Mirad Version 2

Introduction

Glojo, ha mir gonbeo yansauna gabyuxea dalyen. (Soon, the world will share a common auxiliary language.) Mirad ( aka Unilingua ) is an artificially-constructed auxiliary language (conlang) developed and published by Paris-based author Noubar Agopoff as a serious medium for easy and logical international communication. Mirad, which means world speech, is categorized by constructed language experts as philosophical because its vocabulary is mapped letter-by-letter to a semantic ontology or thesaurus. Also, the word stock of Mirad is considered a priori, that is, there is no deliberate association with words or roots in existing natural languages. The vocabulary is from scratch, yet based on internal lexical and semantic rules that help the learner to construct and deconstruct derivations logically, mnemonically, and consistently. The author claims in his book Unilingua -- Langue universelle auxiliaire that this language is well-suited for universal, logical communication because it is based on principles already exploited globally by sciences like mathematics and chemistry where symbolic formulas are constructed in accordance with strict rules and a limited sequence of symbols understood by all practitioners. Mirad is constructed on the following principles: Every vowel has numeric, vectorial, scalar, or semantic value. Every consonant is meaningful either lexically or grammatically. Word derivation is systematic, consistent, analogical, and mnemonic. Words are as ontologically unambiguous as possible. Words are as short and as easy to pronounce as possible. Inflection and derivation of words is regular and predictable. This book contains Version 2 of the language with additions and modifications to the original. The principal changes are: The letter w was added, mainly to indicate the passive voice of verbs. The letter s was changed to sound like the s in English sun The letter x was changed to sound like the sh in English show The letter c was changed to sound like the ch in English chair The letter h was added, mainly to create some new grammatical particles. Grammatical cases were eliminated and replaced by prepositions. The determiners like "this, that, such, which" were modified and systematized. Some prepositions and conjunctions were changed or added. A definite article was introduced. Much new vocabulary was added and some words were altered. The writing system now consists only of letters, with no diacritics.

Alphabet

Mirad uses the Roman alphabet as English does, except that the letters Q and C are only used in foreign borrowings or attempts to spell foreign words or names. There is an upper case (majuscules or capital letters) and a lower case (miniscules or small letters). The upper case letters are used for capitalization exactly as in English (see Orthography). Mirad, at least for non-foreign words, uses no diacritic marks such as the breve, the grave accent, or the diairesis. The order of the alphabet is the same as in English.

UPPERCASE	A	B	C*	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N	O	P	Q*	R	S	T	U	V	W	X	Y	Z
LOWERCASE	a	b	c*	d	e	f	g	h	i	j	k	l	m	n	o	p	q*	r	s	t	u	v	w	x	y	z
NAME	a	ba	ca	da	e	fe	ge	he	i	ji	ki	li	mi	ni	o	po	ko	ro	so	to	u	vu	wu	xu	yu	zu

* Not used in "native" Mirad words.

Spelling a word means uttering the names in succession of the letters in the word. For example:

• Mirad → mi i ro a da
• anxwa → a ni xu wu a

The letters w and h have only limited, functional (non-semantic) values in Mirad.

The letters c (pronounced as ch in English chair) and q (pronounced variably, depending on the context) are used only to represent foreign words and names. For example, Ce is used to represent Che in Che Guevara.

Phonology

The phonological system of Mirad consists of 20 consonant phonemes and 5 vowels phonemes.

Consonant Phonemes

The following IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) chart shows the articulation of the consonant sounds:

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n̪
Plosive	voiced	b	d̪		ɡ
	unvoiced	p	t̪		k
Affricate	voiced
	unvoiced			(t͡ʃ)*
Fricative	voiced	v	z	ʒ
	unvoiced	f	s	ʃ		h
Approximate			l̪	j	w
Flap			ɽ

Consonant Graphemes

The consonant graphemes (letters) in Mirad used to represent the above consonant phonemes are as follows:

GRAPHEME	b	c	d	f	g	h	j	k	l	m	n	p	r	s	t	v	w	x	y	z
PHONEME	b	(t͡ʃ)*	d	f	g	h	ʒ	k	l	m	n	p	ɽ	s	t	v	w	ʃ	j	z

• Note that the grapheme c is used only in foreign words, but represents the unvoiced affricate sound t͡ʃ.

Vowel Phonemes

This IPA chart shows the articulation of Mirad vowel phonemes:

	Front	Central	Back
High	i		u
Mid	e		o
Low		a

Vowel Graphemes

The vowel graphemes (letters) in Mirad used to represent the above vowel phonemes (sounds) are as follows:

GRAPHEME	a	e	i	o	u
PHONEME	a	e	i	o	u

Pronunciation

The letters in Mirad are consonant phonemes or vowel phonemes and have only one basic pronunciation, although the letter y represents a special case. The y acts as a consonant when beginning a syllabic nucleus, and is pronounced as in English yes, but can also be used to form what are known as post-iotated vowel diphthongs (see Vowel Diphthongs, below).

Vowels

• Simple Vowels

The vowels are pronounced as they are in many European Latin-based languages. The table below gives their phonetic values and some examples.

VOWEL	IPA*	SPANISH	FRENCH	ENGLISH
a	a	mano	la	ah!
e	e	hecho	été	day (without the y-glide)
i	i	si	oui	see (without the y-glide)
o	o	no	eau	so (without the w-glide)
u	u	tu	vous	too (without the w-glide)

* IPA = International Phonetic Alphabet

• Post-iotated Vowel Diphthongs

Vowels in Mirad can be post-iotated with the consonant y to produce five vowel diphthongs. These diphthongs are pronounced as such only at the end of a word or before a syllable beginning with a consonant. For example, igAY and EYna contain post-iotated vowel diphthongs, but maraya (ma-RA-ya) does not.

POST-IOTATED VOWELS	ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION	SPANISH/FRENCH PRONUNCIATION
ay	my	hay ( Sp. there is)
ey	day (with y-glide)	rey ( Sp. king)
iy	see (with y-glide)	abeille (Fr. bee)
oy	boy	Spanish hoy (Sp. today)
uy	gooey	Spanish muy (Sp. very)

Syllables starting with a y (ya, ye, etc.) form a set of what are known as pre-iotated vowels. Vowels, pre-iotated vowels, post-iotated vowels, and circum-iotated vowels (that is, those beginning and ending with a vowel like yay, yoy, etc.) are sometimes considered a class of vowels in the grammar of Mirad.

Consonants

The consonants in Mirad are pronounced not altogether differently from their English counterparts, except for x, which is sounds like English sh in ship and j which resembles the zh sound in Zhivago or mirage. However, the so-called stops p, t, and k sound more closely like their European equivalents in that they are not aspirated, i.e. their is no puff of breath following them as in English.

The consonants q and c are not native to Mirad and are used only to represent foreign names and expressions. In that case, c is used for the English ch sound in China. For example, Cinader, meaning to speak Chinese, is pronounced as in English chee-nah-DEHR.

The consonant w was not used before Version 2 of Mirad. It is now used to form the passive voice of verbs and certain numerical expressions and is pronounced as English w or the ou in French oui. The letter h is also used in certain function words and is pronounced like English h in house. It is also sometimes used to simulate sounds like the ch in Yiddish lachayim (to life!), or German Bach.

Here is a table showing the pronunciation of Mirad consonants:

CONSONANT	IPA	ARTICULATION	CLOSET EQUIVALENTS
b	b	unaspirated voiced bilabial plosive	French bon, English boy
c	tʃ *	unvoiced palato-alveolar affricate	English child, Spanish chico (only used in foreign words)
d	d	unaspirated voiced alveolar plosive	French de, English dog
f	f	unvoiced bilabial fricative	English fog
g	g	unaspirated voiced velar plosive	French gare, English good (always hard, even before e and i)
h	h	glottal fricative	English house (or a glottal stop or other similar sounds like German Bach
j	ʒ *	voiced palatal fricative	French je or English mirage
k	k	unaspirated unvoiced velar fricative	French carte, English kite (without aspiration) or French comment
l	l	voiced post-alveolar lateral approximant	English love or French bel (never a dark l as in English bell.
m	m	voiced bilabial nasal	English mother
n	n	voiced alveolar nasal	English nobody
p	p	unvoiced bilabial plosive	French pain, English pan (without aspiration)
q	-	-	(Only used in foreign words, where it has various gutteral pronunciations)
r	r	alveolar flap	Spanish mira or Italian Roma
s	s	unvoiced alveolar fricative	Always hard as in English safe (never a z sound as in rose)
t	t	unaspirated unvoiced alveolar plosive	French tous, English top (without aspiration)
v	v	voiced bilabial fricative	English very
w	w	voiced labio-velar approximant	English water, French oui
x	ʃ *	unvoiced post-alveolar fricative	English shape or French cher
y	j	voiced palatal approximant	English yard (except when post-iotating a vowel to create a vowel diphthong like oy)
z	z	voiced alveolar fricative	English zone

Note: If you see a blank here instead of an IPA symbol, it probably means that the font you are using to display characters in your browser does not support these characters.

Syllabification

Every syllable in Mirad contains one and only one vowel. A y when final or followed by a consonant is used to post-iotate or diphthongize the previous vowel and is therefore considered part of the syllable in which that vowel is the nucleus (see case 2, below). Similarly, the glides r, l, and w, when final or followed by a consonant are considered to be a part of the syllable where the preceding vowel is the nucleus (see case 4, below). Two vowels in a row form two syllabic nuclei (see cases 3, 6, and 7, below). Two non-glide or non-y consonants, are split between them (see case 8). How syllables are divided is important for determining where the stress accent goes in a word (see Stress, below).

CASE	EXAMPLE	SYLLABIFIED
1	ama hot	a-ma
2	ayma warm	ay-ma
3	aymsea warming up	aym-se-a
4	pyerxwa exploded	pyer-xwa
5	upayo will have come	u-pa-yo
6	vyaa true	vya-a
7	vyaay truly	vya-ay
8	vyay (not a word)	vyay
9	tambwa settled	tam-bwa

Phonotactics

Syllables in Mirad are shaped according to the following Consonant-Vowel patterns:

PATTERN	EXAMPLES
V[y]	o, ay
C[lrwy]V	va, xwa, gyo, gla, gre
V[y]C	iyt, ad, ant, aynt
C[lrwy]V[y]C	dud, glas, glays, dren, toyb, xwer
V[lrn]C	alx, arx, yalp, yarp, yank

Two non-glide consonants cannot appear together in the same syllable, except in foreign-imported words.

Stress

Stress in Mirad is not marked and is not phonemic, i.e. not semantically distinctive. However, in all words of more than one syllable, the stress is applied to the last, non-final vowel. In this case, y is treated like a consonant, and so a word ending in ay is stressed on that syllable (since the a is non-final). The following chart gives some examples:

Mirad Word	With Stress and Syllabification Marked
teja vital	te-ja
igay quickly	i-gay
Mirad Mirad	Mi-rad
booka sick	bo-o-ka
bookan sickness	bo-o-kan
tejea alive	te-je-a

Orthography

Orthography has to do with the way words are spelled.

Capitalization

Words in Mirad are capitalized as in English. That is:

• The first word of a sentence is capitalized.
• Proper nouns, including names of places and persons, inhabitants of those places, and the languages spoken there, are capitalized. (This contasts with usage in most European languages.)
• All the letters of an acronym are upper case.

The following chart illustrates this:

Mirad	English
Amerikam	America
Amerikama	American
Amerikat	an American
Amerikad	American English
Ivan	Ivan
Dropek ay Poos	War and Peace
At Mirade.	I speak Mirad.
Hyat be ha mir Mirado glojo.	Everyone in the world will speak Mirad soon.
Yat tameya Boston.	We were living in Boston.
His se Fransa vafil.	This is a French wine.
Ha Anxwa Doobi gey dyunwe ha AD.	The United Nations is also called the UN.

Punctuation

Punctuation and the rules governing it are the same as in English. The most common punctuation marks are:

PUNCTUATION MARK	NAME
.	period
,	comma
;	semi-colon
:	colon
'	single quote
"	double quote
(	left parens
)	right parens
--	dash
!	exclamation point
?	question mark
*	asterisk

Nouns

Types of Nouns

Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in these various ways:

• common vs. proper

COMMON	PROPER
tam...house	Meer...Venus
yagsim...bench	Fransam...France
dyes...book	Notre Dame...Notre Dame
tej...life	Tot...God

• concrete vs. abstract

CONCRETE	ABSTRACT
tab...body	ifon...love
mil...water	oyman...coolness
deuz...song	deuzen...singing

• countable vs. mass

COUNTABLE	MASS
pat...bird	pattel...bird food
patayeb...feather	patayebyan...plumage
meg...rock	mil...water

• gender-neutral / male-oriented vs. female-oriented

GENDER-NEUTRAL / MALE-ORIENTED	FEMALE-ORIENTED
tob...human being, man	toyb...woman
taf...suit, outfit	tayf...dress
apet...horse	apeyt...mare

• singular or plural

SINGULAR	PLURAL
dom...city	domi...cities
gon...part	goni...parts
jub...day	jubi...days

• inanimate (things) or animate (humans and animals)

INANIMATE	ANIMATE
mam...sky	pot...animal
tom...building	aut...person
job...time	tobot...child

Nouns also include gerunds, i.e. abstract nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like deuzen singing < deuzer to sing or osexen destruction < osexer to destroy.

In Mirad, all common nouns in their singular dictionary lookup form end in a CONSONANT. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as Roma Rome. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel i (pat bird ⇒ pati birds).

The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar.

Pluralization of Common Nouns

A singular common noun is made plural by suffixing the plural marker vowel i. So, the plural of par car is pari cars.

SINGULAR	PLURAL
tam...house	tami...houses
toyb...woman	toybi...women
tej...life	teji...lives

Articles

In Mirad, there is only a definite article, ha the; There is no indefinite article like English a / an. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article ha (which in reality is a definite deictic determiner, discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on Deictic Determiners). The definite article ha is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Latin. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart:

MIRAD	ENGLISH	SPECIFICITY
tam	a house	indefinite, no article
ha tam	the house	definite
ha tami	the houses	definite, plural
tej	life	general, no article
fitejawa tej	a life well-lived	indefinite, no article
ha tej (...at bayse)	the life (...I have)	specific
Fransad	French	general, no article
Ivan	Ivan	person's name, no article
Iflu yivan!	Cherish freedom	abstraction, no article
Ha yivani hu yat ifie.	The freedoms we enjoy.	abstraction specified
Yata yivani...	Our freedoms...	abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article

Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like love, life, freedom do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases the love that dare not speak its name or the life well-lived or the freedoms we possess. The names of languages and countries are also considered general, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew."

Proper Nouns

Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages will be discussed in a later section. It can be said here, though, that country names for the most part end in -am; the inhabitants of those places end in -at or pl. -ati; and the languages they speak end in -ad. Country names take a definite article only in a few cases like Ha Anxwa Doebi the United States. Otherwise, a country name like Fransam does not take a definite article, just as in English.

Modifiers: Placement and Agreement

Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as ewa two naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number.

Mirad	English
ha ewa aga tami	the two big houses
gla ifa taxi	many pleasant memories
hya fia tob	every good man
ha yaga via mepi	the long, beautiful roads
gra vua sexen	too much ugly construction
ata aja teji	My past lives

Noun Linkage

Nouns can be

1. linked with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or
2. juxtaposed, where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or
3. compounded, where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or
4. hyphenated, where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen.

Examples:

LINKAGE EXAMPLE	CONSTRUCTION
Ivan ay Maria....Ivan and Maria	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction ay (and)
ha tam ey ha par....the house or the car	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction ey (or)
hyati oy ha toybi....all but the women	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction or (but)
dunnyan boy eta dyun....a list without your name	nouns linked associatively by the preposition boy (without)
tej bi nasuk....a life of poverty	nouns linked associatively by the preposition bi of
ha tam bi Maria ....Mary's house (the house of Mary	nouns linked possessively by the preposition bi (of)
job bi aga ivan....a time of great joy	nouns linked associatively by the preposition bi (of)
dyen ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek....a book about the Second World War	nouns linked associatively by the preposition ayv (about)
dropek jaxeni....war preparations	modifier noun dropek (war) juxtaposed with the head noun jaxeni (preparations)
dom yautpar....a city bus	modifier noun dom (city) juxtaposed with the head noun yautpar (bus)
tojvaf....a death wish	modifier noun toj (death) compounded with the head noun vaf (wish)
jogatanyaf....youth league	modifier noun jogat (youth) compounded with the head noun anyaf (league)
maj-moj...a day-and-night	two or more equal nouns hyphenated

The X bi Y prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a named person. The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as his car is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition bi of is used in partitive expressions like tilzyeb bi vafil a glass of wine (but: vafil tilzeb wine glass, where wine modifies the glass associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on Prepositions or Conjunctions.

Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on Word Formation.

Noun Derivational Suffixes

Nouns can be divided into:

• simple nouns such as par vehicle
• compound nouns such as naadpar train < naad rail + par vehicle
• derived nouns such as fabyan forest < fab tree + -yan, a suffix meaning collection

Derived nouns are formed by attaching nominal suffixes (and sometimes prefixes)to other words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building.

SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE ONTO WHICH SUFFIX IS ADDED	EXAMPLES
-yan	collection, grouping, -ary	noun	tob man → tobyan mankind mar star → maryan constellation fab tree → fabyan forest dyen book → dyenyan library
-ut, -uyt (f.)	agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant	verb stem	beker treat → bekuyt nurse poper travel → poput traveler aker win → akut winner
-en	present gerund, -ing, -tion, -ment	verb stem	ifier enjoy → ifien enjoyment deuzer sing → deuzen singing axer act → axen action, acting
-ob, -oyb (f.)	offspring, baby of	noun	tob human being → toboyb baby girl apet horse → apetob foal yopet goat → yopetob kid
-an	abstact quality, -ness, -hood, -ity	adjective stem	via beautiful → via beauty yeva fair → yevan fairness, equity toba human → toban humanity, humanness, manhood
-(s)(u)n	object, thing	various stems	vyua dirty → vyun spot tamber settle → tambun settlement gorfer shred → gorfun scrap, shred yod not a single → yodsun not a single thing
-(s)on	abstract thing, issue	various stems	ifer to love → ifon love ov against → ovon obstacle aza strong → azon force 'yika' difficult → yikson problem
-in	doctrine, dogma, -ism	various stems	tot god → totin religion, theism otofa nude → otofin nudism yulf terror → yulfin terrorism
-tun	science of, -ology	noun	tot god → tottun theology tob man → tobtun anthropology vob plant → vobtun botany
-es	small item, part	noun	tom building → tomes apartment saun kind → saunes sample dreuz poem → deuzes stanza mek dust, powder → mekes speck, gain
-et	sub-level version of (persons only)	noun	tad father → tadet son tuyd aunt → tuydet niece tyud tutor → tyudet pupil
-s	thing, something, object, the X one	adjective	aa first → aas first one, first thing otwa unknown → otwas mystery tejea living → tejeas living thing
-t	person	adjective	ea second → eat second one, second person faa holy → faat holy one, saint ujna last → ujat last one, last person Amerika American → Amerikat an American
-d	language, speech, sound	adjective and other stems	Angla English → Anglad English (language) Mira of the world → Mirad Mirad (world speech) apet horse → aped neigh, whinny
-(e)m	place	various stems	hoa? what? → hom? where? yex work → yexem worksite ab on, above → abem top, surface kua lateral → kum side
-(a)m	place, house, building	various stems	nun merchanise → nunam store til drink → tilam bar, tavern fyadiler to pray → fyadilam church
-im	room, chamber	various stems	fadiler to pray → fadilim chapel mageler to cook → magelim kitchen tofer to dress → tofim dressing room
-[aou]r	instrument, device, machine	usu. verb stem	per to go → par car drer to write → drar pencil gorber to cut → gorbar knife yalber to lift → yalbur elevator, lift dop military → dopur machine gun
-ag	big	noun	tam house → tamag mansion tyal meal → tyalag banquet tilar spoon → tilarag ladle
-ayg	big and cute	noun	tam house → tamayg cozy mansion epet dog → epetayg wolfie
-yag	big and ugly	noun	tud uncle → tudyag dirty old uncle toyb woman → toybyag hag
-og	little	noun	tab body → tabog corpuscle apet horse → apetog pony tyal meal → tyalog snack gorbun cut → gorbunog cutlet
-oyg	little and cute	noun	tam house → tamoyg cottage apayt chicken → apaytoyg chickadee mimpar boat → mirparoyg dingy
-yog	little and ugly	noun	tam house → tamyog shack epat duck → epatyog ugly duckling kod secret → kodyog little dirty secret
-ig	sudden	noun and verb stem	man light → manig flash pyex stroke → pyexig swat yopaper dive, fly down → yopapig swoop
-if	love of, -philia	noun	tel food → telif gourmandise doab homeland → doabif patriotism dyes book → dyesif bibliophilia, love of books
-ef	need of	noun	tel food → telef hunger iga fast → igef emergency til drink → tilef thirst
-uf	hate of, -phobia	noun	mil water → miluf hydrophobia totin religion → totinuf hatred of religion toyb woman → toybuf misogyny
-yuf	fear of, -phobia	noun	lopyet snake → lopyetyuf fear of snakes mil water → milyuf hyrophobia
-yaf	ability to, power, -ability	verb stem	teater to see → teatyaf ability to see texer to think → texyaf cognition tester to understand → testyaf comprehension noser to spend → nosyaf spending power
-yof	inability to, disability	verb stem	teater to see → teatyof blindness teeter to hear → teetyof deafness paser to move → pasyof paralysis tujer to sleep → tujyof insomnia
-yef	compulsion to, mania	verb stem	vyoder to lie → vyodyef compulsion to lie kobier to steal → kobiyef kleptomania, compulsion to steal

Adjectives

Adjectives can be of the following types:

• descriptive

• qualitative, like iva (happy), fia (good), oga (small)
• denominal (noun-derived), like doma (urban) < dom (city) or teaba (ocular) < teab (eye)
• deverbal (verb-derived), (participles) like tejea (living) < tejer (to live) or twa (known) < ter (to know)
• preposition-derived, like aba (upper) < ab on top of or zoa (posterior) < zo (behind)

• determinative

• deictic, like hia (this), huyena (such), haewa (both)
• numeric, like awa (one), ea (second), iona (triple)
• quantitative, like ga (more), glo (few), gra (to much)
• pronominal, like heta (whose), ata (my), hyeta (anyone's)

Only descriptive adjectives are discussed here in the section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under Determiners. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as participals, are treated in the section on Verbs, since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal adjectives (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on Determiners and the section on Pronouns.

All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel a.

• fi- root qualitative morpheme ⇒ fia good
• par noun vehicle ⇒ para vehicular
• dalw- passive stem of the verb speak ⇒ dalwa spoken
• ab preposition on ⇒ aba superior

Descriptive adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify:

• aga tam....a big house
• ha fia toyb....the good woman
• ata boka ted....my sick father
• fia telsyeb bi vafil.....a good bottle of wine
• Yata dooba doof....our national flag
• Ata tejea tyedi.....my living relatives

doba xeut state agent can also be expressed as the noun compound dobxeut. Dob means a state.

pata bok avian illness can be compounded as patbok, literally bird illness.

Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building.

Comparison of Adjectives by Degree

As in English, descriptive adjectives can be modified by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree (ga, ge, etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on Quantitative Determiners.

QUANTITATIVE DETERMINER	COMPARISON
ga more	ga fia better
ge as, equally	ge fia as good
go less	go fia less good
gla very	gla fia very good
glay so	glay fia so good
gle rather/quite	gle fia rather/quite good
glo not very	glo fia not very/slightly good
gra too	gra fia too good
gre enough	gre fia good enough
gro not enough	gro fia insufficiently good/not good enough
gwa most	gwa fia best
gwe average	gwe fia good on average
gwo least	gwo fia least good

The relative conjunction ev is used to translate English as in an equalitative comparison, or than in a non-equalitative comparison, or of / in in a superlative expression. Examples:

• Ata tam se ga aga ev etas. My house is bigger than yours.
• Hia tam voy se ge aga ev atas. This house is not as big as mine.
• His se ad gwa aga tam bi yata yubem. This is the biggest house in our neighborhood.

