrat occidental

aomira north-south, vertical, longitudinal

aormiray vertically, longitudinally

aormirnad longitude

iumira east-west, horizontal, latitudinal

iumiray horizontally, latitudinally

iumirnad latitude

mur moon, satellite

mura lunar

amur earth's moon, moon

muar comet

muartiyub comet tail

muer meteor

muerog meteorite

mol nature

mola natural

omola unnatural, artificial

omolan artificiality

omolas something artificial

yizmol supernatural

yizmola supernatural

molaxer naturalize

molaxen naturalization

molaxwa naturalized

ijmol origin

ijmola original

mal air

maal atmosphere

maala atmospheric

mael troposphere

maela tropospheric

mail stratosphere

maila stratospheric

maul ionosphere

mayol exosphere

mayl gas

mayla gaseous

maylxer gaseify

maylxen gaseification

maylxwa gaseified

maluer aerate, blow up, pump air into, inflate

maluen aeration, blowing up, inflation

maluar air pump, inflater

maluuwa inflated, pumped up, aerated

omaluer deflate

omaluen deflation

omaluuwa deflated

malyen weather

malyentun meteorology

malyentuna meteorological, weather-related

malyentut meteorologist, weatherman, weatherperson

jebmalyen climate

jebmalyena climatic

mel land, soil, ground, dirt

mela terrestrial, land, ground

yanmel continent

yanmela continental

yonmel island

yonmela insular

yonmelat islander

melpuer land

melpuen landing

melpuem landing strip

meluk hole in the ground, hole, ditch

melukxer dig

melukxar hoe, digger, ditch digger

tojmeluk grave

tojmelukxut gravedigger

milmeluk well

milmelukxut welldigger

yagmeluk ditch

yagmelukxut ditchdigger

melyex farming, agriculture, land work

melyexa agricultural

melyexut farmer

melyexem farm

melyexam farmhouse

melyexer farm

melyextun agriculture

melyextuna agricultural

abmel topsoil

abmela above-ground

obmel subsoil

obmela underground, subterranean

meel terrain

yebmelber bury

yebmelben burial

yebmelbwa buried

yebmelbem grave

mil water

mila aquatic

milaya aqueous, watery

miles drop, drop of water, water drop

milesog droplet, bead

mial vapor, steam

mialaya steamy, vaporous

mialayaser get steamed up

mialxer vaporize

mialxen vaporization

mialpar steamship

miil dew

miilika dewy

miilaya dewy

miiles dew drop

mamil rain

mamiler rain

mamilaya rainy

mamiles raindrop

mamilovar umbrella

mamilag rainstorm

milper swim

milpen swimming

milpam swimming center, natatory

milpyem swimming pool

milput swimmer

milaper float

milapen flotation

milapea floating

milapar flotation device

miloper sink

milopen sinking

milopuer sunken

milyobirwer drown, get dragged underwater, sink

milyobiren drowning

milyepyoner dive

milyepyonen diving

milyepyonut diver

mimper sail

mimpea sea-going

mimpar boat, ship

mimpareb ship captain

mimparer navigate

mimparen navigation

mimparut navigator

mimpen sailing, navigation

mimpop cruise

mimpopar cruise ship

mimpoper cruise

malofpar sailboat

malofpareb skipper

malofparer sail, go sailing

meil mud

meilaya muddy

meilayan muddiness

meilxer muddy

meilxwa muddied

meilxen muddying

imil liquid, fluid, wet stuff

imila liquid, fluid

imilan liquidity, fluidity

imilaxer liquefy

imilaxen liquefication

imilaxwa liquefied

ilper flow

ilp flux, flow, wave

zayilp reflex, retroflux

ilpen flowing

ilpea flowing, fluent, in flux

zyeilper permeate, flow through, seep, soak

ozyeilpuwa impermeable

yagzyeilper seep, seep through

oyebilper flow out

oyebilpen effluence

oyebilpea effluent

iluper surge

iliper ebb

yebilper flow in

yebilpen influx, influence

grailper overflow, flood

grailp flood, overflow

grailpwa flooded

grailpea overflowing, flooding