Unlike in English, where comparative forms can be irregular (smaller, more intense, better), there are no exceptions in the comparison of Mirad adjectives and adverbs.

Abstract Quality Nouns Derived from Adjectives

Nouns referring to abstract qualities can be derived from qualitative and often other adjectives by suffixing the letter n. For example:

ADJECTIVE	ABSTRACT QUALITY
fia good	fian goodness
yeva just	yevan justice
uja final	ujan finality
joga young	jogan youth
teyda maternal	teydan motherhood, maternity
dooba nation	dooban nationality
tojbuwa lethal	tojbuwan lethality

Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives

Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing the vowel o. This has the effect of English un- in words like unlike, unhappy, and undetermined or the Greek private prefix a(n)- in words like asymmetric or anomalous.

Prefixing the syllable yo has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective.

Here are some examples:

NORMAL	NEGATED
ega normal	oega abnormal
twa known	otwa unknown
geyla similar	ogeyla dissimilar
iva happy	oiva unhappy
data friendly	odata unfriendly yodata inimical, enemy-like

Adjectival Suffixes

All qualitative adjectives end in at least the suffix a.

The suffix yena makes a noun into an adjective having the meaning like, -ish, -ly, having the qualities of, eg.:

• fyaat god → fyaata divine → fyaatyena godly, godlike
• tob man → toba human → tobyena virile, manly, human-like
• pot animal → pota animal → potyena bestial, animal-like
• mir world → mira global → miryena wordly

The suffix aya or ika means full of like the English endings -ful, -ous, -y, eg.:

• mil water → milaya or milika watery
• meb mountain → mebaya or mebika mountainous
• mel soil → melaya or melika soily, dirty
• tex thought → texaya or texika thoughtful

The opposite of this suffix is oya or uka meaning empty of, -less, -free, eg.:

• mil water → miloya or miluka waterless
• teb head → teboya or tebuka headless
• level sugar → leveloya or leveluka sugar-free

The suffix ina adds the notion of given to thinking like or an -ism much like English -istic, eg.:

• tob human → tobin humanism → tobina humanistic
• kyeoj fate → kyeojin fatalism → keyojina fatalistic
• yautin communism → yautina communistic

The suffix tuna adds the notion of pertaining to the study of like English -ological, eg.:

• tob human → tobtun anthropology → tobtuna anthropological
• vob plant → tobtun botany → vobtuna botanical
• teyen idea → teyentun philosophy → philosophical

The suffix ea, which makes an present active participle from a verb stem, is like English -ant, -ent, -ing, eg.:

• agser to grow → agsea growing as in the growing grass
• oker to lose → okea losing as in the losing team
• kyaxer to mutate → kyaxea mutant as in a mutant gene

The suffix yea, which makes a more intensive present active participle from a verb stem, is like English -ive, meaning apt or given to doing something, eg:

• dal- talk → dalyea talkative'
• zoybux- repulse → zoybuxyea repulsive
• vad- affirm → vadyea affirmative
• tox- to forget → toxyea forgetful
• if- to love → ifyea amiable, loving

The suffix (a)wa, which makes a past passive participle from a verb stem, is like English -ed, eg.:

• ok- lose → okwa lost as in the lost child
• alk-' defeat → alkawa defeated as in the defeated enemy
• anx- unite → anxwa united as in the United States

The suffix oa, which forms a future active participle from a verb stem, means apt to, liable to, eg.:

• toj- die → tojo will die → tojoa moribund, about to die
• pu- arrive → puo will arrive → puoa about to arrive, next

The suffix ua (active) or uwa (passive), which forms a conditional (hypothetical) participle from a verb stem, means "liable to, able to, eg.:

• tojb- kill → tojbua lethal
• tel- eat → teluwa edible
• belk- cure → belkuwa curable

Pronominalization of Adjectives

Adjectives can be pronominalized (or: substantivized) by adding s for things and t for persons. These, in turn, can be pluralized by suffixing the plural marker i.

ADJECTIVE	INANIMATE PRONOUN	ANIMATE PRONOUN
fia.... good	fias.... a good thing fiasi.... good things	fiat.... a good person fiati.... good persons
aga.... big	agas.... something big agasi.... big ones	agat.... a big person agati.... big persons
joga.... young, new	jogas.... something new, novelty jogasi.... new ones	yogat.... young person, youth yogati.... youngsters
jaga.... old	jagas.... antique jagasi.... old ones	jagat.... elderly person jagati.... oldsters
awa.... one ewa....two	awas.... one (of them) ewasi.... two (of them)	awat.... one (of them) ewati.... two of them
hia.... this	hias.... this one hiasi.... these (things)	hiat.... this one hiati.... these
gla.... much, many	glas.... a lot (of stuff) glasi.... many (things)	glati.... many (people)

Examples:

• Hia tyoyaf se ogre aga. At fu ga agas. This shoe is not big enough. I'd like a bigger one.
• Yat fu daler bay ha gwa jogati. We would like to speak with the youngest ones.
• At fe teaxer ha jogas, voy ha jagas. I want to look at the new one, not the old one.
• Ha ujnati so ha aati. The last shall be the first.

Adverbs

Adverbs can be derived from adjectives by replacing the adjective ending a with ay.

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
fia good	fiay well
yeva fair	yevay fairly
uja final	ujay finally
joga new	jogay newly
teyda maternal	teyday maternally

At the end of sentences or clauses, common one-syllable-stem adverbs can be shortened by removing the ay ending:

• Iyt deuze fi. She sings well.
• At upo ig. I'll come quickly.

Inherent Adverbs

There are some words in the language that are inherently adverbs and do not take the ay ending, because they are not formed from adjectives. Here are a few examples:

• yab up
• yeb in
• yob down
• oyeb out
• vay indeed, certainly
• vey perhaps
• voy not
• yub near
• yib far
• ub toward
• ib away
• zay ahead
• zey across
• zoy back

The above words are considered adverbial because they can modify verbs. For example:

• At teaxa yab. I looked up.
• Duhev et hyej upo zoy? Will you ever come back.
• Et po yib be tej. You will go far in life.

Some of them can double as prepositions. See Prepositions.

Many of them can be prefixed to verbs to indicate motion in various directions. (Keep in mind that the b or p can be assimilated to the first letter of per (go) or ber (put). For example:

• oyeb (out) + bier (take) = oyebier (take out)  [NOT: oyebbier]
• zey (across) + per (go) = zayper (transit, cross)
• yub (near) + per (go) = yuper (approach)  [NOT: yubper]
• yib (far) + daler (talk) = yibdaler (telephone)

Word Order of Adverbs

The word order of adverbs is fairly free, as in English. But, to avoid ambiguity, the adverb should be placed immediately before or after the sentence element it modifies, eg.:

• It deuze viay. He sings beautifully.
• Et yefe xer gwa ig. You must do it as quickly as possible.
• Et hyoj ako firxa ivan. You will never gain perfect happiness.

Comparison of Adverbs by Degree

Adverbs can be compared just as adjectives with the use of quantitative determiners:

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE
fiay well	ga fiay ev better than (Lit: more good-ly than)
igay quickly	ge igay ev as quickly as (Lit: equally quick-ly as)
ugay slowly	gwa ugay as quickly as possible (Lit: most quick-ly)
yikay easily	go yikay less easily

Determiners

Determiners are words that specify or point out the context of nouns and other parts of speech. The English determiner this, for example, specifies a noun for its proximity to the current context. Determiners can be categorized in Mirad as the following types:

TYPE	ENGLISH EXAMPLES
Quantitative	more, less, very
Numerical	one, half, first
Deictic	the, this, some, every, which?, when
Pronominal	my, anybody's, one's own

Furthermore, as far part of speech, determiners can be adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. As adjectives, determiners can itemize or classify. As pronouns, they can refer to one or more persons (male or female) or things. As adverbs, they can specify time, place, degree, kind, age, frequency, and so forth.

Quantitative Determiners

Quantitative determiners act in one of several ways, they:

• specify mass, uncountable, singular nouns for relative AMOUNT, eg. much happiness, less work
• specify countable nouns for relative NUMBER, eg. one apple, two birds, many places
• specify adverbs, adjectives, and verbs for relative DEGREE, eg. how poorly, very good, eat too much.

From these, pronominalized quantitative determiners for PERSONS and THINGS can be derived.

• Inanimate singular pronouns are formed by adding s for AN AMOUNT OF A THING
• Inanimate plural pronouns are formed by adding si for A NUMBER OF THINGS

Animate plural pronouns are formed by adding ti for A NUMBER OF PERSONS.

The following table presents most of these word forms:

ADVERB / ADJECTIVE	SINGULAR INANIMATE PRONOUN	PLURAL INANIMATE PRONOUN	PLURAL ANIMATE PRONOUN
DEGREE: How...(big / quickly)? AMOUNT: How much...(money)? NUMBER: How many...(books)?	AMOUNT: How much...(+ STUFF)?	NUMBER: How many...(+ THINGS)?	NUMBER: How many...(+ PEOPLE)?
ga more	gas more (stuff)	gasi many (things)	gati many (people)
ge as, as much, as many	ges as much (stuff)	gesi as many (things)	geti as many people
go less, fewer	gos less (stuff)	gosi fewer (things)	goti fewer (people)
gla very, much, many glay so, so much, so many	glas much (stuff) glays so much stuff)	glasi many (things) glaysi so many (things)	glati many (people) glayti so many (people)
gle rather, quite a lot, quite a few	gles quite a lot (of stuff)	glesi quite a lot (of things)	qleti quite a few (people)
glo slightly, a little, few	glos a little bit	glosi a few (things)	gloti few (people)
gra too, too much, too many	gras too much (stuff)	grasi too many (things)	grati too many (people)
gre enough	gres enough (stuff)	gresi enough (things)	greti enough (people)
gro insufficiently, too little, too few	gros too little	grosi too few	groti too few (people)
gwa most	gwas the most (stuff)	gwasi the most (things)	gwati most people
gwe so, so much, so many	gwes so much (stuff)	gwesi so many (things)	gweti so many (people)
gwo least	gwos the least (stuff)	gwosi the least (number of)	gwoti the least number (of people)

Examples Using Quantitative Determiners

Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective:

• At se gla iva.....I am very happy.
• Et sa gro uga.....You were too slow.

Adverbs of Degree modifying another adverb:

• Tobi dale ge igay ev toybi.....Men talk as fast as women.
• Yat yexe ga igay ev yet.....We work faster (= more fast) than you.

Adjectives quantifying a singular mass noun:

• Ga nas efwo.....More money will be needed.
• Gra nas noswa....Too much money was spent.

Adjectives quantifying a plural countable noun:

• At ayse gro sari....I've got too few tools.
• It yeyfe at gle nas.....He owes me quite a bit of money.
• Gla tami osexwa.....Many houses were destroyed.

Pronouns referring to a mass amount of something:

• Gas ilokeye.....More is leaking.
• Et dileye gras.....You are asking for too much.
• Yat keo gwas.....We will seek as much as possible.

Pronouns referring to a countable number of things:

• Hisi se fia oy yat fe gasi.....These (items) are good but we want more (items).
• At teate drilari oy grosi.....I see pens, but not enough.

Pronouns referrring to a countable number of people:

• Grati xaye vyoci be hi yexem.....Too many (people) have made mistakes at this worksite.
• Glati dyunwe oy gloti kebiwe.....Many are called but few are chosen.text

Numerical Determiners

Numerical determiners are number words that modify nouns, such as one, fifty, a hundred. They are based on the cardinal numbers, which are explained here:

Cardinal Numbers

The cardinal numbers are words used in counting. These words are based on the vowels of Mirad and are crucial to any hierarchical ordering of lexical concepts.

• The units are formed from the plain and pre-iotated vowels:

0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
o	a	e	i	u	yo	ya	ye	yi	yu
zero	one	two	three	four	five	six	seven	eight	nine

The numerals 5-9 are pre-iotated versions of the vowels that constitute 0-4.

• The formative letter l + o zero is used to form the decades, seen below:

10	20	30	40	50	60	70	80	90
alo	elo	ilo	ulo	yolo	yalo	yelo	yilo	yulo
ten	twenty	thirty	forty	fifty	sixty	seventy	eighty	ninety

By changing the o zero in lo to other cardinal unit numbers, the numbers between the decades can be generated as follows:

alo	elo	ilo	ulo	yolo	yalo	yelo	yilo	yulo
ala 11	ela 21	ila 31	ula 41	yola 51	yala 61	yela 71	yila 81	yula 91
ale 12	ele 22	ile 32	ule 42	yole 52	yale 62	yele 72	yile 82	yule 92
...	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	...
alyu 19	elyu 29	ilyu 39	ulyu 49	yolyu 59	yalyu 69	yelyu 79	yilyu 89	yulyu 99

• By changing the decades marker l to s, you get the hundreds:

100	200	300	400	500	600	700	800	900
aso	eso	iso	uso	yoso	yaso	yeso	yiso	yuso

All the numbers in between the hundreds, can be generated by modifying the so ending, for example:

• asa 101
• asale 112
• usyulyu 199

• The thousands are generated with the formative letter r:

• aro 1,000
• aro a 1,001
• ero isi 2,300
• yoro yasula 5,641

• The millions are generated with the formative letters ml:

• emlo 2,000,000
• umlo 4,000,000

• The billions are generated with the formative letters mr;

• yamro 6 billion

The numbers composed with r, ml, and mr keep the o and are separated from the other numbers by a space.

iro asyulyo 3,195

yamlo asyulyo 6,000,195

alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele 10,075,186,922

Cardinal Numerical Determiners

Cardinal numerical determiners are numbers that modify a noun as to quantity. In a sequence of adjectives, the numerical determiner goes first. Cardinal numerical determiners are the same in form as cardinal numbers, but a special counter morpheme wa is added to monosyllabic numbers simply to aid in the comprehension and disambiguation of the words. If the numerical determiner is 2 or more, then the noun is pluralized.

Mirad	English
owa tam ← singular!	no houses, zero houses
awa tam ← singular!	one house, a house
ewa tami ← plural	two houses
iwa tami	three houses
uwa tami	four houses
yowa tami	five houses
yawa tami	six houses
yewa tami	seven houses
yiwa tami	eight houses
yuwa tami	nine houses
alo tami	ten houses
ase tami	a hundred two houses
ero iwa tami	two thousand three houses
iro alo tami	three thousand ten houses

Cardinal numerical determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing s or t, respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing i. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a y before the t. The s suffix is short for sun thing or suni things. The t ending is short for aut person or auti persons. For example:

• Et bayse awa tam. At gey bayse awas (= awa sun). You have one house. I have one too.
• At baysa alo dresari. Hij at bayse anay alosi (= alo suni). I had ten pencils. Now I only have two.
• Esa asoti (= aso auti) yeb ha duzam.There were a hundred people in the concert hall.
• Yat yefe kebier eluyti (= elu auyti) bi huti. We must choose twenty-four females from those people.

Ordinal Numerical Determiners

Ordinal numerical determiners like first, second, etc. are formed from the cardinal numbers by adding the adjectival ending a to the cardinal number.

Cardinal Number	Ordinal Numerical Determiner
o.... zero	oa.... zeroth
a.... one	aa.... first
e.... two	ea.... second
i.... three	ia.... third
alo.... ten	aloa.... tenth
asu.... 104	asua.... 104th

The word nap order can be inserted in these words to make them more comprehensible in speech:

• anapa.... first, first in order, primary*
• enapa.... second, second in order, secondary
• inapa.... third, third in order, tertiary
• alanapa.... eleventh, eleventh in order

There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers:

• ijna.... initial, first, original
• ujna.... last, final
• ajna.... past, ex-, former
• ojna.... future
• ejna.... present, current
• jana.... previous, last
• jona.... next, following

Ordinal numerical determiners and adjectives can be converted into adverbs by adding the suffix y to the adjectival counterparts:

Adjective	Adverb
aa.... first	aay.... firstly
anapa.... first	anapay.... primarily
ea.... second	eay.... secondly
ujna.... last	ujnay.... finally

Ordinal numerical determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix t and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix s. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix i. The person pronouns can also be feminized.

• ha aas.... the first thing
• ha aat.... the first person
• ha aati.... the first people
• hua aayt.... that first female
• ha eas.... the second thing
• eat.... another / a second person
• ha ujnati so ha ijnati.... the last shall be first

Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal adjective> | <ordinal numerical determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective>

• hua uwa aga tami.... those four big houses
• ha aa alo oga tami.... the first ten little houses
• ata anapa ewa oga tobobi.... my first two little children

Fractional Numerical Determiners

Fractional numerical determiners like half and quarter are formed by adding -yn for those functioning as nouns, -yna for adjectives, -ynay for adverbs, or -y(n) for prefixes, to the respective cardinal number.

CARDINAL NUMBER	FRACTION AS NOUN	AS ADJECTIVE	AS ADVERB	AS PREFIX	AS VERB
o.... zero	oyn.... a void, vacuum	oyna.... non-existant	--	oy(n)-.... devoid of	oynaxer.... annihilate
a.... one	ayn.... whole ha ayn.... the whole	ayna.... entire, whole	aynay.... entirely	ay(n)-.... holo-, whole-, all-	aynaxer.... integrate
e.... two	eyn.... a half	eyna.... half	eynay.... halfway	ey(n)-.... half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-	eynaxer.... halve
i.... three	iyn.... a third	iyna.... third	iynay.... by a third	iy(n)-.... terci-	iynaxer.... cut in third
u.... four	uyn.... a quarter	uyna.... quarter	uynay.... quarterly	uy(n)-.... quadri-	uynaxer.... quarter
alo.... ten	aloyn.... a tenth	aloyna.... tenth	aloynay.... by a tenth	aloy(n)-.... deci-	aloynaxer.... decimate
aso.... hundred	asoyn.... hundredth, percent	asoyna.... hundredth	asoynay.... by a hundredth	asoy(n)-.... centi-	asoynaxer.... cut by a hundred

Here are some examples:

• His uxo ha oynaxen bi yata mir..... This will cause the anihilation of our world.
• Ha ayna mir te ayv et..... The whole world knows about you.
• Has se gas ev ha ayn bi hasa goni..... It is more than the whole of its parts.
• Fransad se ayn-druna dalyen..... France is a holophrastic language.
• Et yafe bier eyn..... You can take half.
• Yat yefo eynaxer eta yexnix..... We will have to halve your salary.
• Hus sa eyn-vyan..... That was a half-truth.
• Eso eyn-zyunida dropek..... There is going to be a hemispheric war.
• Duhev his se eyn-exea dopar?.... Is this a semi-automatic weapon?
• Iynaxu hua ableyavol..... Cut that pie in thirds.
• It yeyfe bixwer ay iynaxwer..... He should be drawn and (be) quartered.
• Hia nas se aloyn bi has yat baysa zojab..... This money is a tenth of what we had last year.
• Ha dep aloynaxwu..... The army would be decimated.
• Ewa asoyni bi ha dityan bakasa..... Two percent (=hundredths) of the citizenry got sick.
• Hia tom se anay asoyngel aga ev hua tom..... This building is only a hundredth as big as that building.

The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples:

• Et so aynay dudyefa av eta axi..... You will be wholly accountable for your actions.
• Iyt eynay tikabeloka..... She almost (=halfway) threw up.

Multiplicative Numerical Determiners

Multiplicative numerical determiners like double, triple can be formed by adding -on to the respective cardinal number if the number is monosyllabic, otherwise just -n. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix -a. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. The prefix ending, -n is often dropped.

CARDINAL NUMBER	MULTIPLE AS NOUN	...AS ADJECTIVE	...AS ADVERB	...AS PREFIX	...AS VERB-MAKER
o.... zero	oon.... null	oona.... nil		on-.... zero-	onaxer.... cancel, zero out
a.... one	aon.... single	aona.... single	aonay.... singly	an-.... uni-/mono-	anaxer unify
e.... two	eon.... twosome, double	eona.... double	eonay.... doubly	en-.... di-/bi-	enaxer double
i.... three	ion.... threesome, triplet	iona.... triple	ionay.... triply	in-.... tri--	inaxer.... triple
u.... four	uon.... quartet	uona.... quadruple	uonay.... quadruply	un-.... quadri-/tetra-	unaxer.... quadruple
yo.... five	yoon.... quintet	yoona.... quintuple	yoonay.... quintuply	yoon-.... quinti-/penta-	yoonaxer.... quintuple
alo.... ten	alon.... decade	alona.... decadic	alonay.... by a multiple of ten	alon-.... deca-	alonaxer.... multiply by ten
aso.... hundred	ason.... hundredfold	asona.... hundredfold	asonay.... by a hundredfold	ason-.... hecato-	asonaxer.... multiply by a hundred

The multiplicative noun dozen is expressed by aleon.

• Aleoni bi pati yizpapa..... Dozens of birds flew by.

By adding the suffix -at to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people:

• aonat.... solo, single

• aonatser.... become single

• eonat.... duo, pair, twosome, couple

• eonatser.... couple up, copulate

• ionat.... trio, threesome, trinity

• Ionatin.... Trinitarianism

• uonat.... quartet, foursome
• yoonat.... quintet, group of five people
• yoonati.... quintets

By adding the suffix -un instead of -on, we get the following:

• aun.... unit

• auna.... unitary, individual
• aunser.... unite
• aunyan.... series

• aunyana.... serial

• eun.... pair

• euna.... even, paired, binary
• oeuna.... odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired

• oeunat.... odd man out
• eunaxer.... even out

Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used:

• Yat vyaptyoyapa be eonati yez ha mep..... We marched in twos (= pairs) down the street.
• Asonati upo bay yat bu is ovdal..... Hundreds (of people) will come with us to this protest.
• Hia ivxel xwe enyabay..... This celebration happens biennially.
• Iyt se untubokat..... She is a quadriplegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)
• Diwe sagu ha auni..... Please count the units.
• Et gafisa aronay!.... You have improved a thousandfold!
• Tob se entyoyaba sat..... Man is a bipedal creature.

Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in -on in the numbers below ten is shortened to -n in common words:

• anzyus.... monocycle
• enzyus.... bicycle
• ingun.... triangle
• ungun.... quadrangle

Note: The prefixes for penta-/quinti- and hexa-/sext- must keep the -on so as to distinguish them from the prefixes yon apart and yan together.

• yoongona.... quintipartite  BUT: yonper.... separate, go apart
• yaongun.... hexagon  BUT: yanuper.... meet, come together

Frequentative Determiners

There are two ways to form determiners of frequency:

• Using jod(i) meaning occasion(s), instance(s), time(s), or
• Using xag meaning frequency

Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners:

"JOD" METHOD	"XAG" METHOD	MEANING
hogla jodi?	hoxag?	how often?, how many times?
hagla jodi	haxag	as many times, as often
hegla jodi	hexag	sometimes, on some occasions
higla jodi	hixag	this often, this many times
hugla jodi	huxag	that often, that many times, so many times
huygla jodi	huyxag	so often, so many times
hyogla jodi	hyoxag	never, on no occasion
hyagla jodi	hyaxag	always, at all times
hyegla jodi	hyexag	any number of times, however often
hyigla jodi	hyixag	as often, the same number of times
hyugla jodi	hyuxag	not as often, some other number of times
ga jodi	gaxag	more often
ge jodi	gexag	as many times
go jodi	goxag	less often
gla jodi	glaxag	many times, often
gle jodi	glexag	quite a few times, quite often
glo jodi	gloxag	not so many times, seldom
gra jodi	graxag	too often
gre jodi	grexag	often enough
gro jodi	groxag	too seldom
gwa jodi	gwaxag	as often as possible, most often, most times
gwe jodi	gwexag	an average number of times
gwo jodi	gwoxag	least often, as seldom as possible
owa jod	--	never, at no time, zero times
awa jod	--	once, one time
ewa jodi	--	twice, two times
iwa jodi	--	thrice, three times
alo jodi	--	ten times
ge jodi ev et fu	gexag ev et fu	as often as you would like

Arithmetical Expressions

The following chart shows verbs from which are formed derivative words relating to mathematical operations:

VERB	OPERATION	PATIENT	SUBJECT	OPERATOR	SIGN	RESULT
gaber.... add	gab.... addition	gabwas.... addend	gabeas.... adder	gab.... plus, +	gabsin.... plus sign	gabix.... sum
galer.... multiply	gal.... multiplication	galwas.... multiplicand	galeas.... multiplier	gal.... times, x	galsin.... times sign	galix.... product
garer.... exponentiate, raise	gar.... power	galwas.... number being raised	gareas.... exponent	gar.... raised to the power of	galsin.... exponent	galix.... raising result
gober.... subtract	gob.... subtraction	gobwas.... subtrahend	gobeas.... subtractor	gob.... minus, -	gobsin.... minus sign	gobix.... difference
goler.... divide	gol.... division, fraction	golwas.... dividend	goleas.... divisor	gol.... divided by, ÷	golsin.... division sign	golix.... quotient
gorer.... cut, uproot	gor.... cut, root	gorwas.... radicand	goreas.... radical	gor.... lower to the power of, √	gorsin.... radical	gorix.... root lowering result
geler.... equal	gel.... equation	gelwas.... thing being equated	geleas.... equator	gel.... equal to, as, like	gelsin.... equal sign	gelix.... equation results

Examples of mathematical expressions:

• E gab e gele u..... Two plus two equals four.
• E gal i gele ya..... Two times three equals six.
• I gar e gele yu..... Three to the second power equals nine.
• E gob e gele o..... Two minus two equals zero.
• Yu gol i gele i..... Nine divided by three equals three.
• Yu gor i gele i..... Nine cubed equals three.
• Aso gor e gele alo..... One hundred squared equals ten.

Calendar Expressions

The word for calendar is judar. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used:

Basic Calendar Units

Time is divided using the following basic terms:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
job	time
jab	year
jeb	season
jib	month
jub	day
jwob	hour
jwab	minute
jweb	second

Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical morphemes to some of the time units above:

MIRAD	ENGLISH	NUMERICAL FORMULA
arojab	millenium	year x 1,000
asojab	century	year x 100
alojab	decade	year x 10
eynjab	half year	year x 1/2
uynjab	quarter	year x 1/4
yejub	week	day x 7
eynjwob	half hour	hour x 1/2

This, next, last, etc. are expressed as follows:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
hijub hia yejub hijab	today this week this year
zojub ha jana yejub zajab	yesterday last week last year
zajub ha jona yejub zajab	tomorrow next week next year
hujub hua yejub hujab	that day that week that year
jazojub ja ewa yejubi jazojab	the day before yesterday two weeks ago the year before last
jozajub jo ewa yejubi jozajab	the day after tomorrow two weeks from now the year after next

Seasons of the Year

Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for season jeb:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jeab	spring
jeeb	summer
jeib	autumn, Fall
jeub	winter

Examples of usage:

• be jeab.... in spring
• ja jeeb.... before summer
• ju jeib.... until autumn
• ji jeub.... since winter
• je ha jeb.... during the season
• ub ha uj bi jeeb.... toward the end of summer
• eb jeab ay jeeb.... between spring and summer
• jeeba gemoj.... vernal equinox
• jeiba fayebi.... autumn leaves
• jeba til.... seasonal drink
• jeubyena jebmalyen.... wintry climate
• jeabyena malyen.... spring-like weather
• jeuben.... hibernation

Months of the Year

Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month jib:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jiab	January
jieb	February
jiib	March
jiub	April
jiyob	May
jiyab	June
jiyeb	July
jiyib	August
jiyub	September
jilob	October
jilab	November
jileb	December

Some expressions using the months:

• be jilob.... in October
• ja jiyab.... before June
• ja zajiyeb.... by next July
• hijib.... this month
• zojib.... last month
• zajib.... next month
• bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis... month-to-month rent
• jibay... monthly
• jibi joy... months later
• jiba sindryen.... monthly magazine
• hujiba jobnis.... that month's rent
• hya ionjib.... every trimester
• jiber.... menstruate

Days of the Week

Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day jub:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
juab	Monday
jueb	Tuesday
juib	Wednesday
juub	Thursday
juyob	Friday
juyab	Saturday
juyeb	Sunday

Here are some common terms relating to days of the week:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
hojub?	which day
hajub hu...	the day that...
hejub	someday
hijub	today
hujub	that day
hyijub	(on) the same day
hyajub	every day
hyejub	any day
hajub hu...	the day that...
zajub	yesterday
zojub	tomorrow
ha jajub be ha jana jub	the day before, (on) the previous day
ha jojub be ha jona jub	the day before, (on) the previous day
jazojub	the day before yesterday
jozajub	the day after tomorrow
hya ea jub	every other/second day
hyajub boy juyeb	every day except Sunday

Examples of Usage:

• be juyob....on Friday
• ju juib....until Wednesday
• ji zojub.... since yesterday
• lojo jubuj.... by [Lit: not after] day's end
• jo zajub.... after tomorrow
• je ha jub.... during the day
• bi juab bu juub... from Monday to Friday

Parts of the Day

Here are the principal parts of a day:

DAYTIME	NIGHTTIME
maj....daytime, day	moj....nighttime, night
bi maj....A.M.	bi moj....P.M.
jaijmaj....pre-dawn	jaijmoj....pre-dusk
ijmaj....daybreak, dawn	ijmoj....dusk
amaryap....sunrise, sunup	amaryop....sunset, sundown
imaj....morning zaimaj....tomorrow morning hiimaj....this morning zoimaj.... yesterday morning huimaj....that morning hyaimaj....every morning	imoj....evening zaimoj....tomorrow evening hiimoj....this evening zoimoj.... yesterday evening huimoj....that evening hyaimoj....every evening
jwaimaj....early morning	jwaimoj....early evening
jwoimaj....late morning	jwoimoj....late evening
eymaj....noon	eymoj....midnight
joeymaj....afternoon	joeymoj....after midnight
ujmaj....dusk, day's end	gwomoj...late night

• Examples of Usage:

• At tijia ja ijmaj.....I woke up before dawn.
• At iyfe tuyjer be ha jwoa joeymaj.....I like to nap in the late afternoon.
• It yexe bi amaryap bu amaryop.....He works from sunup to sundown.
• Be gwa umaji, at teaxe teasibar.....Most evenings, I watch television.

Expressing Dates

The following is a how a date is normally expressed:

• be juab, 11 jieb 2018 JaK.....on Monday, February 11th, 1918 A.D.

The day in the above expression is pronounced ali.

The year is pronounced elo alyi (like English twenty eighteen).

The acronym for A.D. is JaK, short for Ja Krist (before Christ).

The acronym for B.C. is JoK, short for Jo Krist (after Christ).

Other date expressions follow:

• be ha 1800 jabi (alyi aso jabi)....In the 1800's (eighteen hundreds)
• ja ha 20a (eloa) asojab....before the 20th (twentieth) century
• eb 1920 (yulo elo) ay 2001 (elo awa)....between 1920 (nineteen twenty) and (two thousand one)
• zya hua alojab....throughout that decade
• At yexa hum je gla jabi.....I worked there for [Lit: during] many years.
• Ujbu his lojo jiyab.....Finish this by [Lit: not after] May.
• Iyt so him ub ha uj bi 2 (ewa) jiab....She will be here toward the end of January 2nd.

Telling Time

Clock time expressions use mostly the word jwob (hour) or jwobi (hours).

The usual time-of-day question is Se hojwob? What time is it? [Lit: is what-hour?]

The typical answer is in the format Se aa/ea... jwob gab/gob alo/ali... bi maj/moj. (Lit: (It) is (the) first/second... hour plus/minus ten/eleven...of day/night.

Here are some typical answers:

• Se aa jwob..... It is one o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) first hour.] [NOTE: The article "the" is left unexpressed.]
• Se ea jwob..... It is two o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) second hour.]
• Se alea jwob..... It is twelve o'clock.  [Lit: It is (the) twelfth hour.]

• Se ia jwob bi maj*..... It is three o'clock A.M.  [Lit: It is third hour of daytime.]
• Se aloa jwob bi moj**..... It is ten o'clock P.M.  [Lit: It is tenth hour of nighttime.]

* bi maj (a.m.) can be abbreviated as bma

** bi moj (p.m.) can be abbreviated as bmo

• Se ua jwob (gab) alo..... It is four ten.....  [Lit: It is fourth hour (plus) ten.]
• Se iloa jwob gob ali..... It is thirteen minutes til three.  [Lit: It is thirteenth hour minus thirteen.]
• Se yoa jwobi gab uyn..... It is quarter after five.  [Lit: It is fifth hour plus a quarter.]
• Se yoa jwobi gob uyn..... It is quarter past five.  [Lit: It is fifth hour minus a quarter.]
• Se yaa jwobi gab eyn..... It is six thirty.  [Lit: It is sixth hour plus a half.]
• Se yaa jwobi gab ilo..... It is six thirty.  [Lit: It is sixth hour plus thirty.]
• Se yaa jwobi gob eyn..... It is thirty minutes til six.  [Lit: It is sixth hour minus thirty.]
• Se yaa jwobi gob ilo..... It is thirty minutes til six.  [Lit: It is sixth hour minus a half.]

• Se vyavay yea jwob gab alo bi moj..... It is exactly 7:10 P.M..  [Lit: It is exactly seventh hour plus ten of nighttime.]
• Et sa alo jwoa bey alo jwabi.....You were late by 10 minutes.  [Lit: You were late by ten minutes.]
• Has ijo jub 5:30 (= yaa jwob gab ilo) bmo (= bi moj).....It will begin around 5:30 (= five thirty [Lit: five hours plus thirty]) p.m.
• Puu him loga jwoa ev 3 (= ia) j. (= jwob)....Get here no later than 3 (= three) o'clock.
• Ha yautpar puo hum yeb 10 jwabi.....The bus will arrive there within 10 minutes.
• Ha jwobar izeade 2:30 (= ea jwob gab ilo).....The clock says [Lit: indicates] 2:30.
• Yit pua be 3a j. be ha nod.....They arrived at 3 on the dot.

Mirad normally uses a 12-hour system with distinction between a.m. and p.m., but military 24-hour time can also be used in particular situations, in which case the a.m./p.m. distinction is not needed.

• Yanpu at be iloa jwob gab alyo..... Meet me at 13:15. (= 1:15 p.m.)

The word jwab (hour, o'clock) can be abbreviated as j., as in the following:

• Yanpu at be 13a j..... Meet me at 13:00 (hours) [Lit: at (the) 13th h.]

The word gab (plus) can be omitted, as in:

• At teato et be yoa j. alyo..... I'll see you at five fifteen / quarter past five.

Note the following clock time idioms:

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jwa	early
jwe	on time
jwo	late
Se vyavay eloa jwob.	It is exactly two o'clock.
jub eymaj	around noon
ub eymoj	toward midnight
yeb jwebi	within seconds
alo jwabi jahij	ten minutes ago
loga jwo ev / lojo 3 j.	no later than / by 3 o'clock.
jwobay	hourly / by the hour / on the hour
Hia pop dire / yixe 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.	This trip takes (Lit: requires / uses) 2 1/2 hours.
ju awa jwob bi hij	until one hour from now
ji zojub be 10a j.	since yesterday at 10 o'clock.
je ha jana 12 jwabi	for the last 12 minutes
ja 10a j.	before / by 10 o'clock (= the tenth hour)
ja 10 jwobi.	by / in / within 10 hours.
jo 10a j.	'after 10 o'clock.
jo 10 jwobi.	after 10 hours / 10 hours later / 10 hours ago

Expressing Age

Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for age: jag.

The typical question is:

• Et se hojaga?....How old are you? (Lit. what-aged)

A typical answer is:

• At se eli jaga....I am twenty-three years old.

The following chart shows other age expressions, many of which are agglutinations of the deictic morphemes beginning with h. If a cell has two Mirad forms, the second one is a shorter alternative version:

AGE
hojaga?.... how old?
hajaga.... of the age
hejaga.... of some age
hijaga.... this old
hujaga.... that old
huyjaga.... so old
jaga....old
joga....young
gle jaga.... rather old, oldish
gla jaga.... very old
gra jaga.... too old, super-aged
gro jaga.... under-aged, minor
ge jaga.... as old, of the same age
awa jab jaga.... one year old awa jaga awa jab
ewa jabi jaga.... two years old ewa jaga ewa jabi
alo jabi jaga.... ten years old alo jaga alo jabi
ga jaga ev et.... older than you
ga joga ev at.... younger than me
ge joga ev iyt.... as young as her
ha gwa jagat bi ata tedetyan....the youngest of my siblings
grojagat....a minor
alojagat....a ten-year-old
alonijagat....a teenager
jogat....a boy, a youth joygat...a girl
grejat....an adult, someone of age jagseat....an adolescent jagsat....grownup
yilojagat...an octogenarian
asojagat....a centenarian

Some other examples of usage:

• Et jagseye fi.....You are aging well.
• At voy jogseye hyegla.....I am not getting any younger.
• His se taam av ha jagati.....This is a home for the ederly.
• Yegaku eta jogan!....Regain your youth!
• At se ga jaga ev ha mebi.....I am as old as the hills.
• Teaxu ata gwa joga tobot.....Look at my youngest child.
• Yat ife yata awajagat.....We love our one-year-old.
• Jagseatan se yika joob bi tej.....Adolescence is a difficult period of life.

Money Expressions

This section is currency-dependent and remains under construction.

Deictic Determiners

Deictic determiners are words which point out or specify other words. They include the following:

• demonstratives like this, that, those
• indefinite specifiers like any, some, all, the, etc.
• Derived animate and inanimate pronouns like this one, those things, something, everyone, etc.
• Derived adverbs of time like when, now
• Derived adverbs of place like there, here, somewhere
• Derived adverbs of manner like how, thus, somehow
• Derived adverbs of kind so, age this year old, direction that way, reason why?, and so forth.

Deictic Determiner Prefixes

There are ten deictic base morphemes used as prefixes to form many determiners, including adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs.

CATEGORY	BASE MORPHEME (PREFIX)
INTERROGATIVE	ho-...? what?
DEFINITE	ha- the
INDEFINITE	he- some, a certain
PROXIMAL	hi- this, these
DISTAL	hu- that, those, such, so
NEGATIVE	hyo- no, not any
DISTRIBUTIVE	hya- every, all, each
INDETERMINATE	hye- any, whatever
IDIODEICTIC*	hyi- the same, the very
ALLODEICTIC**	hyu- the other, another, else

* Idiodeictic is a coined Greek word meaning "same-specifying" and refers to words that point reflexively to the same entities, such as at the same time, in the same way, the same person, etc.

** Allodeictic is a coined Greek word meaning "other-specifying" and refers to words that point outwardly to other entities, such as somebody else, some other time, in other ways, etc.

Deictic Determiners as Adjectives

Here is a table showing the deictic determiner prefixes attached to elements ending in -a to form various adjectival deictic determiners:

	ADJECTIVE OF SELECTION	ADJECTIVE OF KIND	ADJECTIVE OF POSSESSION
INTERROGATIVE	hoa? which?	hoyena? what kind of?	hota? whose?
DEFINITE	ha   (short for haa) the	hayena the kind of	hata the one's
INDEFINITE	hea some, a certain	heyena some kind of, a certain kind of	heta someone's
PROXIMAL	hia this, these	hiyena this kind of, such (a), like this, like these	hita this one's
DISTAL	hua that, those	huyena that kind of, such (a), like that, like those	huta that one's
NEGATIVE	hyoa not, not a, not any	hyoyena no kind of, no such	hyota nobody's
DISTRIBUTIVE	hya    (short for hyaa) every, all, each	hyayena every kind of, all kinds of	hyata everybody's
INDETERMINATE	hyea any, whatever	hyeyena any kind of, whatever kind of	hyeta anybody's
IDIODEICTIC	hyia the same	hyiyena the same kind of	hyita the same one's
ALLODEICTIC	hyua the other	hyuyena some other kind of	hyuta someone else's

Note: The definite deictic determiner adjective ha (actually, short for haa) is used as what is more commonly referred to as the definite article the. As mentioned before, if the definite article or any other deictic morpheme is omitted before a noun, than it has the effect of the English indefinite article a / an with a singular noun or some with a plural noun.

This is called zero determination. For example:

• Yat tilia ha tilyeb bi vafil. We drank the glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia tilyeb bi vafil. We drank a glass of wine.

• Yat tilia ha tilyebi bi vafil. We drank the glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia tilyebi bi vafil. We drank (some) glasses of wine.

• Yat tilia awa tilyeb bi vafil. We drank one glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha awa tilyeb bi vafil. We drank the one glass of wine.

• Yat tilia ewa tilyebi bi vafil. We drank two glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ewa tilyebi bi vafil. We drank the two glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia hya ewa tilyebi bi vafil. We drank both glasses of wine.

• Yat tilia owa tilyeb bi vafil. We drank no/zero glasses (=not a single glass) of wine.

• Yat tilia ea tilyeb bi vafil. We drank another/a second glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ea tilyeb bi vafil. We drank the second glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ea tilyebi bi vafil. We drank second glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ea tilyebi bi vafil. We drank the second glasses of wine.

Examples of the Usage of Adjectival Determiners

• Hoa tam se etas? Which house is yours?
• Hoyena dyezuni ifxe et? What kind of movies do you like?
• Hota tef okwa? Whose hat was lost?
• Ha tob ta yata dyuni. The man knew our names.
• Hayena dini at ife, et ufe. The kind of stories I love, you hate.
• Hea mepi yegdyunwo. Certain streets will be renamed.
• Heyena fukyes uxaye parnyan. Some kind of accident has cause a traffic jam.
• Heta abtaf akwa be ha zatem. Someone's coat was found in the foyer.
• Hia dyes se ata gafias. This book is my favorite.
• Hiyena xeyen voy vayafwo. This type of behavior will not be tolerated.
• Hita tim so yovoza. This guy's room will be blue.
• Hua mas efwa yegvozilbwer. That wall needs to be repainted.
• Huyena duni yeyfwe yixwer za at. Such words should not be used in front of me.
• Huta tam magseye. That guy's house is on fire.
• Hyoa din se ga gesaya. No story is more important.
• Hyoyena tes tesiyafwe. No such meaning can be inferred.
• Hyota jatexdren sa ga fia. Nobody's plan is better.
• Hya mepi izpe Roma. All roads lead to Rome.
• Hya tob yefe xer ita gon. Every man must do his part.
• Hyayena telami ese be hia mep. All manner of restaurants exist on this street.
• Hyata tej se uka bi yabi ay yobi. Everyone's life is full of ups and downs.
• Hya ewa domi agxaye. Both cities have grown.
• Hyea voz so fia. Any color will be fine.
• Hyeyena til se beuwa. Any kind of drink is available.
• Hyeta ved se ge ifa ev atas. Anyone's guess is as good as mine.
• Hyea tim et fe et yafe bayser. Whatever room you want, you can have.
• Hyia fukyesi kyese glajodi. The same accidents occur frequently.
• Hyiena dyezuni teaxuwa zajub. The same kind of films were shown yesterday.
• Hyita dyun yixwa gajod. The same person's name was used again.
• Hyua dyezun sa ifuyea. The other movie was more entertaining.
• Hyuena mos teasu ga fia. Another kind of furniture would look better.
• Hyuta texyen se ga fyia. Someone else's opinion is equally valid.

Deictic Determiners as Pronouns

The following chart shows deictic determiners used as pronouns. Note that the suffix -s (short for sun) is used pronouns referring to things, while -t (short for tob) is used for those referring to persons. The suffix -i pluralized either of these. The distinction between a form like what? and a selective form like which? is made by using the full adjectival form (with -a-) in the selective forms. So, for example, hot? is who?, but hoat? is which one? (referring to a person).

PRONOUNS	THING	THINGS	SELECTIVE THING	SELECTIVE THINGS	SELECTIVE PERSON	SELECTIVE PERSONS	PERSON	PERSONS	PERSON POSSESSED THING	PERSON POSSESSED THINGS
INTERROGATIVE	hos? what?	hosi? what (things)?	hoas? which one?	hoasi? which ones?	hoat? who(m)?	hoati? who? (pl.)	hot? who, whom?	hoti? who (pl.)?	hotas? whose (thing)?	hotasi? whose (things)?
DEFINITE	has it, the thing	hasi they, them, the things	haas the one	haasi the ones	hat the one	haasi the ones	hat the person, he, him	hati the persons, they, them	hatas whose? (thing)	hatasi whose? (things)
INDEFINITE	hes something	hesi some (things)	heas a certain one	heasi certain ones	heat a certain one	heati certain ones	het someone	heti some (people)	hetas someone's	hetasi some people's
PROXIMAL	hit this	hiti these	hias this one	hiasi these	hiat this one	hiati those	hit this person, he, him	hiti these people, they, them	hitas this person's, his	hitasi this person's (things), theirs
DISTAL	hus that	husi those	huas that one	huasi those	huat that one	huati those people, they	hut that person, he, him	huti those people, they, them	hutas that person's, his	hutasi that person's (things), his
NEGATIVE	hyos nothing	hyosi none	hyoas not a one	hyoasi none	hyodat not a one	hyoati none	hyot nobody	hyoti no people	hyotas nobody's	hyotasi nobody's (things)
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyas everything, all	hyasi all things	hyaas each one	hyaasi all of them	hyaat each one	hyaati all of them	hyat everyone	hyati all (people)	hyatas everyone's	hyatasi everyone's (things)
INDETERMINATE	hyes anything, whatever	hyesi any	hyeas whatever one	hyeasi any of them	hyeat whichever one	hyeati whichever ones	hyet anyone	hyeti whoever	hyetas whoever's	hyetasi anybody's (things)
IDIODEICTIC	hyis the same thing	hyisi the same things	hyis the same one	hyiasi the same ones	hyiat the same one	hyiati the same one	hyit the same person	hyiti the same people	hyitas the same person's	hyitasi the same person's (things)
ALLODEICTIC	hyus something else	hyusi other things	hyuas the other one	hyuasi the other ones	hyuat the other one	hyuati the others	hyut someone else	hyuti others	hyutas someone else's	hyutasi someone else's (things)

Other pronominal deictic determiners can be derived from adjectival determiners of kind and numeric determiners:

	KIND OF THING	KIND OF THINGS	KIND OF PERSON	KIND OF PEOPLE
INTERROGATIVE	hoyenas? what kind of thing?	hoyenasi? what kind of things?	hoyenat? what kind of person?	hoyenati? what kind of people?
DEFINITE	hayenas the kind of thing	hayenasi the kind of things	hayenat the kind of person	hayenati the kind of people
INDEFINITE	heyenas some kind of thing	heyenasi some kind of things	heyenat some kind of person	heyenati some kind of people
PROXIMAL	hiyenas this kind of thing	hiyenasi these kinds of things	hiyenat this kind of person	hiyenati these kinds of people
DISTAL	huyenas such a thing	huyenasi such things	huyenat such a person	huyenati such people
NEGATIVE	hyoyenas no such thing	hyoyenasi no such things	hyoyenat no such person	hyoyenati no such people
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyayenas every kind of thing	hyayenasi all kinds of things	hyayenat every kind of person	hyayenati all kinds of people
INDETERMINATE	hyeyenas any kind of thing	hyeyenasi any kinds of things	hyeyenat any kind of person	hyeyenati any kinds of people
IDIODEICTIC	hyiyenas the same kind of thing	hyiyenasi the same kinds of things	hyiyenat the same kind of person	hyiyenati the same kinds of people
ALLODEICTIC	hyuyenas some other kind of thing	hyuyenasi other kinds of things	hyuyenat some other kind of person	hyuyenati other kinds of people

Selective vs. Non-Selective Forms

The pronominal deictic interrogative determiner hot? means who and contrasts with its selective counterpart hoat?, which means which one?. All the selective determiners refer to one or more things or persons from a selectable pool of things or persons.