ilaper float

ilapea floating

ilapar flotation device

ilapen flotation

ilapun flotsam

ilyoper sink

ilyopea sinking

ilyopen sinking

ilyopa sunken

ilyober dunk, dip

iloker leak

ilok leak

iloken leaking

ilokea leaking

ilokeya leaky

iluker drain

ilukar drain

iluken drainage

ilukuf drainpipe, spout

iliker flood

ilik flood

ilikwa flooded

iliken flooding

iluer pour

iluen pouring

iluar spout

ilier absorb, swallow, soak, suck

ilien absorption

ilieya absorbent

iliar straw, sipper

ilber irrigate

ilben irrigation

ilzyaber spray

ilzyaben spraying

ilzyabar spray

ilaber shower

ilab shower

ilabwer take a shower

ilabim shower room

ilpyener splash

ilpyen splash

ilyonpyener splatter

ilbarer squirt

ilbar squirt:::::

ilpan wave

ilpaner fluctuate

ilpanen fluctuation

ilpanog ripple

ilpanaya wavy

ipanayan waviness

jubilp tide

jubilpa tidal

jubilup tidal surge, incoming tide

jubilip ebb tide, outgoing tide, wane

jubilupip ebb and flow

ilgaser surge

ilgas surge

ilgoser wane, recede, shrink

ilgos waning, ebb

ilzyunog bubble

ilzyunoger bubble

izyunogaya bubbly, effervescent

izyunogayan bubbliness, effervescence

abilov foam

abilover foam

abilovaya foamy

magmebil lava

magmebilp lava flow

yanil glue, goo

yanila glutinous, sticky, viscous, gooey

yanilan viscosity, stickiness, gooiness

yanilmeg concrete

yanilmel cement

yoymil dew

yoymilaya dewy::

dril ink

drilika inky

drilikan inkiness

drilyeb inkwell

drilar ink pen

vozil paint

vozilber paint

vozilbut painter

vozilbun painting

vozilbwa painted

magil petroleum, oil

megil cement

maegil gasoline, gas

maegilam gas station

maagil fuel

maagilier fuel up, refuel

maigil kerosene

sil acid

silyena acidic, sour

bokil poison

bokilyena poisonous

bokiluer poison

bokiluen poisoning

bokilier take poison

bokilien poisoning

bokiluwa poisoned

bekil medicine

bekila medicinal

bekiluer medicate

bekiluen medication

bekilam pharmacy

bekilama pharmaceutical

bekilamut pharmacist

bekilamtun pharmacology

bekilamtuna pharmacological

bekilamtut pharmacologist

byokobil painkiller

fabil sap

vyunobil detergent, disinfectant, soap, cleaning fluid

peltojbil insecticide, bug spray

ovyoomil antifreeze

fyabil fruit juice

fyablevil compote

lafyabil orange juice

levafil liqueur

levil syrup

levolil beet juice

til drink, beverage

tiler drink

tilam bar, tavern

tilsem bar, counter

tilen drinking

gratila drunk

gratilan drunkenness

gratilat drunk

gratiler get drunk

tilyeb bottle

tilef thirst

tilefea thirsty

ovobil porridge

tabil humor

taobil gravy, jus

taolil stew

tayobil sweat, perspiration

tayobiler sweat, perspire

teabil tear

teabiler tear up

teibil mucus, snot

telil soup

teubil saliva, spit

teubiler spit

tiebil sputum, phlegm

tiibil blood

tiibiler bleed

tiibiluf blood vessel

tikebil bile

tikubil feces, shit, dung

tikubiler defecate, shit

tiyobil urine, pee, piss

tiyobiler urinate, pee, piss

tobijil semen

tobijilyeber inseminate

tobijilyeben insemination

mul matter, material, stuff, substance

mula material, substantial

mulan materiality, substantiality

mulser materialize

mulsen materialization

omula immaterial

omulan immateriality

omulaser disappear, vanish

omulasen disappearance

omulaxer anihilate

omulaxen anihilation

omulaxwa anihilated

omul non-entity, nil, nihil, nothingness

ovmul antimatter

mona mul dark matter

multun physics

multuna physics-related

multut physics engineer

mulun particle, speck

muluna particulate

gyomul atom

gyomula atomic

gyomulyan molecule

gyomulyana molecular

gyomulxer atomize

gyomulxen atomization

gyomulxwa atomized

amul electron:

amul ogunteaxar electron microscope

amulp electricity, electric current, current

kyoilp d.c., direct current

kyailp a.c., alternating current

amulpa electric, electrical

amulptun electronics, electronic engineering

amulptuna electronic

amulptut electronics engineer

amulput electrician

amulpxer electrify

amulpxen electrification

amulpxwa electrified

amulpa aztan electric energy

amulpa yaf electric power

amulpa manzyun electric light bulb

amulpa manar electric lamp

amulpa nyeunar" electric battery

amula syagar electronic computer

amulpa niuf electric wire, electric cable

amulpa maszyij electric wall socket

amulpa niufyuj electric plug

amulpijer turn on the electricity

amulpija on, turned on

amulpujer turn off the electricity

amulpuja off, turned off

amulp ijujar electric switch

amulpa kyabar electric motor, electric engine

amulpa manig electric spark

amulpyulx electric shock

amulpyulxer shock, electrocute

amulpyulxen shocking, electrocution

amulpyulxwa shocked, electrocuted

amulpsim electric chair::

emul proton

imul neutron

umul quark

zemul kernel, core, nucleus

zemula nuclear

zemulyaf nuclear power

zemulyafxam nuclear power plant

yanmul mix, melange, mixture

yanmulxer mix, mingle

yanmulxen mixing, migling

yanmulxwa mixed

yanmulxar mixer

oyanmulxwa unmixed, pure

mulvyia pure

mulvyian purity

mulvyixer purify

mulvyixen purification

mulvyixwa purified

omilvyuxwa unpurified

omulvyia impure

omulvyian impurity

omulvyin stain

map wind

mapika windy

maap puff

maaper puff

maep breeze, gale

maeper waft

maip gust

maiper gust

maper blow

mapag cyclone

mapages tornado

mapaz strong wind

mapil storm, rainstorm

mapilyena stormy

mapilag tempest

mapilagyena tempestuous

xeusmapil thunderstorm

mekmapil dust storm

mapateb weathervane

mep way, road, route

domep street

agdomep highway

igdomep expressway

zeymep bridge, overpass, crossing

abzeymep overpass

obzeymep underpass

zyemep tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare

kumep side path

meyp path

zomep back way

ebmep alley

meap avenue

meep boulevard

meip lane

meup trail

tyoyamep sidewalk, walkway, footpath

izmep direct route, straight path, vector

uzmep curved road, byway

yuzmep beltway, circuit

zyumep roundabout, circle, rotary

yebmep entrance

mummep subway

mammep air route

oyebmep exit

mip river

mipa riparian

mipkum river bank, bank, riverside

miap stream

miaper stream

miep brook

mieper babble

miip rivulet

miiper trickle

igmip torrent

igmiper gush

bamip spring

mipij spring?

bamil fountain

bamiler spray, splash

milij fountain?

ebmip canal

ebmiup channel:

mipovmas dam

mipovmaser dam

mipovmaswa dammed

milmaka mipovmas hydroelectric dam

mop tunnel

mopar subway

muzmop mine

muzmoput miner

muzmopxen mining

muzmopxer mine

mopxer tunnel

mup orbit

mupa orbital

muper orbit

mupen orbiting

mupar orbiter

mupea orbiting

maf cloud

mafika cloudy

mafikan cloudiness

mafuka cloudless

mafaya cloudy

mafayan cloudiness

mafikser cloud over

mafiksen clouding over

yobmaf nimbus

maaf stratus

maef nimbostratus

maif cumulus

mauf cumulonimbus

mayof stratocumulus

mayaf allocumulus

mayef allostratus

mayif cirrocumulus

mayuf cirrostratus

malof cirrus

mayf puff

mayfyena puffy

mayfyenan puffiness

mam sky

mama celestial

maym firmament

mamnad horizon, skyline

mamnada horizontal

mameyzyun rainbow

mamxeus thunder

manxeuser thunder

mammanig lightning

mampar airplane, aircraft

mampareb aircraft pilot, pilot

mamparebim cockpit

mamparam hangar

mamparem airport

mamparmep runway

mampar yuxnad airline

mamyuxut air attendant

mamyuxutyan air crew

mempuer land

mempuen landing

mempuem landing strip

mempier take off

mempien takeoff::