The following sentences illustrate the use of the above pronominal determiners:

• Hot aka zajuba ek?.... Who won yesterday's game?
• Hoat bi ha akuti sa ha gwa fiat?.... Which one of the winners was the best?
• Hota tam se hus?.... Whose house is that?
• Hotas se hus?.... Whose is that?
• Hotia deuzi et gaife?.... Whose songs do you prefer?
• Hotias et gaife?.... Whose do you prefer?
• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hosi se eta gaifuni?.... What are your preferences?
• Hoa deuzi se eta gwafiasi?.... Which songs are your best?
• Hoasi se eta gwafiasi?.... Which ones are your best?
• Bi hia deuzuti, hoat et gafie?.... Of these vocalists, which one do you prefer?
• Hoati se gwa fia?'.... Which ones are best?
• Hoti et teexe gwa jodi?.... Who (all) do you listen to the most often?
• Huat hu at teexe gwa jodi draye ejna deuz..... The one I listen to the most has written a new song.
• Ejna deuz? At voy teste haas hu et tede..... New song? I don't understand which one you mean.
• Hias. This one.
• Vo. Huasi se ga fia..... No. Those are better.
• His se jub av ivxelen..... This is a day for celebration.
• Va. Hia jub. At tesde hijub..... Yes. This day. I mean To-day.
• Husi sa ha jubi, ata dat! Those were the days, my friend!
• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hot aka ha igpek?.... Who won the race?
• Hyas uja fi..... Everything ended well.
• Hyasi uje..... All things come to an end.
• Hyayenasi vey kyesu..... All sorts of things might happen.
• Hyos yoka at..... Nothing surprised me.
• Hyot ta odut ako..... Nobody knew who would win.
• Huati fu pier yefe..... Those who would like to leave may.
• Hyet yefe eker id ifek..... Anyone can play this game.
• Huyenasi voy afwo..... Such things will not be permitted.
• Hua tob voy taxe hia tob..... That man does not remember this man.
• Huti yanyexe fi..... Those guys work well together.
• At jay teataye hiyenasi..... I've seen such things before.
• Huyenat voy vabiwu..... A person like that would not be accepted.

Person pronouns in -t and -ti can be feminized by inserting the glide y before the t:

• Huyenayti ufwe himi..... Women like that are hated in these parts.
• Hoayti yentexe at?.... Who among the women agree with me?
• Hyeyti hu yontexe yefe iper..... Any girls who disagree must leave.

Placement of Deictic Determiners

In a sequence of adjectives before a noun, deictic determiners go first, as in English. For example:

• Hota ewa oga nyefi se hisi?.... Whose two small bags are these?

In interrogative sentences, the interrogative word often starts out the sentence, as in English.

• Hos se eta dyun?.... What is your name?
• Hot et teata aay hijub?.... Who(m) did you see first today?

Interrogative deictic determiners ('question words can also go at the end of sentence:

• Eta dyun se hos?.... What is your name? Lit. Your name is what?

Distributive Deictic Determiners Incorporating Numerical Information

Sometimes, a deictic determiner specifies numerical information. This chart shows those forms:

ADJECTIVE	INANIMATE PRONOUN	ANIMATE PRONOUN
haawa the only	haawas the only thing haawasi the only things	haawat the only one (person) haawati the only ones
hyaawa each	hyaawas each one	hyaawat each person
hyaewa both	hyaewasi both (things)	hyaewati both (people)
hyeiwa all three	hyeiwasi all three (things)	hyeiwati all three (people)
ohyaawa not every	ohyaawas not everything	ohyaawat not everyone
hyoawa not a single	hyoawas not a single thing	hyoawat not a single person
hyeawa either	hyeawas either one	hyeawat either one (person)
hyeewa any two	hyeewasi any two things	hyeewati any two people
hyeowa neither	hyeowas neither one	hyeowat neither person
hyuawa another	hyuawas another one	hyuawat another
hyuowa no other	hyuowas nothing else	hyuowat nobody else

• Ohya(a)wat se iva bay eta ebtexden..... Not everyone is happy with your decision.
• Hyaewaso yafwe uxer yata efi..... Both (things) can serve our needs.
• Hyeawa tim ivlaxo at..... Either room will satisfy me.
• Hyeowas oivlaxo at..... Neither one will dissatisfy me.

Note: Hyua means the other, while hyuawa means another.

Similarly, hya means every, all, while hya(a)wa means each.

Also, ha means the, while ha(a)wa or hawa means the only.

The person pronouns in the above chart can be converted into possessive adjectives by adding the adjective suffix a, eg.:

• Hya(a)wata tej se ge glatesa ev hyutas..... Each one's life is as important as another's.
• Hyeowata dyun se vyama..... Neither person's name is real.
• Hyaiwatia teji se kyebukuwa..... The lives of all three are in danger.

The above possessive adjectives can, in turn, be converted into inanimate pronouns with the suffix -s.

• Hya(a)watas se glatesa..... Each one's is important.
• Hyeowatas se vyama..... Neither's is real.
• Hyaiwatias se kyebukuwa..... All three of theirs' are in danger.

Correlative Distributive Deictic Determiners are handled as follows:

• Hyeawa A ey B.... either A or B
• Hyeowa A oy B.... neither A nor B
• Hyaewa A ay B.... both A and B
• Ha(a)wa A, voy B.... only A, not B

Pro-Adverbs Formed from Agglutinated Deictic Determiners

This tables shows a correlated set of pro-adverbs built through the agglutination of basic deictic determiners. This is not all-inclusive, because their are other similary-constructed pro-verbs relating to age, frequency, and so forth.

ADVERBS	MANNER	PLACE	TIME	DEGREE	REASON
	-yen short for byen (manner)	-m short for em (place)	-j short for job (time)	-gla very	av (for)
INTERROGATIVE	hoyen? how?, in what way?	hom? where?	hoj? when?	hogla? how?, to what degree?	avhos? why?
DEFINITE	hayen the way, how	ham the place, where	haj the time, when	hagla as, to the degree	avhas because
INDEFINITE	heyen somehow, in some way	hem somewhere	hej sometime	hegla somewhat	avhes for some reason
PROXIMAL	hiyen this way, so	him here	hij now	higla so, this, to this extent	avhis for this reason, hence
DISTAL	huyen that way, thus	hum there	huj then	hugla so, that, to that extent	avhus for that reason, therefore, so
NEGATIVE	hyoyen in nowise	hyom nowhere	hyoj never	hyogla not at all	avhyos for no reason
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyayen totally, in every way	hyam everywhere	hyaj always	hyagla totally	avhyas for every reason
INDETERMINATE	hyeyen anyway	hyem anywhere, wherever	hyej whenever	hyegla however, to any degree	avhyes for whatever reason
IDIODEICTIC	hyiyen likewise	hyim at the same place	hyij at the same time	hyigla as, to the same extent	avhyis for the same reason
ALLODEICTIC	hyuyen otherwise	hyum elsewhere	hyuj some other time	hyugla not as	avhyus for some other reason

Many of these pro-adverbs are agglutinated abbreviations for longer, full forms:

• hom....where   <   ho   +   nem   =   what place
• hoj....when   <   ho   +   job   =   what time
• hoyen....how   <   ho   +   byen   =   what manner
• hot....who   <   ho   +   tob   =   what human being
• hos....what   <   ho   +   sun   =   what thing

The longer, expanded forms of pro-adverbs can be used at any time. For example:

• At yegteato et hejob.....I will see you again sometime.
• Hosun se eta dyun?....What is your name?
• Et yeyfe axer hubyen.....You shouldn't act that way.

It should be noted that all of these deictic pro-adverbs, unless used as nouns, such as in the sentence Iyt iyfe him. She likes this place (or) She likes it here., are really abbreviations of longer expressions with mostly the preposition be at. For example, At tameya hum., meaning I used to live there. is ignoring the preposition be from the longer, more explicit version At tameya be hum., lit. I used to live at that-place. The proper preposition must be explicitly present if something other than be at is meant. For example, from where? is expressed as bi hom? Similarly, until then would be expressed as ju huj.

Here are some examples of how deictic pro-adverbs are used:

• Hom et tame?.... Where do you live?   <   Et tame be HOa neM? You live at what place.)
• At tame hum..... I live there.
• Et tame hum hu ha mep uje..... You live where the road ends.
• Hom yet peye?.... Where are you guys going?
• Et yafe per hyem hu et fu..... You can go anywhere.
• Bi hom et se?.... Where are you from?
• Hoj et taja?.... When were you born?
• At voy tajaya huj..... I had not been born then.
• Et pia avhes..... He left for some reason.
• Hoyen et iyfe hia vafil?.... How do like this wine?
• Voy se fia axer hiyen..... It is not good to act this way.
• Avhos et tadsa hugla jwa?.... Why did you marry so late?
• Ha tob pia avhyos..... The man left for no reason.

The different, somewhat confusing, meanings of how are illustrated here:

• Hoyen it xa hus?.... How did he do that?.... (Equivalent to Be hoa byen...? In what way...?) (MANNER)
• Hoyen et xeye?.... How are you doing?.... (This is the normal way of saying How are you? or How do you do? (MANNER)
• Hoyena sa ha dyezun?.... How was the film?.... (How here is an ADJECTIVE OF KIND, and thus ends in -a.)
• Hogla aga it se?.... How big is he?.... (DEGREE)
• Hogla iyfla et se!.... How nice you are!.... (DEGREE, but used here as an EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSION)

* Bu hom (to where, whither) is not required here, since the verb per go (to) has the to direction built in.

Quantitative Deictic Determiners

The deictic prefixes can be combined with gla to form quantitative expressions acting as adverbial or adjectival determiners, and substantives (pronouns referring to things or people):

	ADVERBIAL / ADJECTIVAL DETERMINER	INANIMATE SINGULAR PRONOUN	INANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN	ANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN
INTERROGATIVE	hogla? how?/how much?/how many?	hoglas? how much?	hoglasi? how many	hoglati? how many (people)?
DEFINITE	hagla how/as much/as many	haglas as much	haglasi as many	haglati as many (people)
INDEFINITE	hegla somewhat/some/some	heglas some	heglasi some	heglati some (people)
PROXIMAL	higla this/this much/this many	higlas this much	higlasi this many	higlati this many (people)
DISTAL	hugla that/that much/that many huygla so, so much, so many	huglas that much huyglas so much	huglasi that many huyglasi so many	huglati that many huyglati so many (people)
NEGATIVE	hyogla not at all/no/no	hyoglas none of it	hyoglasi none of them	hyoglati none
DISTRIBUTIVE	hyagla totally/all/all	hyaglas all of it	hyaglasi all of them	hyaglati all
INDETERMINATE	hyegla however/any/any	hyeglas any of it	hyeglasi any of them	hyeglati any number of them
IDIODEICTIC	hyigla as/as much/as many, equally	hyiglas the same amount	hyiglasi the same number	hyiglati as many (people)
ALLODEICTIC	hyugla not as much/not as much/not as many	hyuglas a different amount	hyuglasi a different number of things	hyuglati a different number of people

Here are some examples showing how these quantitative determiners are used:

• Et deuze huygla fi..... You sing so well.
• At se hegla booka..... I am somewhat tired.
• Hogla pati et teata hijub?.... How many birds did you see today?
• At teata vyavay hugla tami..... I saw exactly that many houses.
• Iyt fe hyiglas ev et..... She wants the same amount as you.
• Hoglati yantexe yet?.... How many (people) agree with you?
• Hyoglati yantexe..... None agree.
• Yit fu heglasi..... They would like some (of them).
• Et yafe bier hyeglasi et fe..... You can take however many you want.

NOTE: The following determiners are synonymous and interchangeable:

• hegla = gle (somewhat)
• hyigla = ge (as, equally)

Pronominal Determiners

For a discussion of pronominal determiners ( = possessive adjectives) like my, mine, yours, our own, etc., see Possessive Adjectives under Pronouns.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun I stands for the person standing at this place. The pronoun this stands for the thing or person nearest.

In Mirad, pronouns can be:

• personal or deictic
• ordinary or reflexive
• animate or inanimate
• specific or generic
• ungendered or feminine

Basic Personal Animate Pronouns

Basic personal animal pronouns in Mirad have three person-levels (first, second, third), two numbers (singular, plural), and two genders (gender-neutral, female), and two specificities (specific and generic). Pronouns do not have case forms like English he / him or she / her but they can be adjectivized to form what are known as possessive adjectives in English like his or my or possessive pronouns like hers or mine. Here is two charts showing the basic personal animate pronouns, split into gender-neutral and female.

	SINGULAR GENDER-NEUTRAL	PLURAL GENDER-NEUTRAL
FIRST PERSON	at....I, me	yat....we, us
SECOND PERSON	et....you	yet....you, you all
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	it....he, him	yit....they, them
THIRD PERSON GENERIC	ot....one	yot....they, them
THIRD PERSON REFLEXIVE	ut....self, oneself	yut....selves, oneselves

	SINGULAR FEMALE	PLURAL FEMALE
FIRST PERSON	ayt....I, me	yayt....we, us
SECOND PERSON	eyt....you	yeyt....you, you all
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	iyt....she, her	yiyt....they, them

The third person generic pronouns ot and yot are of common gender and are used as English one and they, people (means unspecifed persons), as in the following examples:

• Ot yefe xer ha yakwas..... One must do what is expected.
• Yot de hav et vyode hoj..... They/People say you never lie.

The person specific ungendered pronouns refer by default to males, but can serve as gender-neutral pronouns referring back to either males or females. If the vowel stem is iotated with a y, the pronoun then refers specifically to a female.

The first person plural pronoun ya(y)t can be either inclusive or exclusive, i.e. it can mean "you and I" or "you and the others."

There is no distinction of case in Mirad, so at can mean I or me. For example:

• Xu at fibun..... Do me a favor.
• At so eta dat..... I will be your friend.
• Wo tojbu it..... Don't kill him/her.
• At ta hav iyt upo..... I knew she would come.
• Fadilu av yayt..... Pray for us (women).

Note: The English pronoun it is inanimate (refers to a thing or abstraction) and is not included in the above set of animate personal pronouns. This inanimate pronoun is explained later.

Reflexive Personal Pronouns

Reflexive personal pronouns like English myself, yourself, etc. are formed postfixing the reflexive pronoun ut or uti depending on whether the pronoun is singular or plural. The gender of the pronoun is reflected in the first personal pronoun morpheme, not the ut morpheme.

REFLEXIVE	SINGULAR GENDER-NEUTRAL	SINGULAR FEMININE	PLURAL GENDER-NEUTRAL	PLURAL FEMININE
First	atut.... myself	aytut.... myself	yatuti.... ourselves	yaytuti.... ourselves
Second	etut.... yourself	eytut.... yourself	yetuti.... yourselves	yeytuti.... yourselves
Third Specific	itut.... himself	iytut.... herself	yituti.... themselves	yiytuti.... themselves
Third Generic	otut.... oneself	--	yotuti.... people themselves	--

Examples of usage:

• At yafe teater atut be ha sinzyef.....I can see myself in the mirror.
• Iyt yubteaxa iytut.....She examined herself.
• Tyeu etut!....Know thyself.
• It tojbu itut.....He would kill himself.
• Ot yefe ifer otut.....One must love oneself.
• Yot glajodi voy ife yotuti.....People often don't love themselves.

The reflexive pronoun ut self can sometimes be prefixed to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean auto-, or self-, eg.:

• tojber.... kill → uttojber.... commit suicide
• vyixer.... clean → utvyixer.... wash up, clean oneself, self-clean
• exer.... function → utexer.... function automatically, self-run
• izber.... pilot → utizber.... auto-pilot, self-drive
• exut.... operator → utexut.... automaton
• deber.... rule → utdebea.... autocratic, self-ruling
• tejdin.... biography → uttejdin.... autobiography
• fider.... praise → utfider.... boast   (= self-praise)

Emphatic Personal Pronouns

Emphatic personal pronouns can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive deictic pronoun hyit or hyiti, depending on whether the personal pronoun is singular or plural. The feminine is marked only on the personal pronoun.

EMPHATIC PRONOUNS	SINGULAR	PLURAL
FIRST PERSON	at hyit I myself, me myself	yat hyiti we ourselves, us ourselves
SECOND PERSON	et hyit you yourself	yet hyiti you yourselves
THIRD PERSON	it hyit he himself iyt hyit she herself	yit hyiti they themselves

Examples:

• At hyit voy vyatexe Tot.....I myself don't believe in God.
• At jateate yeyt hyiti be hua dezzamos.....I foresee you gals yourselves on that stage.
• Iyt hyit voy sa hum.....She herself was not here.

Reciprocal Personal Pronouns

The reciprocal pronoun one another, each other is translated with ot hyut:

• Yat yefe ifer ot hyut..... We must love one another. (hyut here means another, other person.)

This reciprocal pronoun can be converted to a possessive adjective by suffixing a, as inot hyuta....one another's:

• Yat yefe fiyzaxer ot hyuta fwasi. We must respect one another's wishes.

Note the following:

• othutif....Mutual love = love for one another
• hyutin....altruism

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives, which can also be referred to as pronominal determiners, are derived from basic and reflexive personal pronouns by adding the adjectival ending a to the basic or reflexive personal pronoun, as follows:

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES	SINGULAR BASIC	PLURAL BASIC	SINGULAR REFLEXIVE	PLURAL REFLEXIVE
FIRST PERSON	ata my	yata our	atuta my own	yatuta our own
SECOND PERSON	eta your	yeta your	etuta your own	yetuta your own
THIRD PERSON SPECIFIC	ita his iyta her	yita their iyta their (f.)	ituta his own iytuta her own	yituta their own yiytuta their own (f.)
THIRD PERSON GENERIC	ota one's	yota people's	otuta one's own	yotuta people's own

The above possessive adjectives an be substantivized as pronouns by adding the suffix s thing possessed, or si things possessed, as follows:

SUBSTANTIVIZED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES	BASIC POSSESSED THING	BASIC POSSESSED THINGS	REFLEXIVE POSSESSED THING	REFLEXIVE POSSESSED THINGS
FIRST SINGULAR POSSESSOR	atas mine, my thing	atasi mine, my things	atutas my own, my own thing	atutasi my own, my own things
SECOND SINGULAR POSSESSOR	etas yours	etasi yours, your (things)	etutas your own	etutasi your own, your own things
THIRD SINGULAR SPECIFIC POSSESSOR	itas his iytas hers	itasi his (things) iytasi her (things)	itutas his own (thing) iytutas her own (thing)	itutati their own (things) iytutasi their (f.) own (things)
THIRD SINGULAR GENERIC POSSESSOR	otas one's	otasi one's , one's things	otutas one's own	otutasi one's own (things)
FIRST PLURAL POSSESSOR	yatas ours	yatasi ours, our things	yatutas our own	yatutasi our own (things)
SECOND PLURAL POSSESSOR	yetas yours	yetasi yours, your things	yetutas your own	yetutasi your own (things)
THIRD PLURAL POSSESSOR	yitas theirs	yitasi theirs, their things	yitutas their own	yitutasi their own (things)

Examples:

• Yat yefe valbeler yatutasi.....We must protect our own.
• Etasi naze ga ev atasi....Yours are worth more than mine.

The Concrete vs. Abstract Inanimate Pronoun it

The pronoun it is a special case in Mirad. When it refers back to a previously-specified inanimate object or non-human subject such as book or dog, the definite deictic determiner has is used, for example:

• At eke bay ha epet avhas at iyfe has..... I play with the dog because I like it.

The possessive forms of has is hasa its, for example:

• At iyfe ha epet ay at ife hasa dyun..... I like the dog and I love it's name.

If the pronoun they/them is just a plural of it, then the pronoun hasi.

• Ha epeti se via ay at ife hasi..... The dogs are beautiful and I love them.

The possessive form of hasi they/them is hasia their, for example:

• Ha epeti se via oy hasia dyuni se otwa..... The dogs are beautiful, but their names are unknown.

If it introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the it is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example:

• Mamilo..... It will rain. ( = Will rain.)
• Se fia hav et upa..... It is good that you came. ( = Is good that you came.)
• Sa via jub bay et..... It was a beautiful day with you. ( = Was a beautiful day...)
• Voy se yuka yarper hia meb..... It is not easy to climb this mountain. ( = Is not easy...)

Referring to Third Persons with Deictic Determiners

The definite, proximal, distal deictic determiners can be used for third person pronouns. These forms can be animate or inanimate, masculine or feminine, singular or plural, definite, proximal (near to the speaker) or distal (remote from the speaker). The general forms of these specifiers are given in a previous section, but they are elaborated here for their use as third person pronouns:

	Thing	Things	Person	Persons
DEFINITE	has it, the thing hasa its	hasi they/them, the things hasia their	hat he/him, the person hata his hayta she/her	hati they/them, them, the persons hatia their haytia their, the girls'
PROXIMAL	his it, this hisa its, this thing'	hisi they/them, these things hisia their	hit he/him, this person hita his hiyta her	hiti they/them, these people hitia their hiytia their, these girl's
DISTAL	hus it, that husa it's, that thing'	husi they, them, those things husia their	hut he/him,that person huta his huyta her	huti they/them, those people hutia their, those people's huytia their, those womens'

By changing -t to -yt (post-iotating), the above person pronouns can be made feminine. For example, hiyt she, her. These pronouns can also be converted to possessive adjectives by suffixing the adjective ending a, for example, hiyta her. Furthermore, the possessive adjectives can be substantivized by suffixing s (s.) or si' (pl.) , for example, hiytias theirs, these women's or hiytiasi theirs, these women's (things).

Here are some examples using the above pronouns:

• Huyt voy se tadsa..... She (that woman) is not married.
• At hoj teataye hiti..... I have never seen them (these people).
• Hutiasi se ga aga ev atasi..... Theirs are bigger than mine.
• Hom et koxa has?.... Where did you hide it (the thing)?
• Hoyen et ijtya hat?....How did you meet him (the person)?
• At tyaye huyt yagjob..... I've known her (=that female) for a long time.

The above pronouns answer the questions hos? what?, hosi? what things?, hot? who(m)?, or hoti? what persons?, but there is another set of deictic selective pronouns that answer the questions hoat? which one?, hoayti? which ones (of the females mentioned)?, hoas? which one/thing?, and hoasi? which ones/things?:

SELECTIVES	THING	THINGS	PERSON	PERSONS
DEFINITE	haas the one	haasi the ones	haat the one	haati the ones
PROXIMAL	hias this one	hiasi these	hiat this one	hiati these
DISTAL	huas that one	huasi those	huat that one	huati those

Here are some examples using these deictic selective pronouns:

• Duhev et fu hias ey huas?.... Would you like this one or that one?
• Huayt se haat..... She (that female person) is the one.
• At iyfe hiasi ga ev huasi..... I like these more than those.

Compare the following two examples:

• Hoas et fu? Hias..... Which one would you like? This one. (SELECTIVE)
• Hos et fu? His..... What would you like? This. (SPECIFIC)

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are presented in the chapter on Verbs, under the section "Free Relative Clauses".

Verbs

Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present infinitive (see Infinitives), such as bayser to have. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because of it is somehow special, and the stem is the infinitive minus the wer ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions.

This shows how the STEM is derived:

PRESENT INFINITIVE	STEM
bayser to have	bays-
xer to do	x-
poser to stop	pos-
xwer to happen (PASSIVE)	x-

Verb Categories

Conjugated forms of verbs can be described with the following morphological categories:

• STATES: finite, non-finite
• TENSES: present, past, future
• ASPECTS: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, conditional
• VOICES: active, passive (reflexive and reciprocal are lexical, not morphological)
• MOODS: indicative, hypothetical
• PERSONS: 1st singular, 2nd singular, 3rd singular, 1st plural, 2nd plural, 3rd plural

In effect, the PERSONS category does not affect the morphology of the verb form itself, because the verb form stays the same for all PERSONS.

In addition, lexically, verbs can be described as stative, transitive, intransitive, reflexive, inchoative, causative, dynamic, autonomous, directional, of motion, gestural, and various combinations of these, etc.. For example:

CATEGORY	VERB
STATIVE	ser be
TRANSITIVE	xer do
INTRANSITIVE	tojer die
REFLEXIVE	utvyixer wash up
INCHOATIVE	tujaser fall asleep
CAUSATIVE	tujaxer put to sleep
GESTURAL	baseger shake
OF MOTION	oper get off
DIRECTIONAL	iper go away
DYNAMIC	yijber (perform an action to make something) open
AUTONOMOUS	yijer open (by itself)
RECIPROCAL	tujer hyit-hyut kill one another

Non-finite Forms

Non-finite verb forms are not conjugated for person, cannot form a predicate, and do not have a subject. There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad:

• INFINITIVES: the dictionary reference form of a verb, ending in er
• GERUNDS: verbal nouns, ending in en
• PARTICIPLES: verbal adjectives, ending in a

Infinitives

Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the present infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or sometimes the present passive infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus this er or wer ending is the VERB STEM.

STEM	ENDING	INFINITIVE
agas	er	agaser to grow
agax	er	agaxer to magnify
p	er	per to go
x	wer	xwer to happen, be done

The infinitive in Mirad is used just as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two tenses (present, past) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the respective endings are underlined:

INFINITIVE	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
PRESENT	agaxer to magnified	agaxwer to be magnified
PAST	agaxayer to have magnified	agaxawer to have been magnified

Gerunds

The gerund is a verbal noun like English mating in mating rituals. It is formed by suffixing en to the verb stem for the active voice and wen for the passive voice (The consonant w is used in Mirad for indicating the passive voice).

INFINITIVE	STEM	ACTIVE GERUND	PASSIVE GERUND
agaxer...to magnify	agax-	agaxen... magnifying, magnification	agaxwen being magnified
per... to go	p-	pen... going	(no passive voice)
saxer... to create, make, form	sax-	saxen... forming, creation	saxwen being created

Some examples:

• Ha saxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi..... The formation of this star took millions of years.
• Iyta deuzen sa gla via..... Her singing was very beautiful.
• Popen se yika yex..... Traveling is hard work.
• Teetwen fiay se glatesa av dezuti..... Being heard well is important for actors.

Participles

Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a. Participles can be present, past, future, or hypothetical. They can also be active or passive. Here is a table of participles:

TENSE-VOICE	INFINITIVE	STEM	ENDING	PARTICIPLE	EXAMPLE
PRESENT ACTIVE	deuzer to sing	deuz-	-ea	deuzea singing	ha deuzea pat the singing bird
PRESENT PASSIVE	ebdaler to discuss	ebdal-	-ewa	ebdalewa being discussed	ha ebdalewa dyen the book being discussed
PAST ACTIVE	pier to depart	pi-	-aa	piaa departed	ha piaa topi the departed souls
PAST PASSIVE	azyujber to lock	azyujb-	-(a)wa	azyujbawa locked	ha azyujbawa (or: azyubwa) mes the locked door
FUTURE ACTIVE	tajber to give birth	tajb-	-oa	tajboa about to give birth	ha tajboa toyb the woman about to give birth
FUTURE PASSIVE	osexer to destroy	osex-	-owa	osexowa about to be destroyed	ha osexowa tam the house about to be destroyed
HYPOTHETICAL ACTIVE	tojber to kill	tojb-	-ua	tojbua apt to kill	tojbua til a lethal potion
HYPOTHETICAL PASSIVE	tiler to drink	til-	-uwa	tiluwa drinkable	tiluwa mil potable water

Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples:

• Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay. She entered the room singing.
• Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia. The speech having been finished, he left.

Also, the above participles can be nominalized by suffixing n. Examples:

• tiluwa drinkable → tiluwan potability
• tojbua lethal → tojbuan lethality
• piaa departed → ita piaan his having departed...

Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for peoples. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized:

• xwa known → xwas what is known, a fact
• xwa known → xwasi facts, information
• oxwa unknown → oxwas what is not known, a mystery
• osexea destroying → osexeas a destroyer
• tojbua lethal → tojbuas something lethal, a lethal thing
• tojboa moribund → someone about to die, a fatal case
• tejea living → tejeat a living person
• tejea living → tejeasi living things

There is a special nominalized animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer), which refer to person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These participles end in ut.

• sexut.... builder
• nuut.... supplier
• tojbut.... killer
• ifut.... lover
• akuti.... winners

Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut the winner.

Finite Forms

In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories:

• two MOODS (indicative and hypothetical)
• three TENSES (present, past, future)
• five ASPECTS (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, conditional)
• two VOICES (active, passive)

Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person suject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se. Thus, at se I am, et se you are, it se he is, etc.

Moods

There are two moods in Mirad: indicative and hypothetical.

• Indicative Mood

The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go.

The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, and future indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively.

• Hypothetical Mood

Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below:

• a command , i.e. the IMPERATIVE (Go!)
• a wish or suggestion, i.e. the HORTATIVE or JUSSIVE (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!)
• an imagined if-condition, i.e. the SUBJUNCTIVE (If I were a rich man...)
• an imagined then-situation, i.e. the CONDITIONAL (I would be happy.)

Aspects

There are four aspects in the Mirad verb system.

• the SIMPLE aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional.
• the PROGRESSIVE aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense.
• the PERFECT aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed.
• the IMMINENT aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen.
• the CONDITIONAL aspect, i.e. an action supposed to happen.

• The Simple Aspect (default)

Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, and non-conditional.

Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of two Mirad verbs (saxer to create and ser to be) with the endings underlined:

MOOD	TENSE	ASPECT	VOICE	VERB #1 saxer	VERB #2 ser
INDICATIVE	PRESENT	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxe. I create	At se. I am
INDICATIVE	PAST	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxa. I created	At sa. I was
INDICATIVE	FUTURE	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxo. I will create	At so. I will be
HYPOTHETICAL	ATEMPORAL	SIMPLE	ACTIVE	At saxu. I would create [CONDITIONAL] Vas yat saxu! Let's create! [HORTATIVE] Saxu has! Create it! [IMPERATIVE] Vas hyat saxu! May everyone create! [JUSSIVE]	At su. I would be Vas has su. Let it be. Su fia! Be good! Vas hyat su iva! May everyone be happy!

• The Simple Indicative Present Tense

The simple indicative present tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later.

• The Simple Indicative Past Tense

The simple past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time.

• The Simple Indicative Future Tense

The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future.

• The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal

A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, jussive, conditional, or subjunctive.

Generally, if a verb form ending in u begins a sentence, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!. If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers vas, ves, or vos, than it is probably a CONDITIONAL predicate like At fu per. I would like to go.. If the subject of the verb is preceded by ves if, then it is a SUBJUNCTIVE (unreal conditional) clause as in Ves at su nasikat... If I were a rich man.. If the subject is preceded by Vas that/let/may or vos don't, then it is a HORTATIVE wish like Vas et yagteju. May you live long. or a JUSSIVE suggestion like Vas yat fadilu. Let us pray. or a prohibition like Vos tilu his! Don't drink this!.

Voices

Mirad has two voices, ACTIVE and PASSIVE (although REFLEXIVES and RECIPROCALS can be produced lexically.).

• Active Voice

The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action.

• Passive Voice

A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just before the last vowel of the verb form. The past passive particle ending awa can be reduced to wa (done is xawa or xwa) if the resultant combination of consonants is not to hard to pronounce.

The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs:

TENSE-MOOD	ACTIVE	PASSIVE	EXAMPLE
INFINITIVE	xer to do	xwer to be done	Ese hyos xwer. There is nothing to be done.
PRESENT PARTICIPAL	sexea constructing	sexewa being constructed	His se sexewa. This is under construction.
PRESENT	xe does	xwe is done	Huyenasi hoj xwe. Such things are never done.
PAST PARTICIPAL	xaa having done	x(a)wa done	Hyas se xawa. Everything is done.
PAST	tojba killed	tojbwa was killed	Hoj it tojbwa? When was he killed?
HYPOTHETICAL	bakxu heal	bakxwu be healed	Hav it bakxwu. May he be healed.

Sometimes, the passive voice is used to represent a medio-passive. For example, ujwer to open is used medio-passively in the expression Ha mes ujwa. The door opened., because there is no overt subject, as if the door opened itself. Many intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the verb tajber to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tobob tajbwa zajub. The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tobob taja zajub. The child was born yesterday.)

• Reflexive Voice

A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example:

• tojber to kill → uttojber to kill oneself
• milber to wash → utmilber to wash up
• teater to see → utteater to see oneself
• yalber to lift → utyalber to lift oneself → Utyalbu! Lift yourself up!
• ter to know → utter to know oneself → Uttu! Know thyself!

• Reciprocal Voice

A verb is made reciprocal by using hyit-hyut one another as the object, for example:

• tojber to kill → tojber hyit-hyut to kill one another
• vyixer to wash → vyixer hyit-hyut to wash one another
• teater to see → teater hyit-hyut to see one another

Aspects Revisited

Mirad verbs have the following aspects:

• SIMPLE -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. NON-PROGRESSIVE, NON-PERFECT, NON-IMMINENT, and NON-POTENTIAL.
• PROGRESSIVE -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time.
• PERFECT -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state.
• IMMINENT -- this describes an action or state about to happen.
• POTENTIAL -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible.

The Simple Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.). The simple conditional refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.).

SIMPLE ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
SIMPLE PRESENT	at xe.... I do	Has xwe.... it is done
SIMPLE PAST	at xa.... I did	Has xwa.... it was done
SIMPLE FUTURE	at xo.... I will do	Has xwo.... it will be done
SIMPLE CONDITIONAL	at xu.... I would do	Has xwu.... it would be done

The Progressive Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE	at xeye.... I am doing	Has xewe.... it is being done
PAST PROGRESSIVE	at xeya.... I was doing	Has xewa.... it was being done
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE	at xeyo.... I am going to be doing	Has xewo.... it will be happening
CONDITIONAL PROGRESSIVE	at xeyu.... I would be doing	Has xewu.... it would be happening

The Perfect Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

PERFECT ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT PERFECT	at xaye.... I have done	Has xawe.... it has been done
PAST PERFECT	at xaya.... I had done	Has xawa.... it had been done
FUTURE PERFECT	at xayo.... I will have done	Has xawo.... it will have been done
CONDITIONAL PERFECT	at xayu.... I would have done	Has xawu.... it would have been done

The Imminent Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect. The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

IMMINENT ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT IMMINENT	at xoye.... I am going to do	Has xowe.... it is going to be done
PAST IMMINENT	at xoya.... I was going to do	Has xowa.... it was going to be done
FUTURE IMMINENT	at xoyo... I will be about to do	Has xowo.... it will be about to be done
CONDITIONAL IMMINENT	(not used)	(not used)

The Potential Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

POTENTIAL ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT POTENTIAL	at xuye I am to do	Has xuwe it is to be done, it is doable
PAST POTENTIAL	at xuya I was to do	Has xuwa it was to be done, it was doable
FUTURE PERFECT	(not used)	(not used)
CONDITIONAL PERFECT	(not used)	(not used)

Putting It All Together: The Mirad Verb Conjugation System

The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad verb conjugation system using the verb xer to do and its passive xwer to be done, happen:

STATE	MOOD	ASPECT	TENSE	VOICE	CONJUGATED FORM
INFINITIVE		SIMPLE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xer to do xwer to be done, to happen
INFINITIVE		PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaer to have done xwaer to have been done, to have happend
PARTICIPLE		PROGRESSIVE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xea doing xwea being done, happening
PARTICIPLE		PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaa having done xwaa ∼ xwa done, happened
PARTICIPLE		IMMINENT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoa about to do xwoa about to happen
PARTICIPLE		POTENTIAL		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xua bound to do xwua doable
GERUND				ACTIVE PASSIVE	xen doing, deed xwen being done, happening, event
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xe does xwe is done, happens
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xa did xwa was done, happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	SIMPLE	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xo will do xwo will be done, will happen
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (CONDITIONAL / IMPERATIVE)	SIMPLE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xu would do, do! xwu would be done, would happen, be done!
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeye is doing xewe is being done, is happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeya was doing xewa was doing, was happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PROGRESSIVE	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeyo will be doing xewo will be happening
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (CONDITIONAL)	PROGRESSIVE		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xeyu would be doing xewu would be happening
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaye has done xawe has been done, has happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xaya had done xawa had been done, had happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	PERFECT	FUTURE	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xayo will have done xawo will have been done, will have happened
FINITE	HYPOTHETICAL (CONDITIONAL)	PERFECT		ACTIVE PASSIVE	xayu would have done xawu would have been done, would have happened
FINITE	INDICATIVE	IMMINENT	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoye is about to do xowe is about to be done, is about to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	IMMINENT	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xoya was to be done xowa was to be done, was to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	POTENTIAL	PRESENT	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xuye is supposed to do xuwe is supposed to be done, is supposed to happen
FINITE	INDICATIVE	POTENTIAL	PAST	ACTIVE PASSIVE	xuya was supposed to do xuwa was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen

Predicate Types

Predicate types, i.e. illocutions, refer to whether the verb, predicate, clause, or sentence is expressed as a question (INTERROGATIVE), a declaration (DECLARATIVE), a negation (NEGATIVE), affirmation (AFFIRMATIVE), or combinations of these.

Making Predicates Interrogative

To make a declarative predicate or sentence into a question, simply begin it with the Yes/No Question Introducer Duves Tell me whether.../Is it true that...? or any other interrogative pronoun or adverb such as Hos? What?, Hot? Who(m)?, or Hom? where?. Note that the Du in Duves means Say.../ Tell me..., so Duves...? really is a command meaning Say whether.... The word ves without the du is a conditional complementizer and just means if or whether. The part of the sentence after Duves is a simple declarative statement in the normal word order. The same is true for the words following other interrogative words, such as Hos? What? and Hom? Where?. In other words, there is no inversion of word order in questions as there often is in English, Spanish, and many other languages.

DECLARATIVE	INTERROGATIVE
Et se tadsa..... You are married.	Duves et se tadsa?.... Are you married?
Ha mari se maya..... The stars are bright.	Duves ha mari se maya?.... Are the stars bright?
Hut aka.....That guy won.	Hot aka?.... Who won?
Iyt aka glas.....He won a lot.	Hoglas iyt aka?.... How much did she win?
It paye..... He has gone.	Hom it paye?.... Where has he gone?

Note that the question words introduce the sentence and do not alter the word order as seen in the declarative. Also, a declarative sentence can be made interrogative simply by adding a question mark at the end in writing or raising the voice inflection at the end in speaking, eg:

• Et tame ha yubem?.... You live in the neighborhood?

Yes/no questions such as the above and those introduced with Duves usually are answered with va yes, ve maybe, or vo no or their equivalents.

YES-NO QUESTION	ANSWER
Duves eta dyun se John?.... Is your name John?	Vo, se Bill..... No, it's Bill.
Duves eta apet aka?.... Did you horse win?	Va. Atas vay aka....Yes. Mine won indeed.
Duves et texe vas ha malyen gafiso hijub?.... Do you think the weather will improve today?	Ve..... Maybe.
Fe per bay at?... Wanna go with me?	Vey zajub.... Maybe tomorrow.

Affirming/ Doubting / Negating Declarations

The following set of interjections and adverbs can be used to affirm, cast doubt on, or negate declarations:

	INTERJECTION	ADVERB	PROPOSITION
AFFIRMATIVE	va yes	vay indeed, really	Va. At vay yantexe.... Yes, I indeed/do/really agree.
DUBITATIVE	ve maybe, perhaps	vey possibly, may...	Ve. At vey po..... Maybe. I may/possibly will go.
NEGATIVE	vo no	voy not	Vo. At voy su iva..... No. I would not be happy.

Mixing Them Up

The above interrogative words and the words of affirmation / doubt / negation can be used in various combinations, for example:

• Duves et voy se tadsa?.... Aren't you married?
• Avhos iyt se voy tadsa?.... Why isn't she married?
• Vey voy mamilo..... It may not rain.
• At vay voy tadso iyt..... I will certainly not marry her.
• Et peyo, vya?.... You will go, right?
• Vo. Hus vey vay se vyoa..... No. That may indeed be wrong.
• Et te ha dud, vya?.... You know the answer, don't you? (=right?)

Note that the particles of affirmation/doubt/negation usually precede the verb, but can just as easily follow it.

• At voy te. .... I don't know.
• At te voy. .... I don't know. [Lit: I know not.]

Imperative and Hortative Expressions

An imperative expression is a command. In Mirad, a verb in the hypothetical without a subject is assumed to an imperative referring implicitly to you. For example:

• Ipu!.... Go away!
• Tiju!.... Wake up!
• Su fiat!.... Be a good person!

Hortative expressions, i.e. urging or wishing expressions like Let's go. or May he win., use the hypothetical form of the verb with the clause introduced by the positive complementizer vas that, may, let. In Arabic and some other languages, this is called the jussive' mood.

• Vas yat fadilu..... Let's pray. (Lit: That we would pray.)
• Vas et aku hia ifek..... May you win this game.
• Vas ha edeb yagteju..... Long live the king. (Lit. That the king would long-live.)

The negative version of imperative and hortative expressions is introduced with the negative complementizer hov don't, lest, let's not. If there is no subject pronoun, you is understood.

• Vos dalu at huyen..... Don't (you) speak to me that way.
• Vos yit oku..... May they not lose.
• Vos yat toxu it..... Let's not forget him.

Complementizers

Vas, ves, and vos are part of a whole system of complementizers:

TYPE	COMPLEMENTIZERS	MEANING	MIRAD EXAMPLE	ENGLISH EQUIVALENT
INTERROGATIVE	duves...?	Is it true that...? Tell (me) whether... (yes/no question introducer)	Duves eta dyun se John?	Is (it true that) your name is John?
CONDITIONAL	ves	if, whether	Ves et te, du has. At utdide ves it upo.	If you know, say so. I wonder whether he'll come.
ANTI-CONDITIONAL	oves	unless	Oves et yexe, et voy ako.	Unless you work, you will not win.
POSITIVE/HORTATIVE	vas	that, so that, let, may	At ta vas it upo. Vas yat dilo. Vas et su iva. At xa has vas et fitexu at.	I knew (that) he would come. Let's pray. Let you be happy. I did it so you'd think well of me.
NEGATIVE/PROHIBITIVE	vos	Don't, let...not, lest	Vos teaxu at. Vos yat su uva. At pio vos et futepyensu.	Don't look at me. Let's not be sad. I will leave lest you get angry.

Subjunctive Clauses

The hypothetical mood is also used in subjunctive clauses. A subjunctive clause is one in which an action or state is desired, requested, required, or wanted in some other way by the actor in the main clause. Positive subjunctive clauses are introduced with the positive complementizer vas that, let's, so that. Here are some examples:

• Ha ideb dila vas at tyoibu za it..... The king asked that I kneel before him.
• Se igefwa vas et upu gwa ig..... It is urgent that you come as soon as possible.
• Dirwa vas hyat dolu..... It was ordered that everyone be silent.

A negative subjunctive clause is introduced with the negative complementizer vos don't, lest.

• Su bikaya vos et pyosu..... Be careful lest you fall / that you not fall.

The conditional complementizer ves if, whether can introduce a clause in the subjunctive, indicating an unreal condition, as in the following examples:

• At sexu tam ves at su nasika....I would build a house if I were (= would be) rich.
• Hos et xu ves et baysu ga nas?...What would you do if you had (= would have) more money?

Many of the above sentences could be rephrased with an infinitive in order to avoid the subjunctive:

• Ha ideb dila at tyoiber za it..... The king asked me to kneel before him.
• Se igefwa av et uper gwa ig..... It is urgent for you to come as soon as possible.
• Hyat dirwa doler..... Everyone was ordered to be silent.
• Su bikaya voy pyoser..... Be careful not to fall.

If-Then Conditional Clauses

A conditional clause is introduced with the conditional complementizer ves if, whether. The if-clause can be a real tense or a hypothetical. If the if-clause is hypothetical, the then-clause is also hypothetical. Here are the possible variations:

IF-CLAUSE	THEN-CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Ves ot yexe gla, If one works hard,	ot akxe. one succeeds.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
Ves et ta, If you knew,	et dola. you kept quiet.
FUTURE INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
Ves et pio, If you leave,	at so uva. I will be sad.
PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
Ves at su nasika, If I were rich, Ves et teetu, If you would listen,	at nusbiu aga tam. I would buy a new house. et testu. you would understand.
PAST HYPOTHETICAL	PAST HYPOTHETICAL
Ves at tayu, If I had known,	at dudayu hyuyen. I would have responded differently.

Note that in English, when the then-clause is future tense, the if-clause is present; This is not the case in Mirad, where both clauses are in the future. In Mirad, the formula is "If you WILL leave, I WILL be sad." In English, the formula "I didn't know whether he WOULD x" is translated in Mirad as "I didn't know whether he WILL x."

If/Whether Subordinate Clauses

Here are some examples of sentences where the main clause contains some verb of knowing, questioning, wondering, guessing followed by a subordinate clause introduced by the conditional complementizer ves whether / if. Note that the tenses in Mirad are somewhat different in that there is no relative shifting of time as in English.

MAIN CLAUSE	IF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
At utdide I wonder	ves it te ha vyan. if / whether he knows the truth.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
At voy te I don't know	ves yit aka ey oka. if / whether they won or lost.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
At voy te I don't know	ves et akxo. if / whether you will succeed.
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
At utdide I wonder	vas et yantexu. if / whether upi would agree.
PAST INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
At voy ta I didn't know	ves it se tadsa. if / whether he was [Mirad: is] married.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST INDICATIVE
At dida I asked	ves iyt teata hia dezun. if / whether she had seen [Mirad: saw] this play.
PAST INDICATIVE	FUTURE INDICATIVE
At voy ta I didn't know	ves it upo if / whether he would [Mirad: will] come.
PAST INDICATIVE	PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL
At dida I asked	ves it fu per bay at. if / whether he might like to go with me.
PAST INDICATIVE	PAST HYPOTHETICAL
At dida I asked	ves it fayu per bay at. if / whether he might have liked to go with me.

The negative conditional complementizer oves unless is used in main-subordinate clause structures in the same way as the above.

MAIN CLAUSE	IF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
PRESENT INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Ot voy akxe One does not succeed	oves ot yexe kyotepay. unless one works hard.
FUTURE INDICATIVE	PRESENT INDICATIVE
Et voy teato at You won't see me	oves et upo. unless you come (= will come).

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are of two types:

• Bound relative clauses qualify an explicit element (usually a noun or phrase) appearing in the main clause, and refer back to that element by means of the relative complementizer hu, and:
• Free relative clauses, which do not have an explicit antecedent external to themselves. Instead, the relative clause itself takes the place of an argument in the matrix clause. For example, in the English sentence I like what I see, the clause what I see is a free relative clause, because it has no antecedent, but itself serves as the object of the verb like in the main clause. (An alternative analysis is that the free relative clause has zero as its antecedent.) In Mirad, deictic pronouns or adverbs followed by the relative complementizer hu, as shown in the chart below, are used to introduce the free relative clause.

Bound Relative Clauses

The invariable relative complementizer hu is used to introduce a bound relative clause and refer back to an element in the main clause. Here are some examples:

• Ha tob, hu tadsa ja ewa jab, bayse awa tobot.....The man, who got married two years ago, has one child.
• Ha toyb hu ake ibe aga nazun.....The woman who wins receives a big prize.
• Hia pati hu at pexa magilwo himaj.....These birds (that/which) I caught will be cooked this evening.
• Biu hyea jotul hu et fu.....Take any dessert (that) you'd like.
• Ha apet hu at bua it ha afyab apeda bay if.....The horse I gave the apple to neighed with pleasure. (= ...that I gave him the apple...)
• Iyt ijtyexa at bu ha yexeb hu iyt yexaya ob it je gla jabi....She introduced me to the boss under whom she had worked for many years. (Lit: ...that she had worked under him...)

Note that in cases where the relative clause ends in a preposition governing the man clause antecedent, a pronoun is added agreeing in gender, number, and animacy with the main clause antecedent. This type of construction occurs in the last two example sentences above. So, the English relative clause for whom I sang would be expressed in Mirad as that I sang for her/him/it/them depending on the gender, number, and animacy of the antecedent in the main clause.

• Ha toybi hu at deuza av iyti fida ata yafi.....The ladies for whom I sang (= that I sang for them) praised my abilities.

Bound relative clauses beginning with whose are expressed in Mirad as hu ita/iyta/yita/yiyta (= that his/her/their/their), depending on the gender and number of the explicit antecedent in the main clause.

• Ha ekuyt hu iyta tyoyab yonpyexwa yofa eker hijeb....The female player whose foot (= that her foot) was broken was unable to play this season.
• Ata yubati, hu yita tam sa jay ga aga ev atas, agaxa yita param gajod.'...Our neighbors, whose (= that their) house is already bigger than ours, enlarged their garage again.

If no preposition governing the antecedent is involved, but the relative clause takes the place of an objective case element, supplying a pronoun referring back to the antecedent noun, is optional:

• Ha dyeni hu at dyedi (hasi) zamaj sa hya fiasi....The books I read (= them) last evening were all good (ones).