mamper fly

mamp flight

mamput flier

mamputyan flight crew

mamman skylight

mem country, land

memut countryman

gememut fellow-countryman

lyumema foreign

lyumemat foreigner

lyumemuf xenophobia

lyumemufa xenophobic

lyumemufat xenophobe

oyebmem foreign country

oyebmema foreign

oyebmemat foreigner

lyimema native

lyimemat native countryman

lyimemin nativism

lyimemina nativist

lyimeminat nativist

tajmem homeland, native country, birthland, fatherland

tajmema native

tajmemyuva patriotic

tajmemyuvan patriotism

memsin countryside, landscape

zomem back country

zomema rural

zomemat rural area dweller, backcountryman

meam region

meama regional

meem zone, district

meim country, rural area

meimyena countrified, rural

zemem heartland

yezmem plain

yezabmem plateau

yezmeb plateau

vabem meadow

fabyanem woods, forest

ukmem desert

eynukmem steppe

ukmemvaz oasis

zyomem valley

yabmem uplands, highlands, hill country

mempar land vehicle, vehicle, car, auto, automobile

mempara vehicular

memparer drive

memparut driver

memparam garage

memparem parking lot

parpoxer park

parpoxem parking lot

parpoxam garage::

ebmem isthmus

mim sea

mima marine

mimag ocean

mimaga oceanic

mimagyek oceanography

mimagyeka oceanographic

mimagyekut oceanographer

mimagpea ocean-going

mimagpar ocean-going vessel, oceanliner

Amimag Artic Ocean

Amimaga Artic

Imimag Pacific Ocean

Imimaga Pacific

Umimag Atlantic Ocean

Umimaga Atlantic

Omimag Southern Ocean, Antartic Ocean

Omimaga Antartic

Emimag Indian Ocean:::

mimsin seascape

mimkum seaside, seacoast, seashore, coast

mimkuma coastal

mimpar ship, boat

mimper sail, go by sea

mimput seafarer, sailor

mimpop sea voyage

mimpareb sea captain

mimparog boat, dingy

mippar riverboat

mippareb riverboat captain

mimbok seasickness, nausea

mimboka sea-sick

miam lake

miamkum lake shore

miama lake

miampar boat, lake craft

miem swamp, lagoon

miemaya swampy

miim pond

mium pool

miyom puddle

ebmim strait

mom underground

moma subterranean

mop tunnel

mopar subway, metro

moparnad subway rail

moparam subway station

momil well water

momiluk well:

mum outer space, space, cosmos

muma spatial, space, cosmic

mumpar spaceship

mumparut cosmonaut

mumpareb spaceship pilot

muf galaxy?

mufa galatial?

amuf Milky Way?

man light

mana light, bright

manaxer brighten

manaxen brightening

manay brightly

manan brightness

manaxwa brightened

manar light, lamp

mimmanar lighthouse

sommanar lamp

tuyamanar flash light

manuf candle

manufyan candelabra

manufyeb candlestick

manun light bulb

mansar lantern

manzyuv light stick:

mannad light beam, ray of light

manyijer illuminate, turn on, turn on the light, light

manyijen illumination

manyija lit, on, turned on

omanyiga unlit

manyijar light switch

manyujer extinguish, turn off, turn off the light, put out

manyuja off, turned off

mayna clear, light

maynay clearly, lightly

maynan clarity, lightness

maynaxer clarify, clear, lighten

maynaxen clarification, clearing, lightening

maynaxwa clarified, cleared, lightened

maynaser clear up, lighten up

mameser glimmer, glisten, gleam, shimmer

mamesen glimmering, glistening, gleaming, shimmering

mamesea glimmering, glistening, gleaming, shimmering

maser shine

masen shining

masea shining, brilliant

masean brilliance

maseay brilliantly

zoymaner reflect

zoymanen reflection

zoymanea reflective

zoymanar reflector

kumaner reflect

kumanen reflection

kumanwa reflected

kumanar reflector

maniger flash

manig flash

manigea flashing

manigar flasher

azmaniger flare up

azmanig flare

manigeser flicker, sparkle

maniges flicker, sparkle

manigesea flickering, sparkling

manigesar sparkler:

mon darkness, obscurity, dark

mona dark, obscure

monay darkly, obscurely

monan darkness, obscurity

eymona opaque, partially obscure

eymonan opacity

monxer darken, obscure

monxen darkening

monxwa darkened, obscured

eymonxwa partially obscured, opaque

monser get dark, darken

moyn shade, dim light

moyna dim

moynay dimly

moynan dimness

moynaxer dim

moynaxen dimming

moynaxwa dimmed

moynika shady

moynaya shady

moynayan shadiness

moynxer shade

moynxar umbrella

moynxwa shaded

monsan shadow, dark shape

monsanaya shadowy

eymon penumbra, half-light, shadow

mag fire

magser burn

magsea burning

magsa burnt

magsun burn

magxer burn

magxwa burned

magxen burning

magxar burner

magijer light a fire, catch fire, start a fire

magijar lighter

magujer put out a fire, extinguish

magujut fireman, firefighter

abmagxar grill

abmagxer grill

abmagxwa grilled

yebmagxar oven, stove, kiln, furnace

yebmagxer bake, cook

yebmagxwa baked, cooked

osexmag fire

magyel fuel

magyeluer fuel

magyeluen fueling

magyeluwa fueled

magel cooked food

magelar cooker

magelur frying pan

magelim kitchen

magelut cook

mageler cook

magelen cooking

magelwa cooked

omagelwa uncooked, raw

ummageler bake

ummagelen baking

ummagelut baker

ummagelwa baked

ummagelun baked good

ummagelar oven

magyeler fry

magyelen frying

magyelwa fried

magyelar frying pan, frier

magiler boil

magilen boiling

magilwa boiled

magilar boiler

mav flame

maver flame

mavea flaming

mavwa flamed

mavxer inflame

mavxen inflammation

mavxeya inflammatory

mov smoke

movaya smoky

movika smoke-filled

movier smoke

movien smoking

moviut smoker

movuer smoke, apply smoke

movuwa smoked

movuen smoking

movuf cheminee

mog ash

mogxer incinerate

mogxen incineration

mogxwa incinerated

mogxar incinerator

mogyeb ashtray

mogvoza ashen, ash-colored

ama hot

amay hotly

aman heat, temperature

amanar thermometer

amxer heat

amxen heating

amxwa heated

egamxer reheat

egamxwa reheated

egamxen reheating

amxar heater

amser heat up, get hot, become hot, get hotter

eyama tepid, lukewarm

ayama ardent

ayamay ardently

ayaman ardor

amatan fever

ayma warm

ayman warmth

aymay warmly

aymxer warm up

aymxen warming

aymxwa warmed up

egaymxer rewarm

egaymxwa rewarmed

aymar warmer

oma cold

oman cold, coldness

omay coldly

omxer refrigerate

omxen refrigeration

omxwa refrigerated

oyma cool

oyman coolness

oymxer cool off

oymxen cooling off

oymxwa cooled

oymxar cooler

yom ice

yomika icy

yomikan iciness

yomaya icy

yomayan iciness

yomxer freeze

yomxen freezing

yomxwa frozen

oyomxer de-ice

oyomxen de-icing

oyomxwa de-iced

yomser ice up, freeze

ovyomil antifreeze

malyom sleet

malyomer sleet

yoym frost, gel

yoymika frosty

yoymaya frosty

yoymayan frostiness

yoymxwa frosted

oyoymxer defrost

oyoymxar defroster

oyoymxwa defrosted

malyoym snow

malyoymer snow

malyoymika snowy

ima wet

iman wetness

imxer wet

imser get wet

iyma humid

iyman humidity

iymxer humidify

iymxar humidifier

iymxen humidification

graim flood

imof washcloth

uma dry

uman dryness

umxer dry

umxar drier

umxwa dried, dessicated, dried up

umser get dry, dry out

graum drought

umof towel

yam fire

yamser burn

yamsea burning

yamsa burnt

yamsun burn

yamxer burn

yamxwa burned

yamxen burning

yamxar burner

yamijer light a fire, catch fire, start a fire

yamijar lighter

yamujer put out a fire, extinguish

yamujut fireman, firefighter

abyamxar grill

abyamxer grill

abyamxwa grilled

yebyamxar oven, stove, kiln, furnace

yebyamxer bake, cook

yebyamxwa baked, cooked