Free Relative Clauses

Free relative clauses are introduced by a deictic pronoun or adverb followed by the relative complementizer hu as shown in the charts below.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS	MIRAD...ENGLISH	EXAMPLE
THING(S)	has hu...what/that which/the thing that hasi hu...what/those which/the things that hyes hu...whatever/anything that hyesi hu...whatever/anything that/any things that hyas hu...everything that/all that hyasi hu...all (things) that hyos hu...nothing (that) hyosi hu...none of the things (that) haas hu...which one haasi hu...which ones	Has hu at da se vyaa....What I said is true. Hasi hu it xa futepyenua at....What/the things he did angered me. At xo hyes hu et do....I will do whatever/anything you say. Et voy teeta hyesi hu at deuza....You didn't hear any of the things I sang. Hyas hu at fe se poos....All I want is peace. At akxa hyusi hu at fa....I achieved all the things I wanted. At testa hyos hu et da....I understood nothing you said. Hyosi hu et iyfe ifue at....None of the things you like appeal to me. At te voy haas hu at gwafe....I don't know which one I like best. At te haasi hu at gwofe....I know which ones I like least.
PERSON(S)	hat hu...who//the person (who) hati hu...those who/the ones who hyet hu...whoever/anybody who/that hyeti hu...whoever/any people that/who hyat hu...everyone that/everybody who hyati hu...all (people) who hyot hu...nobody (that/who) hyoti hu...no people (that/who) huta hu...whose haat hu...which one haati hu...which ones	Hat hu et teata pia....The person you saw left. Hsti hu at tye yantexe....The people I know agree. At teapo hyet wa at fe....I will visit whomever I wish. Et voy teata hyeti hu at teata....You didn't see any of the ones I saw. Hyat hu at ijtya sa fiyena....Everyone I met was nice. At fida hyati hu at yeyfa....I praised all the people I was supposed to. At testa hyot hu at teeta....I understood nobody I heard. Hati hu et ijtyaxa sa fuyena....The ones you introduced were ill-mannered. At te voy hati hu ifpot his se....I don't know whose pet this is. At te voy haat hu at gwafe....I don't know which one (person) I like best. At te haati hu at gwofe....I know which ones (people) I like least.
RELATIVE ADVERBS	MIRAD ADVERB...ENGLISH ADVERB	EXAMPLE
PLACE	ham hu...where hyem hu...wherever hyam hu...everywhere hu...bi ham...from where, whence hu...bu ham...to where, whither	Yat teje ham hu ha malyem se ema....We live where the weather is mild. At fu per hyem hu et po....I'd like to go wherever you go. Hyam hu et pe, su bikaya....Everywhere you go, be careful. Ha dom hu at upe bi ham se gla oga....The town from where I come (Lit: that I come from it) is very small. Ha memi hu at popeyo hami se gle jiba....The countries where I am going to be traveling are quite distant.
TIME	haj hu...when hyej hu...whenever hyaj hu...everywhere	Du at haj hu et puo....Tell me when you arrive. Hyej hu iyt se iva, iyt deuze....Whenever/anytime she is happy, she sings. Hyaj hu at yabteaxe, et yobteaxe....Every time I look up, you look down.
MANNER/KIND	hayen hu...how, in what way, as hyeyen hu...however, in any way, in whatever manner hyiyen hu just as, the same way as	At utdide hayen hu it xa hus....I wonder how he did it. Hyeyen hu xwa se kos....However it happened is a mystery. Xu has hyiyen hu at xe has....Do it the same way as I do it.
DEGREE	hagla hu...how, to what extent hyigla hu...just as	Et hyoj to hagla hu iva at se....You'll never know how happy I am. At popo hugla hu yib at yafe....I will travel as far as I can.
QUANTITY	hagla hu...how much, how many hyegla hu...however much, however many hyigla hu...as much/many as	Duhev et te hagla hu nas it bayse?...Do you know how much money he has? Yet dida yat hyegla hu tami yat sexa....You guys asked us however many houses did we build. Et niso hyigla hu nas at xe....You will earn as much money as I do.
REASON	avhas hu...why, for what reason avhyes hu...why ever, for whatever reason	Duhev et te avhas hu it xa hus....Do you know why he did that? Yat voy teste avhyes hu et xu hus....We don't understand why ever you'd do that.

If the relative clause is restrictive (i.e. it cannot be omitted without violating the meaning of the sentence), then no commas are used, but if it is non-restrictive (i.e. it provides new information that can be omitted), then it is surrounded by commas, just as in English.

• RESTRICTIVE: Ha mar hu yata mer zyupe has dyunie ha amar. The star that our planet goes around (Lit: it) is called the sun.
• NON-RESTRICTIVE: Ha amar, hu yata mer zyupe has, se vay ahay mar. The sun, which our planet goes around, is really only a star.

Indirect and Direct Discourse

As in English, Mirad has both indirect discourse and direct discourse. Indirect discourse is when you know or say that something happened, whereas direct discourse is when you directly quote what someone has said.

Indirect Discourse

Sentences that have a main clause of communication or knowledge, followed by a subordinate clause with an indirect indication of what was said or known, use the positive complementizer vas (that, the fact that) to introduce the subordinate clause. The tense in the subordinate clause is a true tense, not a relative tense. Unlike in English, where the that can often be omitted, the Mirad vas complementizer can never be omitted.

• At ta vas et upo..... I knew that you would (= will) come.
• Ata ted da vas it yexe hya ita tej gel fufut..... My father said that he had worked (= he worked) all his life as a plumber.
• Se vyaa vas at gra tele..... It is true that I eat too much.
• At jada vas et puo jwa..... I predicted that you would (= you will) arrive early.

The conditional complementizer ves if, whether and the negative complementizer vos lest, don't, that...not are discussed in later sections.

Direct Discourse

Direct discourse works exactly as in English. Double quotes are used to surround the directly quoted part of the sentence.

• Iyt da, "At voy fe per." She said, "I don't want to go."
• At dida it, "Hot sa eta ted?". I asked him, "Who was your father?"

Transitivity

Verbs can be transitive, intransitive, or reflexive. Verbs in the passive voice are by nature intransitive.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs can take a direct object and oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity.

Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go). Here are some examples:

TRANSITIVE	INTRANSITIVE
xer do	ser be
agxer grow (something)	agser grow (up)
amxer heat, make hot	amser become hot, heat up
buxer push	buser jump
per go	ber put
aber put on	aper get on
yaber raise	yaper rise
poxer stop (something)	poser (come to a) stop
yuber bring near	yuper approach
yeber insert	yeper enter

• At agxe vobi..... I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants.
• Ha vobi agseye ig..... The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast.

• Poxu ha par!.... Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car!
• Ha par posa..... The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE].

• At yaba ha mis..... I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window.
• Ha amar yapaye..... The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE].

Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity

Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer to sleep vs. tujper to fall asleep.

INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE
Ha mes yija....The door opened. Ha nasyef yijpa....The purse came open.	At yijba ha mes....I opened the door.
Ha mes yuja.....The door closed. Ha yanup yujpa.....The meeting adjourned.	At yujba ha mes.....I closed the door.
Ha dezun ijaye.....The play has started. Ha par ijpa boy poys.....The car started up immediately.	At ijba ata tul.....I started my meal.
Ha dezun ujaye.....The play has ended. Ata yex ujpaye.....My work has come to an end.	A ujba ha dyen.....I finished the book.
Ha tob toja zomoj.....The man died yesterday evening. Ha tob tojpa.....The man dropped dead.	Hot tojba ha tob?....Who killed the man?
Teju.....Live!. Tejpu!.....Come alive!.	Yat efe tejber ha tob.....We need to revive the man.
Ha tobob taja zojub.....The baby was born yesterday.	Iyt tajba awa tobob zojub.....She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.
At tija jwe.....I woke up on time. It voy tijpa.....He did not come to..	At tijbo et jwa.....I will wake (you) up early.
At tujeya.....I was sleeping. At tujpeya.....I was falling sleep.	At tujbo it.....I will put (him) to sleep..

The transitive voice of verbs like those in the above chart can be made passive with w:

• Ha tob tojbwa zomoj.....The man was killed last evening.
• Ha tobob tajbwo bey ha bekut.....The baby will be delivered by the nurse.
• Ha bukwat voy yafe tejbwer.....The injured person cannot be saved.
• Ha mis yijbwa je ha moj.....The window was opened during the night.

Reflexive Verbs

Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.:

• At tujboye atut..... I am going to kill myself.
• Tu etut!.... Know thyself!
• It gorba itut bay gorbar..... He cut himself with a knife.
• Ot yefe yuxer otut..... One must help oneself.

Sometimes, verbs incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix:

• uttujber.... commit suicide
• utboler.... support oneself

Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.:

• Et efe vyimiler etut..... You need to wash up [= wash yourself]. (or)
• Et efe utvyimiler.....You need to wash up.

Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs

Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object.

PREPOSITION-INCORPORATING VERB	EXAMPLE
per go (to)	Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home., It pa Paris. He went to Paris.
der say (to), tell	Du at eta dyun. Tell me your name., Du at has. Tell it to me.
peser wait (for)	Pesu at. Wait for me.
buer give (to)	Buu at hua dyen. Give me that book.

As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu has bu at. Give it to me.

Transitive/Causative and Intransitive/Inchoative Verbs

Derived from Adjectives

Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, while an inchoative verb means to become or take on the quality of something. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize.

To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix xer to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer.

ADJECTIVE	CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE	CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE
-xer	LITERAL	IDIOMATIC
aga big	agaxer to magnify	agxer to grow
ana one	anaxer to unify	anxer to unite
yona apart	yonaxer to separate	yonxer to cut
yaga long	yagaxer to lengthen	yagxer to stretch
yuga slow	yugaxer to retard	yugxer to brake
sana formal	sanaxer to formalize	sanxer to form
gea equal	geaxer to equalize	gexer to copy, equate
jaa prior	jaaxer to prioritize	jaxer to prepare

To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser to be to either the stem or the whole adjective.

ADJECTIVE	INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE	INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE
-ser	LITERAL	IDIOMATIC
aga big	agaser to get bigger	agser to grow
ana one	anaser to unify	anser to unite, become united
yona apart	yonaser to become separate	yonser to break

Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.:

• Ansu ey yet yonxwo. Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE]
• At otadsa haj hu at sa eta jag. I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE]
• Hisi agaxo has hu et teate. These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE]
• Hia tobot agseye ig. This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE]
• Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom. My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE]

Derived from Nouns

Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X.

NOUN	TRANSITIVE/CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE	INTRANSITIVE/INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE
mog ash	mogxer to incinerate	mogser to become ashes
yan collection	yanxer to collect	yanser to get together
tad spouse	tadxer to marry	tadser to get married
yom ice	yomxer to freeze/make ice	yomser to freeze/become ice
mag fire	magxer to burn, set fire to	magser to burn, get burned
uk void	ukxer to empty	ukser become empty, empty out

Derived from Verbs

Verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb stem ux (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused, eg.:

• At gorbuxo ata tayeb zamaj..... I will get my hair cut tomorrow.
• Et voy yafe puxer at..... You cannot make me go.
• It tojbuxa yit..... He had them killed.
• At efe milabuxer ata par..... I need to have my car washed.
• Et upuxwa him avhes..... You were made to come here for some reason.
• At bakambuxo et..... I will have you hospitalized.
• Et voy yafe deuzuxer at..... You cannot make me sing.
• At ivteuduxwa..... I was made to laugh.
• Eta deuz ivteuduxa yat..... Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)
• Hav het ivasuxu et..... May someone get you to be happy.

Directional Verbs

The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the ending ier for an action or motion toward the speaker and uer for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some object, eg.:

SUBJECT-DIRECTED	OBJECT-DIRECTED
bier to take	buer to give
nier to consume	nuer to supply
nyier to order	nyuer to deliver
nunier to buy	nunuer to sell
nazunier win a prize	nazunuer award a prize
noysier pay off	noysuer charge
ojbier borrow	ojbuer lend
tadier get married	taduer marry off
papier take flight	papuer send off flying
pipier set sail	pipuer dock
simbier take a seat	simbuer offer a seat
tampier leave home	tampuer arrive home
tamier settle in	tamuer shelter
nusbier to buy	nisbuer to sell
telier to eat	teluer to feed
gonbier to participate	gonbuer to share
tilier to drink	tiluer to water, give to drink
teubier to swallow	teubuer to spit out
teatier to observe, watch	teatuer to show
taxier to memorize	taxuer to remind
alier to breathe in	aluer to breathe out, expire
ilier to absorb	iluer to leak, soak
ifier to enjoy	ifuer to please
dier to ask	duer to suggest
dider to question	duder to respond
tier to study	tuer to teach
pier to depart	puer to arrive
kebier to choose	kebuer to distribute
tujier to fall asleep	tujuer to put to sleep
tojier to fall dead	tojuer to kill
byier to originate	byuer to target
mempier to take off	mempuer to land
sinier visualize	sinuer display
xier to result	xuer to cause

Prepositions and Directional Adverbs as Verbal Prefixes

Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate to p before the verb per to go and a preposition ending in b will lose the b before a verb beginning with b. Here are some examples:

PREPOSITION/ADVERB	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
ab on	aber apply	aper get on, mount
ob off	ober remove	oper get of, dismount
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise
yob down	yober take down	yoper descend
yeb in	yeber insert	yeper enter
yeb in	yepuxer throw in	yepuser jump in
oyeb out	oyeber expose	oyeper exit
oyeb out	oyepuxer eject	oyepuser jump out
zyu around	zyuber rotate	zyuper revolve
zya throughout	zyaber spread	zyaper tour
yub near	yuber bring near	yuper approach
ov against	ovber oppose	ovper countervene
yan together	yanber compose	yanper meet
iz direct	izber lead	izper head
uz curved	uzber divert	uzper diverge

Note:

The prefix yeg- again is used like the English prefix re-, eg.:

• ember to position → yegember to reposition, replace
• der to say → yegder to repeat
• sanxer to shape, form → yegsanxer to reshape, reform

The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.:

• saxer to build, construct → losaxer to destroy, deconstruct
• yonxer to unite → loyonxer to disunite
• xer to do → loxer to undo

The prefix vyo- is used as the counterpart to the English mis-, meaning wrongfully, eg.:

• nadxer to align → vyonadxer to misalign
• der to say → vyoder to misstate, lie
• utbier to appropriate → vyoutbier to misappropriate

The prefix yan- together is used as the English co-, eg.:

• exer to operate → yanexer to cooperate
• tamer to dwell → yantamer to cohabit
• napber to put in order → yannapber to coordinate

The prefix zoy- is used as the English re(tro)-, meaning back, eg.:

• teaper to visit → zoyteaper to revisit
• uper to come → zoyuper to return, come back
• buxer to push → zoybuxer to repel, push back
• puxer to throw → zoypuxer to reject, throw back, jettison

The prefix az- (from aza strong) is used as an intensifier, eg.:

• yujber to close → azyujber to lock
• der to say → azder to emphasize
• duer to suggest → azduer to urge
• dizeuder to laugh → azdizeuder to guffaw

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc.

Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad:

POSITIVE		NEGATIVE
afer may ayfer might	efer need	ofer may not oyfer might not
ifer love iyfer like	fer want	ufer hate uyfer dislike
yafer can, be able yayfer might, could	yefer must, have to yeyfer ought, should	yofer cannot yoyfer could not, might not
yifer dare		yufer be afraid
yiver have a right, be free		yuver be bound

If the modal verb is in the hypothetic aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples:

• At fe per..... I want to go.
• At fu per..... I would like to go.

• Et yafe aker..... You can win.
• Et yafu aker..... You could win.

• Yet yefe iper..... You must leave.
• Yet yefu iper..... You ought to leave.

Post-iotating the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example:

• At ife et. ....I love you.
• At iyfe et. ....I like you.

• Et yefe iper..... You must leave.
• Et yeyfe iper..... You should leave.

• Iyt yafe aker..... She can win.
• Iyt yayfe aker..... She might win.

• At ufa uda tuz..... I hated that art.
• At uyfa uda tuz..... I disliked that art.

By the same token, adding the intensifying consonants l and r add strength to the model verb sense:

• Hua toyb yufxa at..... That woman scared me.
• Hua toyb yulfxa at..... That woman intimidated me.
• Hua toyb yurfxa at..... That woman terrorized me.

• Hia yex efwo..... This work will be necessary.
• Hia yex elfwo..... This work will be critical.
• Hia yex erfwo..... This work will be indispensable.

• Su yifa..... Be brave.
• Su yilfa..... Be bold.
• Su yirfa..... Be heroic.

• Et yuve buer nas..... You are supposed to give money.
• Et yulve buer nas..... You are bound to give money.
• Et yurve buer nas..... You are absolutely compelled to give money.

Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries:

• Et afe oyeper ay ifeker..... You may go out and play.
• Yat efa tujer..... We needed to sleep.
• Ot ofe mavier him..... One is prohibited to smoke here.
• Mavier him ofwe..... Smoking here is prohibited.
• At ife dyeer..... I love to read.
• He et fe yebuper?.... Do you want to come in?
• At fu teaper et edjub..... I would like to visit you some day.
• It ufaye hyaj teaxwer..... He has always hated being looked at.
• Duhev et iyfe per tilami?.... Do you like going to bars?
• At uyfe tijer gra jwa..... I dislike waking up too early.
• Et yafe xer hyes hu et fu..... You can do whatever you like.
• Et yefer xer ad vyaas..... You must do the right thing.
• Et yeyfe voy daler huyen azay..... You should not talk so loud.
• At yeyfa ter ga fi..... I should have known better.
• At voy yifu der hyea fuas..... I would not dare say anything bad.
• Hov yufu der has hu et tesde..... Don't be afraid to say what you mean.
• Et yive dier yevanavdut..... You have a right to ask for a lawyer.
• Yat voy yuve kyoejer..... We are not bound to stick around.

Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms

All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented", eg:

SUBJECT-ORIENTED VERB	SUBJECT-ORIENTED ADJECTIVE	PATIENT-ORIENTED VERB	PATIENT-ORIENTED ADJECTIVE
afer may	afa allowed	afwer be permitted	afwa permissable
efer need	efa needful	efwer be necessary	efwa necessary, required
ofer be unallowed	ofa prohibited	ofwer be prohibited	ofwa banned
yafer be able	yafa able	yafwer be possible	yafwa possible
yefer must	yefa obliged	yefwer be obligatory	yefwa obligatory
yofer be unable	yofa unable	yofwer be impossible	yefwa impossible
fer want	fa willing	fwer be desirable	fwa desirable, wanted
yifer dare	yofa daring, brave	yifwer be safe	yifwa safe
yufer be afraid	yifa afraid	yufwer be a danger	yufwa frightning

• Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him. It is permissible to smoke here.
• Ofwe (= se ofwa) puxer ofwasi him. It is prohibited to throw litter here.
• Fwe (= se fwa) hav yet dolu. It is desired that you stop talking.
• Voy yafwe beser him gajob. It is not possible to remain here any longer.
• Yofwa av at ivteuder. It was not possible for me to laugh.
• Yefwe hav et piu ig. It is essential that you leave quickly.
• He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi? Is it obligatory to remove my shoes?
• Ga yux efwo. More help will be needed.

Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems

Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below:

SUBJECT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED
afxer allow (someone to do sthg.)	afwaxer permit (something to be done)
efxer require	efwaxer necessitate
ofxer prohibit	ofwaxer prohibit
yafxer enable	yafwaxer make possible
yefxer oblige	yefwaxer make obligatory
yofxer cripple	yofwaxer disable
yifxer embolden	yifwaxer make safe
yufxer intimidate	yufwaxer make frightening
ifxer please	ifwaxer make pleasant

Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes

Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things.

	POSITIVE ADJECTIVE	NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	yafa able to	yofa unable to
PATIENT-ORIENTED	yafwa possible to	yofwa impossible to
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	ifa fond of	ufa averse to
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	yika having difficulty Xing	yuka having ease Xing
PATIENT-ORIENTED	yikwa hard to	yukwa easy to
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	efa need to
PATIENT-ORIENTED	efwa necessary to be Xed

	POSITIVE ADJECTIVE	POSITIVE VERB	NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE	NEGATIVE VERB
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	teatyafa able to see, sighted	teatyafer be able to see	teatyofa blind	teatyofer be blind
PATIENT-ORIENTED	teatyafwa visible	teatyafwer be visible	teatyofwa invisible	teatyofwer be invisible
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	teetyafa able to hear, hearing	teetyafer be able to hear	teetyofa deaf	teatyofer be deaf
PATIENT-ORIENTED	teetyafwa audible	teetyafwer be audible	teeyofwa inaudible	teeyofwer be inaudiable
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	dalyafa able to speak	dalyafer be able to speak	dalyofa mute, dumb	dalyofer be mute, dumb
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	doabifa patriotic	doabifer be patriotic	doabufa rebellious	doabufer rebel
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	tosyafa sensitive	tosyafer be able to feel	tosyofa insensitive	tosyofer be numbed
PATIENT-ORIENTED	tosyafwa palpable	tosyafwer be palpable	tosyofwa numb	tosyofwer be impalbable, numb
PATIENT-ORIENTED	tidyukwa easy to understand	tidyukwaxer make easily understood	tidyikwa hard to understand	tidyikwaxer make hard to understand
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	tilefa thirsty	tilefer be thirsty
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	telefa hungry	telefer be hungry
PATIENT-ORIENTED	xefwa necessary to be done	xefwer to be necessary to be done

Sensing Verbs

Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern:

	VISUAL	AUDIAL	OLFACTORY	GUSTATORY	TACTILE
	teab eye	teeb ear	teib nose	teub mouth	tayob skin
RECEPTIVE/ACTIVE	teater see	teeter hear	teiter smell	teuter taste	tayoter feel
RECEPTIVE/PASSIVE	teatwer be seen	teetwer be heard	teitwer be smelled	teutwer be tasted	tayotwer be felt
STATIVE	teaser seem	teeser sound	teiser smell	teuser taste	tayoser feel (or) toser
DYNAMIC/ACTIVE	teaxer look at	teexer listen	teixer sniff	teuxer taste	tayoxer touch (or) toxer
DYNAMIC/PASSIVE	teaxwer be looked at	teexwer be listened to	teixwer be sniffed	teuxwer be tasted	tayoxwer be touched (or) toxwer
CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE	teatuer show	teetuer make hear	teixuer make smell	teuxuer offer a taste	tayoxuer make feel (or) toxuer
CAUSATIVE/PASSIVE	teatuwer be shown	teetuwer be made to hear	teituwer be made to smell	teutuwer be given a taste	tayotuwer be made to feel (or) toxuwer
INCHOATIVE/ACTIVE	teatier perceive, catch sight of	teetier catch the sound of	teitier get a whiff of	teutuer get a taste of	tayotier get the sensation of
INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE	teatiwer be perceived	teetiwer be heard	teitiwer be whiffed	teutiwer be tasted	tayotiwer be felt
NEGATIVE-MODAL/PATIENT-ORIENTED/ STATIVE	teatyofer be blind	teetyofer be deaf	teityofer be unable to smell	teityofer be unable to taste	tayotyofer be insensitive
NEGATIVE-MODAL/OBJECT-ORIENTED/ STATIVE	teatyofwer be invisible	teetyofwer be inaudible	teityofwer be undetectable odorwise	teityofwer be insipid	tayotyofwer be undetectable by touch
NEGATIVE-MODAL/PATIENT-ORIENTED/CAUSATIVE	teatyofxer blind	teetyofxer deafen	teityofxer desensitize to smell	teutyofxer desensitize to taste	tayotyofxer desensitize
NEGATIVE-MODAL/OBJECT-ORIENTED/CAUSATIVE	teatyofwaxer make invisible	teetyofwaxer make inaudible	teityofwaxer make odorless	teutyofwaxer render tasteless	tayotyofwaxer numb

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that connect and show a relationship between a noun or noun phrase and the rest of the sentence. In Mirad, prepositions are simple monosyllables or phrases. Prepositions, as in English, are positioned before the noun or noun phrase they connect.

Single-word Prepositions

Here is a chart of simple prepositions. Most are spatial, but some are temporal, relational, or mathematical.

SPATIAL POSITIVE	SPATIAL NEUTRAL	SPATIAL NEGATIVE
ab on, upon	eb between	ob off, off of
ayb over, above	eyb among, amid	oyb under, below
bu to	be at	bi from, of
byu as far as, up to		byi since, starting with
bay with	bey by	boy without
ub toward		ib away from
yub near (to)	yeb in oyeb out of	yib far (from)
yaz flush with	yez along	yoz perpendicular to
yuz around		yiz beyond
za in front of	ze at the middle of zey across	zo behind, in back of
zu (to the) left (of)		zi (to the) right (of)
zya throughout	zye through
TEMPORAL POSITIVE	TEMPORAL NEUTRAL	TEMPORAL NEGATIVE
ja before	je during, while	jo after
ju until		ju since
RELATIONAL POSITIVE	RELATIONAL NEUTRAL	RELATIOANL NEGATIVE
av for, about	ev than, as, compared to	ov against
ay and	ey or	oy but, except
MATHEMATICAL POSITIVE	MATHEMATICAL NEURAL	MATHEMATICAL NEGATIVE
gab plus, +		gob, - minus
gal times, x	gel like ogel unlike	gol, ÷ divided by
gar to the power of		gor to the root of

Examples showing how these single-word prepositions are used:

• Ha dyen se ab ha sem..... The book is on the table.
• Vos et pyosu ob ha abtamas!.... Don't fall off the roof!
• Ha pati papa ayb ata tam..... The birds flew over my house.
• It kosa oyb ha yagsim..... He hid under the bench.
• Simbiu eb hut ay at..... Take a seat between that person and me.
• Yat teje eyb fiati..... We live among good people.
• Hos se nax bi pop bu ay bi Boston?.... What is the cost of a trip to and from Boston?
• His se ifek bi kyen..... This is a game of luck.
• Duvas et sa be hua duzun zomoj?.... Were you at that concert last night?
• Yit se embwa be ha zenod bi ha mapil..... We are positioned at the hub of this storm.
• Iyt tyoyapa byu ha mis..... She walked up to the door.
• Ha tob tojbwa bey gobar..... The man was killed with/by a knife.
• Et xu ga fiay ser bay at ev boy at..... You would do better to be with me than without me.
• Teaxu ib ha amar..... Look away from the sun.
• Hov teaxu iz ub ja man..... Don't look directly toward the light.
• Et efe tyoyaper yuz ha ovon..... You need to walk around the obstacle.
• Yat yofe per yiz hia nod..... We are prohibited from going beyond this point.
• Iyt simpa za at. .... She sat in front of me.
• Et yeyfe simbier zo hua toyb..... You should sit in back of that woman.
• Embu has zu ha mis..... Put it to the left of the door.
• At simpo zi et..... I will sit to the right of you.
• Ha pat poosa ze ha tim..... The bird stayed in the middle of the room.
• Diwe vas et poosu yeb ha tam..... Please stay in the house.
• At so oyebdom av yoga joob..... I will be out of town for a short while.
• Ha mimpar mimpa yaz ha mip..... The boat sailed along the river.
• His xwa zya ha doob..... This happened throughout the nation.
• Mil upeye zye ha mes..... Water is coming through the door.
• His xwo ja zajub. .... This will happen before tomorrow.
• Esa mapil je ha moj..... There was a storm during the night.
• Ju zamaj..... Until tomorrow morning.
• At voy teataye et ji zoyejub..... I have not seen you since last week.
• Diwe xu hes av at..... Please do something for me.
• Hia dyen se din av ewa fiuti..... This book is a story about two lovers.
• Datan se ga fia ev nas. Friendship is better than money.
• Hos se ge fua ev hus hu yat soa zojab. Nothing is as bad as what we underwent last year.
• Yit yexeya ov yat..... They were working against us.
• Et ay at yeyfe ser dati..... You and I should be friends.
• Hot ako, et ey at?....Who will win, you or I?
• Hyat oy hut ta ha dud..... Everyone but that guy knew the answer.
• Et voy se gel at..... You are not like me.
• Et se hyagla ogel at..... You are totally unlike me.
• E gab e gese u..... Two plus two equals four.
• U gob e gese e..... Four minus two equals two.
• E gal e gese u..... Two times two equals four.
• E gol e gese a..... Two divided by two equals one.
• U gar e gese asya..... Four squared equals sixteen. (Lit: Four to the power of two...)
• Asya gor e gese u..... The square root of sixteen is four. (Lit: Sixteen to the root of two...)

Directional Adverbs

There are certain directional adverbs that can play a part in forming complex prepositions:

yub near	yib far
yab up	yob down
zay forward, ahead	zoy back
iz directly, straight	uz indirectly, roundabout

Phrasal Prepositions

Phrasal prepositions contain one or more prepositions in some combination with either a noun or an adverb. This chart shows some examples:

PHRASAL PREPOSITION	EXAMPLE
yub bu near to, close to	At fe tujer yub bi et..... I want to sleep close to you.
yib bi far from	Ha amar se yib bi ha meir..... The sun is far from the earth.
yab bu up to	It fu paper yab bu ha mam..... He would like to fly up to the sky.
yab bi up from	Su yab bi ha sim..... Get up from the bed.
yab bey up (along)	Yat tyoyapo yab bey ha meab..... We will walk up the hill.
yob bu down to	Igpu yob bu ha obmos..... Run down to the cellar.
yob bi down from	Ha tat upa yob bi ha mam..... The angel came down from the sky.
yob bey down from	Iyt igtyoyapa yob bey ha meab..... She ran down the hill.
yob ab down on top of	Has kawa yob ab eta oybmos..... It was found down on your floor.
zay bu on to, forth to	Ha elyanaadpar popa zay bu zona doym..... The train traveled on to the next town.
zey bi across from	Iyt simbia zey bi yat..... She sat across from us.
zoy bi back from	At se zoy bi ha yexim..... I am back from the office.
iz bu straight to	Pu iz bu fom! ....Go straight to hell!
iz zoy bi right back from	It upu iz zoy bi ha yexim..... He came right back from the office.

Idiomatic Prepositional Phrases

The following chart shows other prepositional phrases that are considered idiomatic, because they are somewhat abbreviated by the omission of the definite article ha in front of the noun in these phrases:

OTHER PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
be abem bi at the top of	bu abem bi to the top of	bi abem bi from the top of
be obem bi at the bottom of	bu obem bi to the bottom of	bi obem bi from the top of
be ebem bi in the area between	bu ebem bi to the area between	bi ebem bi from the area between
be aybem bi above, over	bu aybem bi to the area above	bi aybem bi from the area above
be oybem bi below, under	bu oybem bi to the area below	bi oybem bi from the area below
be eybem bi amid	zye eybem bi through the midst of	yez eybem bi in the midst of
be zam bi at the front of	bu zam bi to the front of	bi zam bi from the front of
be zem bi at the middle of	bu zem bi to the middle of	bi zem bi from the middle of
be zom bi at the back of	bu zom bi to the back of	bi zom bi from the back of
be yubem bi in the vicinity of	bu yubem bi to the vicinity of	bi yubem bi from the vicinity of
be yibem bi at a distance from	bey azon bi by dint of	be avon bi in favor of
be ubem bi in the direction of	bay ux bi with assistance from	be byux bay in touch with
be yabem bi in the upper reaches of	be vyen bu in relation to	doytaxwa bay associated with
be yobem bi in the bottom area of	be ned bi on the level of	be mep bu on the way to, en route
bey mep bi by way of, via	be kum bi beside, at the side of	be ij bi at the start of
be uj bi at the end of	bey uxun bi by means of	be kunad bi at the edge of
be nod bi at the point of	be yezem bi at the interior of, inside	be yozem bi at the exterior of, outside
be nad bay in line with	yez kunad bi alongside	be tes bi in the sense of
be teas bi in the guise of	be san bi in the form of	be yanx bi in conjunction with
be bol bi in support of	be gab bu in addition to	be dyun bi in the name of

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that join or introduce clauses. They are divided into coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. Also some conjunctions consist of a combination of words.

Coordinating Conjunctions

This chart shows the coordinating conjunctions used in Mirad:

ay	and
ey	or
oy	but
oey	nor

Usage examples:

• At oveko ay at ako. I will compete and I will win.
• Bosu ey at tuyapyexo et. Be still or I will spank you.
• It yeka oy it oka. He tried but he lost.
• At voy tilo oey at telo. I shall not drink, nor shall I eat.

Correlative Coordinating Conjunctions

The above coordinating conjunctions can be associated in correlative pairs, as follows:

hya ewa...ay	both...and
hye awa...ey	either...or
hyo awa...oey	neither...nor
voy hya awa...oy (gay)	not only...but (also)

Examples:

• At hya ewa dyede ay dre Mirad..... I both read and write Mirad.
• Et yafe hye awa beser ey pier. Se eta kebiun..... You can either stay or leave. It's your choice.
• Yat hyo awa move oey tile..... We neither smoke nor drink.
• At voy hya awa deuze oy gay at daze.....I not only sing but also I dance.

Complementizers

There are three complementizers (= subordinating conjunctions) that either connect clauses, where the second clause is subordinate to the main clause, or introduce a certain kind of statement.

TYPE	COMPLEMENTIZER	CLAUSE LINKER	SENTENCE INTRODUCER
POSITIVE / HORTATIVE	vas	that, so that	May (something happen), Let (something happen)
CONDITIONAL	ves	if, whether	--
NEGATIVE / PROHIBITIVE	vos	lest, that...not	Don't
ANTI-CONDITIONAL	oves	unless	--
INTERROGATIVE	Duves...?	--	Is it true that, say whether..., do(es)?

Examples of these conjunctions linking a main and subordinate clause:

• At ta vas et upo..... I knew that you would come.
• At xa has vas et testu..... I did it so that you would understand.
• At voy ta ves et upo..... I did not know whether you would come.
• Ves et te ha dud, du has..... If you know the answer, say it.
• At yufa vos et upu..... I feared lest you come.
• At voy upo oves et upo gay..... I will not come unless you come, too.

Example of these conjunctions introducing a sentence:

• Vas yat fadilu..... Let us pray. (HORTATIVE)
• Vas yit teliu avol!.... Let them eat bread.
• Vas ad edeb yagteju..... May the king live long.
• Duves et te ad dud?.... Do you know the answer?
• Duves et se tadsa..... Say whether you are married.
• Vos (et) yufu..... Don't (you) be afraid.
• Vos ud xwu..... Let that not happen.
• Ves et te, du has..... If you know, say so.
• Ves hus se vyaa otwe..... Whether that's true is unknown.
• Ves et upo ey voy, at voy tebike..... Whether you come or not, I don't care.

The sentence-initial interrogative complementizer Duves (Is it true that?) is used to introduce a yes/no question. The word can be analyzed as a command meaning Say whether....

• Duves et se tadokayt?.... Are you a widow? (= Say whether you are...).

Composite Conjunctions

Other conjunctions are formed with two or more words, which, because of their frequency, are usually written together as one word:

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLES
jahu.... before	Du hay jahu et pio..... Say hi before you leave.
jehu.... while	Jehu at so him, at xo gle yex av et..... While I'm here, I'll do some work for you.
johu.... after	At buo et has johu et nuso..... I will give it to you after you pay.
juhu.... until	Yat voy ijo juhu et puo him..... We won't start until you get here.
jihu.... since	At voy teataya huyenas jihu et sa hum..... I had not seen such a thing since you were there.
hajhu.... when	Hajhu et pua, ha iv ija..... When you arrived, the fun began.
johus.... then	Yat deuza johus hyat daza..... We sang, then everyone danced.
jehus.... meanwhile	Jehus, at ujba hyas..... Meanwhile, I finished everything.
hamhu.... where	At voy te hamhu it pa..... I don't know where he went.
avhashu.... why	Duhev et te avhashu it xa his?.... Do you know why he did it?
avhashu.... because	It xa has avhashu it fa teatuer yat hes..... He did it because he wanted to show us something.
geyhu.... even if	Geyhu et yontexe, at bolo et..... Even if you disagree, I'll support you.
hayenhu.... as if	Yat yeyfe axer hayenhu yat teata yod..... We should act as if we saw nothing.
gelhu.... as if	Yat yeyfe axer gelhu yat teata yod..... We should act as if we saw nothing.
geyovhu.... even though	Geyovhu ha pansin sa gra yaga, at ifia has.....Even though the movie was too long, I enjoyed it.
ovhu.... (al)though	At po ovhu at voy fe..... I'll go, although I don't want to.
avhus.... so, therefore	It vuda at, avhus at pia..... He insulted me, so I left.

Interjections

Interjections in Mirad include the words for yes, no and maybe:

va	yes
ve	maybe, perhaps
vo*	no

* Not to be confused with voy, which translates the English adverb not, as in Vo, it voy se tadsa. He is not married.

Examples:

• Va. At se otadsa..... Yes. I am unmarried.
• Va. At se vay otadsa..... Yes. I am indeed/really unmarried.
• Va, vay..... Yes, indeed.
• Va ay vo. Hus vey se vyaa..... Yes and no. That may be true.
• Va ey vo?.... Yes or no?
• Ve. At te voy valay..... Maybe. I don't know for sure.
• Vo. At voy vatexe et..... No. I don't believe you.
• Vo! Dilwe hov xu has..... No! Don't do it.
• Et se Amerikama, va vo?.... You're American, yes or no?
• Hev va, xu has..... If so, do it.
• Hev vo, wo xu has..... If not, don't do it.

Other interjections include greetings and non-vulgar expletives:

INITIAL GREETING	hay!	Hello!, Hi!
VOCATIVE GREETING	hey!	Hey!, O!, Oh!
TERMINAL GREETING	hoy!	Goodbye!, Bye!
PROXIMAL SPECIFIER	hiy!	Voici!, Here is...
DISTAL SPECIFIER	huy!	Voila!', There is...
POSITIVE EXCLAMATION	hway!*	Great! Wow!, Bravo!, Woopee!,Hurrah!, Thanks!
SURPRISE EXCLAMATION	hwey!	What a...!, Oh!, Well!, You're welcome!
NEGATIVE EXCLAMATION	hwoy!	What a pity!, It's a shame!, Woe is...!, Darn it!, Yikes!, Boo!, Sorry!

• hw is pronounced like the wh in English words.

Examples:

• Hay! Ata dyun se Johan.....Hi! My name is John.
• Hey, Johan! Hoyena et se?....Hey, John, how are you?
• Hey, Fyaat! O, God!
• Hoy. At teato et zajub.....Bye. I will see you tomorrow.
• Hiy ha dyen et dila..... Here's the book you requested.
• Hiy Tobyan..... Behold Man. (Ecce Homo).
• Hiy ata dyundraf..... Here's my caling card.
• Huy! Se xawa..... Voilà! It's done.
• Huy hos at yaka..... There's what I expected.
• Hway et!.... Good for you!
• Hway! Et utnaze his...... Bravo! You deserve this.
• Hwey via maj! ....Oh, what a beautiful morning!
• Hwey At ta voy hav et upo..... Oh! I didn't know you were coming.
• Hwoy at..... Woe is me.
• Hwoy! Ga fia fikyen jonay..... Pity!. Better luck next time.

Vulgar expletives are not offered here, but may arise naturally in daily speech.

Syntax

[This page under construction]

Mirad is an SVO language like English, that is, the subject (S) comes first, then the verb (V) predicate, then the object (O). Determiners (D) and adjectives (A) generally precede the noun (N) they modify. Adverbs (AD) can float more freely, as long as no ambiguity results.

Following are some example sentences showing this word order:

• Yat (S) iyfe (V) pit (O)....We (S) like (V) fish (O).
• Yat (S) iyfe (V) yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O)....We (S) like (V) fried (A) fish (N O).
• Yat (S) voy (AD) iyfe (V) yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O)....We (S) do not (AD) like (V) fried (A) fish (N O).
• Yat (S) voy (AD) iyfe (V) yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O) gla(AD)....We (S) do not (AD) like (V) fried (A) fish (N O) very much (AD).
• Yat (S) voy (AD) iyfe (V) hia (D)yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O) gla(AD)....We (S) do not (AD) like (V) this (D) fried (A) fish (N O) very much (AD).
• Yat (S) gle (AD)) iyfe (V) hia (D)yelmagelwa (A) pit (N O)....We (S) rather (AD) like (V) this (D) fried (A) fish (N O).

Greetings and Other Polite Expressions

MIRAD	ENGLISH
Hay!	Hello!
Hey!	Hey!
Hoy!	Bye!
Hiy...	Here is / Here comes... / Voici
Huy...	There's... / There goes... / Voila
Hway!*	Great! / Good for you! / Thanks! / Congratulations!
Hwey!	Oh my! / Goodness gracious! / Well! / Your're welcome!
Hwoy!	Too bad! / What a shame! / Sorry!'
Fijub!	Good day!
Fimaj!	Good morning!
Fimoj!	Good evening!
Hoyen et xeye?	How are you? (Lit. How are you doing?)
Fi. Ay et?	Fine. And you?
Iftaxwo. Hway.	Thank-you. (Lit. (It) will be fondly remembered.)
Toxu. Hwey.	You're welcome. (Lit. Forget (it).)
Diwe.	Please. (Lit. It is asked.)
Yovobu (at). Hwoy.	Excuse (me).
Fipop!	Bon voyage!
Su valta!	Be safe!
Igbaksu!	Get well soon!
Yanivtos! Hway!	Congratulations! (Lit: together-happy-feeling)
Iva Tajjub!	Happy Birthday!
Yanuvtos! Hwoy!	My condolences! (Lit: together-sad-feeling)

• hw is pronounced in Mirad like a wh in English words.

Word Formation

In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings have been attached to consonants and various values have been ascribed to vowels.

The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of core words and derived words.

Guiding Principles for Word Formation

The vocabulary is built on root morphemes, that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by:

• The meaning of each letter of the word.
• The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: fixed vs. variable.
• How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language.
• The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about).
• The logic of its composition.
• The mnemonic associations this word suggests.

The words derived from root morphemes in turn follow very simple laws called vocabulary-building rules.

Root Morphemes

Root morphemes are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. These root morphemes are divided into two groups:

• 1st Group:  consisting of nouns
• 2nd Group:  consisting of prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and verbs.

Root Morphemes of the 1st Group: Nouns

All noun root morphemes are composed of three letters:

• The first, a consonant called the classifier
• The second, a vowel called the ordinal
• The third, a consonant called the generic

Examples:

CLASSIFIER	ORDINAL	GENERIC	MEANING
t	o	b	man
d	o	t	society
f	o	b	plant

The classifier and generic letters are consonants, so one needs to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart:

Consonants and Their Meanings

CONSONANT	1st Group Root Morphemes (NOUN)	1st Group Root Morphemes (NOUN)	2nd Group Root Morphemes	Numeric Value
	CLASSIFIER	GENERIC	CLASSIFIER	IN NUMBERS
b	organ, illness, body, etc.	organism	gesture, manner, movement
p	animal, vehicle		movement
s	thing, furniture		form, thing	hundred
x	do, action		do, action
d	society	person, thing	reading, writing
t	person	person	intelligence, knowing
f	vegetation	clothing	volition
v	plant, color	linen	veracity
g		measurement	quantity
k		condition, risk	change, chance
j	time	time	time
z		jewel, precious, art	spatial
l		element, liquid		ten
m	nature	place, building, furniture, metal		ml = million
n	mechandise	abstraction
r		tool, machine		thousand, mr = billion

The letters l and r are used before or after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word. The letter y, if used before a stem vowel intensifies the semantics of the word, but mitigates the semantics if it follows the stem vowel.

The letter h is used only in certain interjections, conjunctions, and determiners and has no semantic identity.

The letter w has no semantic identity of its own, but is used only to form the passive of verbs and to form a counter morpheme used in numbers, and sometimes to substitute for y when the latter letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants.

Ordinal Vowels of the 1st Group Root Morphemes and Their Values

• Numeric Values:

The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with y are considered pre-iotated vowels.

o	a	e	i	u	yo	ya	ye	yi	yu	alo	ala	ale
0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
zero	one	two	three	four	five	six	seven	eight	nine	ten	eleven	twelve

A vowel with a numeric value is sometimes prefixed to nouns to form a hierarchy of nouns:

MIRAD deb	ENGLISH ruler		MIRAD dab	ENGLISH rule
adeb	emperor		adab	empire
edeb	king		edab	kingdom
ideb	prince		idab	principality
udeb	duke		udab	duchy
yodeb	marquis, margrave		yodab	marquisate
yadeb	earl, count		yadab	county, earldom
yedeb	lord, vassal		yedab	dominion
yideb	viscount		yidab	viscountcy
yudeb	baron		yudab	barony
alodeb	tribal chief		alodab	tribe

Sometimes the numeric vowel falls inside the word after the ordinal vowel. This happens with the names of the planets, as shown here:

MIRAD mer	ENGLISH planet
Mear	Mercury
Meer	Venus
Meir	Earth
Meur	Mars
Meyor	Jupiter
Meyar	Saturn
Meyer	Uranus
Meyir	Neptune
Meyur	Pluto

So, as you can see, Earth is the "4rth rock from the sun."

The word for star is mar, but sun is amar, the number one star, at least for us!

Similarly, the word for satellite is mur, but moon is amur, the number one satellite as far as we earth-bound citizens are concerned.

• Positional Values:

The positional value of vowels is shown below (Rule nr. 10):

	a.... up, superior, north, ahead, on
u.... left, west, near	e.... center, middle	i.... right, east, away
	o.... down, inferior, south, back, off

	za.... front, ahead
zu.... left	ze.... middle	zi.... right
	zo.... back

	zamir.... north
zumir.... west	zemir.... equator	zimir.... east
	zomir.... south

	ab.... on
ib.... away	eb.... between	ub.... toward
	ob.... off

	yab.... up
yib.... far	yeb.... in	yub.... near
	yob.... down

	ja.... before
ji.... since	je.... during	ju.... until
	jo.... after

• Geophysical Values:

o	outer space, nature
a	air, gas, sky
e	land, soil, earth
i	liquid, water, juice
u	underground, minerals

Some examples:

mol nature	mom outer space	poper travel	pot animal	mop orbit	dop military	mor cosmos
mal air	mam sky	paper fly	pat bird	map wind	dap air force	mar star
mel soil	mem land	peper ride	pet land animal	mep road	dep army	mer planet
mil water	mim sea	piper sail	pit fish	mip river	dip marines	mir world
mul mineral	mum underground	puper burrow	put bug	mup tunnel	dup submarine force	mur moon

Ordinal Vowels of 2nd Group Root Morphemes and Their Values

• Positive-Intermediate-Negative Values:

• POSITIVE a, ya oppose NEGATIVE o, yo
• INTERMEDIATE e, ye
• POSITIVE i, yi oppose NEGATIVE u, yu

Some examples:

POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE
ag- big	eg- normal	og- small
az- strong	ez- moderate	oz- weak
va yes	ve maybe	vo no
ak- win	ek- play	ok- lose
yad everything	yed anything	yod nothing
ig- fast		ug- slow
im- wet		um- dry
fi- good		fu- bad
kyi- heavy		kyu- light

• Directional Values:

VOWEL	CONTACT	DIRECTION	EXAMPLE
a-	free movement	from above onto	aber apply
-a	movement with contact	from above onto	baer lean
ya-	free movement	upward	yaper rise
-ya	movement with contact	upward	pyaser jump
o-	free movement	from below upward	ober remove
-o	movement with contact	from below onto	boer uphold
yo-	free movement	downward	yoper descend
-yo	movement with contact	fall	pyoer fall
u-	free movement	toward the center	uper come
-u	movement with contact	toward the center	buer give
yu-	free movement	near	yuber bring
-yu	movement with contact	near	byuer touch
i-	free movement	away	iper leave
-i	movement with contact	away	bier take
yi-	free movement	far away	yiper move far away
-yi	movement with contact	far away	pyier originate
e-	stop		eper intervene
-e	pause		peser wait
ye-	in		yeper enter
-ye	in		byexer contain

• Special Values of Certain Vowels:

• The prefixes a-, an- have to do with one, single, singular and are opposed to:
• The prefixes ya-, yan- meaning together, plural.
• The prefix yan- contrasts with yon- meaning apart.