osexyam fire

yamyel fuel

yamyeluer fuel

yamyeluen fueling

yamyeluwa fueled

yamel cooked food

yamelar cooker

yamelur frying pan

yamelim kitchen

yamelut cook

yameler cook

yamelen cooking

yamelwa cooked

oyamelwa uncooked, raw

umyameler bake

umyamelen baking

umyamelut baker

umyamelwa baked

umyamelun baked good

umyamelar oven

yelyameler fry

yelyamelen frying

yelyamelwa fried

yelyamelar frying pan, frier

yamiler boil

yamilen boiling

yamilwa boiled

yamilar boiler

mav flame

maver flame

mavea flaming

mavwa flamed

mavxer inflame

mavxen inflammation

mavxeya inflammatory

mak electricity

maka electric

maknif electric cable, electric wire

makyafam electric power plant

makaxer electrify

makaxen electrification

makaxwa electrified

meb mountain

mebaya mountainous

mebika mountainous

mebabem mountaintop

mebnad mountain chain

mebyan mountain chain

mebnod mountain peak

yezmeb plateau

miekmeb dune

magmeb volcano

magmeba volcanic

magmebyes crater

magmebil lava

meyb mount

meab hill

meabika hilly

meabaya hilly

meabayan hilliness

meabog hillock

meeb knob

meib mound, protrustion, swell

meiber swell

meibwa swollen

meub bump

meubaya bumpy

meubayan bumpiness

meuber bump

mebpen mountaineering

mebput mountaineer

mob precipice, cliff, drop

moyb abyss

moab gulf

moeb ravine

moib cavern, cave

moub ditch

med park, grounds

medes garden, yard

vosmedes flower garden

vabmedes vegetable garden

zamedes front yard

zomedes back yard

potmed zoo, animal park

ifekmed playground

meg stone, rock

mega stone, of stone

megaya stony, rocky

megog pebble

meges gravel

megag boulder

mepmeg cobblestone

megmelukxer quarry

megmelukxem quarry, rock quarry

mek dust, powder, grit

mekaya dusty, powdery, gritty

mekoben dusting, dust removal

mekobar dust mop, dust remover

mekmapil dust storm

mekxer grind, mill

mekxen grinding, milling

mekxar grinder, mill

mekxut miller

mekes grain, speck, bit, granule, grit

mekesyena granular, grainy, gritty

mekesxer grate, granulate

mekesxen grating

mekesxar grater, granulater

mekesxwa ground, granulated, grated

mekil meal, grub, porridge, mash, mush, crush, gruel

mekilxer mash, smash, crush, mush, mill, grind up

mekilxen mashing, smashing, crushing, milling, grinding

mekilxar crusher, grinder, mill

mekilxwa mashed, smashed, crushed, milled, ground, grated

miek sand

miekaya sandy

miekum beach

mieknyem sandbox

miekmapil sandstorm

miekaztam sandcastle

igmiek quicksand

mez crystal

mezyena crystalline

mezser crystallize

mezsen crystallization

mezsa crystallized

mezsan crystal shape

mef brick

mefaber lay brick

mefabut bricklayer

mefabwa bricked

mefyan brickwork

mev porcelain

meva porcelain, of porcelain:

The pot (Animal) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with the letter p, denoting movement, and end in the letter t, denoting a living creature. Thus, the words have to do with animals.

Summary:

	pot animal	pyot wild animal
IN THE AIR	pat bird	pelt insect
ON LAND	pet land animal	pyet reptile
IN WATER	pit fish	plit crustacean
ON LAND AND IN WATER	pyeit amphibian
UNDERGROUND	put worm

Note that the vowels in the word stem indicates geo-spatial properties like a for in the air, e for on land, i for in the sea, u for underground, and ei for on land and sea (amphibian). Pre-iotation of the stem vowel creates a set of less domestic animals, while the letter l preceding or following the stem vowels is used similarly to divide animals into new groups. The initial ordinal vowels create a taxonomy, while initial consonants increase the taxonomic levels.

Principal Domestic Land Animals

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pet	(land) animal
apet	horse
epet	ox
ipet	ass
upet	ram
yopet	goat
yapet	pig
yepet	dog
yipet	cat
yupet	rabbit

Principal Wild Land Animals

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pyot	wild animal, beast
rapyot	lion
repyot	tiger
ripyot	leopard
rupyot	wolf
ryapyot	hyena
tepyot	bear
tapyot	orang-utan
yapyot	boar

Principal Birds

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pat	bird
apat	cock
epat	duck
ipat	turkey
upat	goose
yopat	guinea fowl
yapat	pigeon
rapat	eagle
repat	vulture
fapat	crow

Principal Marine Animals

• -it water only
• -iet water and land

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pit	fish
apit	trout
epit	lobster
ipit	prawn
upit	crawfish
lipit	salmon
ryepit	tuna
rapit	shark
repit	dolphin
fapit	whale
apiet	seal
epiet	sea lion

Principal Reptiles

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pyet	reptile
gapyet	crocodile
gepyet	alligator
kapyet	lizard
lopyet	snake
lapyet	boa
lepyet	cobra
fapyet	grass snake
fepyet	slug
fipyet	leech
vapyet	snail

Principal Insects

• -elt non-flying insects
• -elat flying insects

MIRAD	ENGLISH
pelt	insect
apelt	spider
kapelt	louse
kopelt	vermin
kepelt	flea
kipelt	bug
lepelt	cobra
apelat	bee
epelat	wasp
ipelat	horsefly
upelat	fly
yopelat	mosquito
lapelat	cockchafer
lepelat	beetle
tapelat	cicada
gapelat	butterfly
fapelt	ant
fepelt	cockroach
fapelt	ant

Principal Ambphibians and Worms

MIRAD	ENGLISH
apyeit	toad
epyeit	frog
apyeat	bat
put	worm
aput	silkworm

Animal Sounds

The animal noise verbs are formed by replacing the final t of the animal's name to der (communicate, utter), as in the following chart:

ANIMAL	SOUND VERB
apet horse	apeder neigh, whinny
epet bull	epeder bellow
eopetob veal	eopetoder bleat
eopet ox	eopeder low, moo, bellow
epeyt cow	epeyder moo
ipet ass	ipeder bray, hehaw
ilapet llama	ilapeder growl
upet sheep	upeder bleat
yopet goat	yopeder bray
yapet hog	yapeder grunt, snort, oink
yepet dog	yepeder bark
yepyot wolf	yepyoder howl
yeypyot vixen	yeypyoder yelp
yipet cat	yipeder mew, purr, meow
yipyot tiger	yipyoder growl
yupet rabbit	yupeder drum
kapet squirrel	kapeder squeak
kyipet raccoon	kyipeder chitter
klepet mouse	klepeder squeak
eplet koala	epleder wail
rapyot lion	rapyoder roar
ryapyot hyena	ryapyoder laugh
ryaapyot jackal	ryaapyoder howl
tapyot ape	tapyoder gibber
tepyot bear	tepyoder growl
gapet elephant	gapeder trumpet
vepet reindeer	vepeder bellow
vyipet moose	vyipeder bellow
fapet camel	fapeder grunt
fipet giraffe	fipeder bleat
kepyet gecko	kepyeder go to-key, make a gecko noise
lepyet cobra	lepyeder hiss
apyeat bat	apyeader screech
epyeit frog	epyeider rivet, make a frog noise
apelat bee	apelader buzz
lepelat beetle	lepelader drone
tepelat cricket	tepelader chirp
pat bird	pader chirp, tweet, coo, sing
apat rooster	apader crow, cockadoodle-doo
apayt hen	apayder cluck
apatog chicken	apatoder cheep
epat duck	epader quack
ipat turkey	ipader gobble
yapat pigeon	yapader coo
rapat eagle	rapader squawk
repat vulture	repader scream
fapat raven	fapader croak
fepat crow	fepader craw
fipat chatter	fipader chatter
fupat hoot	fupader hoot
fyipat jay	fyipader chatter
gapat ostrich	gapader bleep
dapat swan	dapader cry
zapat swallow	zapader squeal
tapat parrot	tapader parrot
vapat nightingale	vapader pipe
fepat warbler	fepader warble
gapait penguin	gapaider honk
ipiet platypus	ipieder chitter
rupit walrus	rupider groan
ryopit porpoise	ryopider whistle

Animal Habitats

By suffixing the final t of the animal name with tam house, you get corresponding animal's living quarters:

ANIMAL	LIVING SPACE
apet horse	apetam stable
epet ox	epetam cowshed
yapet pig	yapetam pigpen, pigsty
yepet dog	yepetam doghouse
rapyot lion	rapyotam den, lion's den
fapelt ant	fapeltam anthill
apelat bee	apelatam beehive
pat bird	patam nest, bird's nest
apat hen	apatam henhouse, chicken coop
rupyot bear	rupyotam lair
pyot wild animal	pyotam cage

Animal Meats

By changing the final letter of the animal's name to an l, you get the meat eaten from that animal:

ANIMAL	MEAT
eopet ox	eopel beef
vipet deer	vipel venison
yapet hog	yapel pork
yapetyoab hog's thigh	yapetyoal ham
uopet sheep	uopel mutton
eopetob calf	eopetol veal
vapyet snail	vapyel escargot

Animal Groupings

By adding yan aggregate or nyan crowd to the name of an animal, you get the animal grouping:

ANIMAL	GROUPING
pat bird	patyan flock
eopet ox	eopetyan cattle
pit fish	pityan school
pelt insect	peltyan swarm
pit fish	pityan school
apat hen	apatyan poultry
pot animal	potnyan herd
yopet goat	yopetyan goatherd

Animals' Babies

The baby of an animal ends in ob offspring:

ANIMAL	BABY
pat bird	patob chick
apet horse	apetob foal
eopet ox	eopetob calf
yepet dog	yepetob pup
yipet cat	yipetob kitten
apat hen	apatob chick
rapat eagle	rapatob eaglet
upat goose	upatob gosling
upet ram	upetob lamb
yopet goat	yopetob kid

Animals' Hair

The hair of an animal ends in tayeb hair:

ANIMAL	HAIR
pat bird	patayeb feather
apet horse	apetayeb horsehair, mane
yipet cat	yipetayeb fur
fapet camel	fapetayeb camelhair
pit fish	pitayeb scale
upat goose	upatayeb down
tepyot bear	tepyotayeb fuzz
uopet sheep	uopetayeb wool, fleece

Female Counterparts of Animals

The word for the female counterpart of an animal is created by post-iotated (i.e. adding a y to) the last vowel of the male animal's name:

ANIMAL	FEMALE
epet bull	epeyt cow
apet horse	apeyt mare
ipet ass	ipeyt she-ass
yopet goat	yopeyt nanny goat
yapet hog	yapeyt sow
yepet dog	yepeyt bitch
yepyot wolf	yepyoyt wolverine
yeypyot fox	yeypyoyt vixen
gapet elephant	gapeyt cow elephant
vipet buck	vipeyt deer
apat rooster	apayt hen

Interesting Parallels in Animal Vocabulary

teub mouth	pateub beak	poteub mug	mimeub bay
teib nose	poteib snout	gapeteib elephant trunk	meib promontory
tayeb hair	patayeb feather	pitayeb scale	petayeb fur	fayeb leaf	vosayeb petal	uopetayeb wool, fleece
tulob nail	patulob claw	apelatulob stinger		fulob prick	vulob thorn
tyoyab foot	apetyoyab hoof	potyoyab paw	meboyab foothills	fyoyab stump	vyoyab stub
tayob skin	potayob hide	piyetayob shell	mayob crust	fayob bark	vayob peel	patijayob eggshell

Animal Vocabulary

pot animal, beast

pota bestial, animal

potan animality

potyan animalia

potnyan herd

potnyaner herd

potnyanut herder

potnyanen herding

potyena animal-like, animalistic, bestial

pottun zoology

pottuna zoological

pottut zoologist

potmyem zoo, zoological park

potkel hunt

potkeler hunt, prey

potkelen hunting, preying

potkelut hunter

potkelwa hunted

potkelwat prey, hunted prey

poder roar, bellow, shriek, howl, yell

pod roar, bellow, shrief, howl, yell

poden roaring, bellowing, shrieking, howling, yelling

poteixer sniff

tiyub tail

teyub horn

anteyubpet unicorn

teyubsana horn-shaped

poteib snout

poteub mug, muzzle

ateypiber gnaw

potayeb mane, shock, mop, mop of hair, shock of hair

potub paw

potuber paw

potuyub claw

potuyuber claw

ugpotper trot

igpotper gallop

potog yearling, young bull, heifer, young cow, fledgling

potag beast

potob cub, baby buck, fledgling

potnyanes breed

pet animal, land animal

petyan animalia, animal kingdom

petyader low

p