Some examples:

auta individual, private	yauta communal
at I, me	yat we, us
anla singular	yanla plural
yanper join	yonper separate
yanmel continent	yonmel island
adut the one person	yadut everybody

1st Group Root Morphemes and What They Mean

The meaning of the 1st Group root morphemes comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the generic consonant, as show in the chart below. Most often, the root morphemes have a zeroth element in which the ordinal vowel is o. Related, usually hierchically subordinate, words are created by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel.

ROOT MORPHEME	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	GENERIC CONSONANT
tob man	t = human, animal	b = organism
tod family	t = human, animal	d = society
tof clothes	t = human, animal	f = tissue
tov lingerie	t = human, animal	v = linen
tol food	t = human, animal	l = fluid, substance
vob plant	v = plant	b = organism
tom building	t = human, animal	m = place
dob state	d = social	b = organism
dom city	d = social	m = place
dop military	d = social	p = movement
som furniture	s = thing	m = place
pot animal	p = movement	t = human, animal

2nd Group Root Morphemes and What They Mean

The 2nd Group root morphemes come from a combination of the classifier consonant and the stem vowel (which is sometimes zero). The vowel can be pre- or post-iotated and modified with the scalar enhancer consonants r, l, and w. Here is a chart showing the principle root morphemes of this group. The root morpheme itself is in boldface, sometimes followed by derived words incorporating that root.

POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE	POSITIVE	OPPOSITE
ja before, pre- →jana previous →japer precede	je during →jena current →jeper continue	jo after, post- →jona next →joper follow	ji since	ju until
aj past →ajna old	ej present →ejna new	oj future →ojna next	ij beginning →ijna initial	uj end →ujna final
jya- →jyaa early	jye- →jyea punctual	jyo- →jyoa late	yij opening →yija open →yijber open	yuj closure →juja closed →yujber close
ga more →gaber add →galer multiply →gra too much →gwa most	ge equal →geber equate →gean equality →gre enough	go less →gober substract →goler divide →gro insufficient →gwo least	gi- point →gin point →gia sharp	gu- angle →gun angle →gua dull
gya- fat →gyaxer fatten		gyo- thin →gyoxer emaciate	gyi- solid →gyian solidity	gyu- fragile →gyuan fragility
ag- big →agaxer magnify →agla huge	eg- normal →egaxer normalize →egan normality	og- small →ogaxer miniaturize →ogla tiny	ig- fast →igay quickly →igper rush	ug- slow →ugay slowly →ugper amble
yag- long →yagaxer lengthen	yeg- re- →yegxer re-do	yog- short →yogaxer shorten	yig- hard →yigaxer harden	yug- soft →soften
ka- find →kaxer find →kader reveal →kaxwas trove	ke- seek →kexer seek →keder inquire →kexwas pursuit	ko- hide →koxer hide →koder cover up →koxwas stash	ki- →kia diagonal →kim slope	ku- →kua lateral →kun edge →kum side
ak- win →akun gain	ek- play →ekun risk	ok- lose →okun loss	ik- full →ikber fill up	uk- empty →ukber empty out
kya- variable →kyaser change	kye- random →kyeser happen	kyo- fixed →kyoser stand still	kyi- heavy →kyiaxer weigh down	kyu- light →kyuaxer lighten
yak- expect →yakwa expected	yek- try →yekwa attempted	yok- be surprised →yokwa unexpected	yik- difficult →yikan difficulty	yuk- easy →yukan ease
va- yes →vader affirm	ve- maybe →veder equivocate	vo- no →voder deny	vi- beautiful →vila gorgeous	vu- ugly →vula hideous
av- for →avon favor	ev- than evon condition	ov- against →ovon hindrance	iv- happy →ivan happiness	uv- sad →uvan sadness
vya- true →vyan truth	vye- relative →vyen relation	vyo- false →vyon error	vyi- clean →vyisa pure	vyu- dirty →vyusa foul
yav- innocent →yavder acquit	yev- fair →yevder judge	yov- guilty →yovder accuse	yiv- free →yivxer release	yuv- captive →yuvxer capture
fa- holy →fader bless	f- want →fer want	fo- profane →foder curse	fi- good →fider praise	fu- bad →fuder malign
fya- proud →fyan pride		fyo- ashamed →fyon shame	fyi- useful →fyin worth	fyu- damaging →fyun harm
af- allow →afwa allowed	ef- need →efwa necessary	of- ban →ofwa prohibited	if- love →ifwa beloved	uf- hate →ufwa despised
yaf- able →yafer can	yef- obliged →yefer must	yof- unable →yofer cannot	yif- brave →yifer dare	yuf- afraid →fear
ba- →baer lean on →baler press →barer crush →baxer shake →abaxer stroke →abalxer rub	b- →ber put be at →beser stay →bexer hold →beler keep	bo- →boxer carry →boler support →oboler drop	bi from →bier take →bixer pull →bilxer yank →birxer uproot	bu to →buer give →buxer push →bulxer shove →burxer kick
bay with	bey by	boy without
ab on →aber put on →abem top	eb between →eber block →ebem gap	ob off →ober take off →obem bottom	ib away →iber receive →ilber obtain	ub toward →uber send →ulber deliver
yab up →yaber raise →yalber lift →yaper rise	yeb in →yeber introduce →yelber insert →yeper enter	yob down →yober lower →yolber down →yoper descend	yib far →yiber remove →yilber banish →yiper flee	yub near →yuber bring near →yolber abduct →yuper come
bya- →byaxer erect	bye- →byeer behave →byen manner	byo- →byoxer hang	byi since →byiser spring from	byu up to →byuser reach
pa- motion →paser move →paxer move (tr.)	p- →per go →peser wait →pexer trap	po- rest →poyser pause →poser stop →poxer stop (tr.)	pi- motion away →pier leave →piser withdraw →pixer catch	pu- motion toward →puer arrive →puser jump →puxer throw
pya- strong upward motion →pyaser jump up →pyaxer launch	pye- strong inward motion →pyeser bump into →pyexer strike	pyo- strong downward motion →pyoser plunge →pyoxer knock down	pyi- strong motion away →pyiser spring pyixer snatch	pyu- strong motion toward →pyuser pounce →pyuxer ram
za in front of →zaper precede	ze in the middle of →zeber balance	zo behind →zoper succeed	zi- right →zituyaba right-handed	zu- left →zutuyaba left-handed
zay forward →zayper advance	zey across →transit	zoy back →zoyper recede
az- strong →aza strong	ez- medium →eza medium	oz- weak →oza weak	iz- straight →izper go straight	uz- curved →uzper turn
zya- wide →zyaber spread	zye through →zyeteatuwa transparent	zyo- narrow →zyober restrict	zyi- flat →zyixer flatten	zyu- round →zyuper rotate
yaz- vertical →yazber stand upright	yez- horizontal →yezber lay flat	yoz- perpendicular →yoza perpendicular	yiz- beyond →yizper surpass	yuz- around →yuzper surround
da- →daler talk	d- →der say →drer write →dryer print de- →deler declare	do- →doler be silent	di- →dier ask →dider question →diler request →direr demand →din story	du- →duer suggest →duder answer →duler insist →durer prod →dun word
	dye- →dyeder read →dyen book		dyi- →dyier phone	dyu- →dyuer call →dyun name
ta- →taxer remember →tajer be born	t- know →ter know te- →texer think →teder mean →teser sense →tejer live	to- →toxer forget →tojer die	ti- learn →tier learn →tider understand →tixer study →tin doctrine, -ism →titam school →tijer wake	tu- teach →tuer teach →tuder explain →tuxer instruct →tun science, -ology →tutam institute →tujer sleep
tya- →tyan race	tye- →tyen craft, occupation →tyeer be familiar with →tryen industry		tyi- →tyier get acquainted	tyu- →tyuer acquaint
sa- →san form →saxer make →saun kind	s- →ser be →son thing (abstract) →sat being se- →sexer build	so- →soer undergo	si- →sin image →siun sign	su- thing →sun thing
sya- →syan type	sye- →syen style		syi- →syin subject	syu- →syun object
as- →aser become	es- →eser exist	os- →oser vanish	is- →iser be the result	us- →user be the cause
xa- →xaer execute →xaler accomplish	x- →xer do xe- →xen action →xeler conduct		xi- →xier result	xu- →xuer bring about →xuler provoke
	xye- →xyen practice →xyel exercise	xyi- →xyier wear out	xyu- →xyuer proceed
ax- →axer act →alxer operate	ex- →exer function	ox- →oxer be idle	ix- →ixen effect	ux- →uxer cause
	yex- →yexer work →yelx labor →yelx drudgery		yix- →yixer use →yilxer hire →yirxer exploit	yux- →yuxer help →yulxer serve →yurxer slave
na- →naxer cost	ne- →neser save	no- →noser spend	ni- →niser earn	nu- →nuser pay
ha so that	he whether	ho lest

Vowel Patterns in 2nd Group Root Morphemes

Note that that in 2nd Group core words there is a three-way contrast with the root vowels a, e, o and a two-way contrast with the root vowels i and u, as in the chart below, where the root vowels are underlined:

PATTERN TYPE	POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE
3-WAY (a-e-o)	aza strong	eza medium	oza weak
2-WAY (i-u)	fia good	--	fua bad

Meaning of the Classifier Consonant in 2nd Group Root Morphemes

Most human qualities are presented in the 2nd Group root morphemes that contain the consonants f or v.

Root morphemes relating to time all have the letter j.

The letters g and k relate mostly to physical qualities, measurements, and actions.

Parallelism in Root Morphemes

Root morphemes exhibit both vertical and horizontal parallelism in meaning as shown in some sample charts below:

aza	za	va	vyaa	yava
strong	front	yes	true	innocent
eza	ze	ve	vyea	yeva
moderate	middle	maybe	relative	fair
oza	zo	vo	vyoa	yova
weak	back	no	false	guilty

ja	jya	aja	kaer	aker
before	early	past	find	win
je	jye	eja	keer	eker
during	on time	present	seek	play
jo	jyo	oja	koer	oker
after	late	future	hide	lose

fia	via	vyia	fyia	iva	yiva	ifer
good	beautiful	clean	proud	happy	free	to love
fua	vua	vyua	fyua	uva	yuva	ufer
bad	ugly	dirty	ashamed	sad	bound	to hate

tab	tib	tub	tyob	tayob	tayeb	tyab
body	trunk	arm	foot	skin	hair	ovary
fab	fib	fub	fyob	fayob	fayeb	fyab
tree	tree trunk	branch	root	bark	leaf	fruit
vab	vib	vub	vyob	vayob	vayeb	vyab
plant	stem	twig	root	peel	leaf	seed

Ordered List of Root Morphemes

O	A	E	I	U
o zero o- un-	a one an- mono- ayn- whole	e two en- bi- eyn- half-	i three in- tri- iyn- terci-	u four un- quadri- uyn- quarti-
-o (future tense)	-a (past tense) -a (adjective) -ay (adverb)	-e (present tense)	-i (plural)	-u (hypothetical mode)
ob off	ab on	eb between	ib away	ub toward
of- must not	af- may	ef- need to	if- love	uf- hate
og- small	ag- big	eg- normal	ig- fast	ug- slow
oj future	aj past	ej present	ij beginning	uj end
ok- lose	ak- win	ek- play	ik- full	uk- empty
-ol?	-al gas	-el food -yel oil	-il liquid
om- cold	am- hot		im- wet	um- dry
-om building	-am house	-em place	-im room
-on (issue)	-an (abstract quality	-en (present gerund)	-in (-ism)	-un (thing)
op- get off	ap- get on	ep- stay	ip- go away	up- come
-or system	-ar instrument	-er (infinitive)	-ir device	-ur machine
os- be absent	as- become	es- exist	is- be the result	us- be the cause
ot one	at I	et you	it he	ut self -ut one who
ov against	av for	ev than	iv- happy	uv- sad
ox- be idle	ax- act	ex- operate	ix- result	ux- cause
oy but	ay and	ey or
oz- weak	az- strong	ez- moderate	iz- straight	uz- curved
bo- support byo- hang boy without	ba- lean on bya- stand bay with bax- gesture	b- put be- have be at bex- carry byex- strike	bi from bi- take bix- pull byi since	bu to bu- give bux- push byu as far as
bok illness byok pain	bak health	bek treatment byek cure	bik care	buk wound
do- be silent	da- speak -ad (language)	d- say de- declare dyed- read dr- write drye- print deu- voice	di- ask did question	du- suggest dud answer
dob state	dab government	deb leader	dib administration	dub minister
dom city	dam airport	dem park	dim pool
dop military	dap air force	dep army	dip marine
dot society	dat friend	det mate	dit citizen	dut gentleman
doz?	daz dance	dez theatre dyez cinema drez poetry	diz comedy	duz music
fo- profane foz witchcraft	fa- holy faz miracle		fi- good fiz honor	fu- bad fuz shame
fom metal
fyo?			fyi- worth	fyu- waste
go less glo few gro insuffiently gwo least gyo- thin	ga more gla very gra too gwa most gya- thick	ge equal gle nquite gre enough	gin point	gun angle
gya- fat	thin		gyi- solid	gyu- delicate
ho- which? hyo- no hov don't hoy! bye! hyoy! boo!	ha the hya- every hav that hay! hello! hyay! hurrah!	he some hye- any hev if hey! hey! hyey! thanks!	hi this hyi- same hiy... voici...	hu- that hyu- other huy...voila...
jo after jwo late joy then	ja before jwa early jay already	je during jwe on time jey still	ji since jiy ago	ju until juy hence
job time jwob hour	jab year jwab minute	jeb season jweb second	jib month	jub day
jod occasion				jud date
jog- young	jag- old
ko- hide	ka- find	ke- seek	ki- slant	ku- side
kyo- fixed	kya- mobile	kye- random	kyi- heavy	kyu- light
lo- (dis-)
mo- mon dark	ma- man light
mob galaxy?	mab?	meb mountain	mib lake?	mub valley? volcano?
mod?	mad paradise	med park	mid fountain
mof?	maf cloud	mef brick		muf pole
mog ash	mag fire	meg stone
moj night	maj day
mok cosmic dust	mak electricity?	mek dust
mol nature	mal air	mel soil	mil water	mul matter
mom space	mam sky	mem land	mim sea	mum underground
mop orbit	map wind	mep road	mip river	mup tunnel
mor cosmos	mar star	mer planet	mir world	mur moon
mos floor	mas wall	mes door	mis window	mus stairs
mov smoke	mav flame	mev porcelain	miv	muv rod
moz- black	mBold textaz- white	mez- crystal
no- spend noz jewel	na- money naz value	ne- save	ni- consume	nu- supply
nob?	nab rank nap order
nod point	nad line	ned plane	nid volume	nud column
nof textile nov linen nyov ribbon nyof film	naf cloth	nef web nyev bag nyef sack	nif thread niv strand nyiv lace nyif rope	nuf leash nyuf knob
nog grade nok degree?	nag measure nak meter sag number syag count jag age	neg level	nig space nik liter?
nom?		nem place -em place nyem box -yem enclosure	-im room
po- stop pyo- fall	pa- move pya- jump	p- go pyex- attack	pi- leave pix- catch	pu- arrive pux- throw pyux- bump
pop- travel	pap- fly	pep- drive	pip- sail
pot animal pyot wild beast	pat bird	pet land animal	pit fish
sam armoire	sem table	sim chair	sum bed
son matter syoz fantasy	san form saz sculpture	s- be	sin image siz painting	sun thing syun object suz artifact
sor? -or means	sar instrument -ar instrument		sir machine -ir machine	sur apparatus -ur apparatus
tob human tyob leg	tab body	teb head	tib trunk	tub arm
tod family	tad spouse	ted parent	tid uncle	tud godfather
tof clothing	taf suit	tef hat	tif vest	tuf sleeve
toj death	taj birth	tej life	tij- awake	tuj sleep
tol nourishment	tyal meal -al gas	tel food -el food -yel oil	til drink -il liquid	tul dish
tom building	tam house	tem hall	tim room	tum cell
top soul	tap physique	tep mind	tip psyche	tup member
tos- feel	tas-	t- know tes- mean tye- recognize tea- see tee- hear tei- smell teu- taste teud- shout	tis- learn	tus- inform
tox- forget	tax- remember	tex- think	tix- study	tux- teach
toz- skin color	taz- statue	tez- culture tyez- magic	tiz-	tuz- art
vo no	va yes	ve maybe	vi- beautiful	vu- ugly
vob plant	vab grass	veb tuft	vib stem	vub twig
vog- don't want	vag- want	veg- can
vol vegetable
voy not	vay indeed	vey perhaps
voz color	vaz- green
vyo- false	vya- true	vye- relative	vyi- clean	vyu- dirty
-w- (passive voice)
xo-	xa- execute	x- do xey- behave xeus- noise	xi- result	xu- affect
yob down	yab up	yeb in	yib far away	yub near
yof- cannot	yaf- can	yef- should	yif- dare	yuf- fear
yog- short	yag- long	yeg- again	yig- hard	yug- soft
yoj- young?	yaj- old?		yij- open	yuj- close
yok- surprise	yak- expect	yek- try	yik- difficult	yuk- easy
yom ice	yam fire
yon- apart	yan- together	-yen manner
yop- descend	yap- ascend	yep- enter	yip- move away	yup- approach
yot they	yat we	yet you	yit they	yut selves
yov- guilty	yav- innocent	yev- just	yiv- free	yuv- bound
yox- be idle		yex- work	yix- use	yux- serve
yoz- concave	yaz- convex	yez- horizontal	yiz beyond	yuz around
zo behind	za before	ze middle	zi right	zu left
zoy back	zay ahead	zey across
zyo- narrow	zya- wide	zye through	zyi- flat	zyu- round

Rules for Deriving New Words

Derived words, that is, words that are built from root morphemes and other words, are formed following certain very simple rules of vocabulary-building:

These word-building rules govern:

1. Combining whole words
2. Affixation
3. Scaling Words through numerically-ordered Vowels
4. Combining partial words
5. Word-building by adding ordinal vowels
6. Swapping endings
7. Scientific word-building
8. Feminizing words
9. Geophysical vowel codification
10. Directional and positional vowel codification
11. Mnemonic markers
12. Creating nuances of meaning

Rule #1: Combining Whole Words

Compound words are formed by the combination of two or more words. When compounding, the determining word is placed very simply in front of the determined word.

• mar star + tun science → martun astronomy
• mag fire + meb mountain → magmeb volcano
• tul meal + dren document → tuldren menu
• nax cost + aga big → naxaga expensive
• nax cost + oga small → naxoga cheap
• amar sun + yap ascent → amaryap sunrise
• amar sun + yop descent → amaryop sunset
• mam sky + par vehicle → mampar airplane
• map wind + yaf power → mapyaf windpower
• dom city + teas view → domteas cityscape
• tej life + tun science → tejtun biology
• man light + tam house → mantam lighthouse

Such compounds sometimes consist of more than two agglutinated words, for example:

• mam' sky + par vehicle + tam house → hangar

Rule #2: Affixation

Affixes can be prefixed or suffixed to verbs, nouns, and other parts of speech.

Prefixes

Adverbs and prepositions can serve as prefixes, especially for forming new verbs, eg.:

PREFIX	BASE VERB	COMPOUNDED VERB
go less	ber put	gober subtract
yeb in	ber put	yeber* introduce
oyeb out	ber put	oyeber* oust
yuz around	ber put	yuzber surround
ob off	ber put	ober* remove
ig fast	xer do	igxer accelerate
ug slow	xer do	ugxer brake
ja before	xer do	jaxer prepare
je during	xer do	jexer continue
oj future	xer do	ojxer plan
ab on	per go	aper1 get on
yeb in	per go	yeper* enter
oyeb out	per go	oyeper* exit
zay ahead	per go	zayper advance
zoy back	per go	zayper retreat
ja before	per go	japer precede
jo after	per go	joper follow
yuz around	per go	yuzper circulate
va yes	der say	vader affirm
vo no	der say	voder deny
fi good	der say	fider praise
fu bad	der say	fuder malign
ja before	der say	jader predict
ja before	dren writing	jadren preface
jo after	dren writing	jodren postscript

*Note: If the prefix is an adverb or preposition ending in b and is being affixed to the verb per go or ber put, then the b of the prefix is dropped. See the next section for this:

Prefixes Ending in b with Verbs per and ber

Prepositional prefixes ending in b lose the b before verbal elements based on per (go) and ber (put), as shown in the following chart:

PREFIX	BASE VERB	NEW VERB
yab up	ber put	yaber raise (NOT: yabber)
yab up	per go	yaper rise (NOT: yabper)
ab on	ber put	aber put on, apply
ab on	per go	aper get on, mount
yob down	ber put	yober take down
yob down	per go	yoper descend
ob off	ber put	ober take off, remove
ob on	per go	oper get off, dismount
yeb in	bux a push	yebux impulse
yeb in	pyoser fall	yepyoser collapse

Prefixing with Whole or Clipped Words

The two or three first letters of a root morpheme can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending a is often dropped¹, as is the er or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped.

PREFIX	BASE VERB	COMPOUND VERB
oza weak	der say	ozder whisper
yaga long	der say	yagder ramble
aja past	der say	ajder evoke
yoga short	der say	yogder summarize
tyoyab foot	per go	tyoyaper walk
dreer write	sar tool	dresar pencil
tuyob hand	dren writing	tuyodren manuscript
mam sky	mil water	mamil rain

¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending a is retained when an adjective is compounded with xer or ser. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs.

Prefixing with Prefixes Per Se

PREFIX	MEANING	EXAMPLES
o	un-, expresses negation, opposition, opposite meaning	data friendly → odata unfriendly
lo	un-, same as o but used where o is not clear	gla many → logla rare
yo	un-, same as o but more intense	dat friend → yodat enemy
av	pro-	fatin religion → avfatina pro-religious
ov	anti-, counter-	dropek war → ovdropeka anti-war
hyas	all-, pan-, omni-	tea aware → hyastea omniscient, all-knowing
ja	before, ante-, pre-, fore-	taj birth → jataja pre-natal
jo	after, post-	judrer to date → jojudrer post-date
yiz	beyond, meta-	tapa physical → yiztapa metaphysical
ey(n)	semi-, hemi-, half-	eyseuz demi-tone, eylevelbaya semi-sweet, eyntepa half-wit
e(n)-	bi-, duo-, two-	ejaba biennial, entyoba biped, enteba two-headed
i(n)-	tri-, three-	invoza tricolor, ijib trimester, inzyun tricycle
u(n)-	quadri-, four-	untyoba quadriped, unkuma quadrilateral, ungona quadripartite
a(n)-	uni-, singular	anxer unite, asana special, auta individual, private
ya(n)-	multi-, together, plural	yanxer assemble, yasana general, yauta common, public
yo(n)-	dis-, se-, apart	yonxer separate, yoniler unstick, youta alone, isolate
yeg-	re-, again	yeganxer reunite, yegder repeat, yegvader reaffirm

Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad

Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad:

ENGLISH PREFIX	MEANING	ORIGIN	ENGLISH EXAMPLE	MIRAD EXAMPLE
a-, an-	without, un-, -less	GREEK	atonal	oseuza
ab-	away	LATIN	absence	ibsen
ab-	not, un-	LATIN	abnormal	olega, ozeta
ad-	to, toward	LATIN	advent	upen < ub-
after-	after	GERMANIC	aftermath	joxwas
anti-	against	GREEK	antidote	ovbokil
arch-	chief, first	GREEK	archangel	aatat
auto-	self	GREEK	autocracy	utdab
back-	back	GERMANIC	backstairs	zomus
bene-	well	LATIN	benefactor	fixut
bi-	two	GREEK	bicameral	entima
by-	beyond	GERMANIC	bypass	yizper
cent(i)-	hundred	LATIN	century	sojab
circ(um)-	around	LATIN	circulate	yuzper
co-	together	LATIN	cooperate	yanexer
con-, com-, cor-, col-	with	LATIN	convene	yanuper
counter-, contra-	against	LATIN	contradict	ovder
cross-	across	GERMANIC	crosswind	zeymep
de-	un-, reverse	LATIN	desalinate	omimolxer, mimolober
de-	down	LATIN	descend	yo(b)per < yob + per
deci-	ten	LATIN	decimeter	alonag
di-	two	GREEK	diode	enmep
dia-	throughout	GREEK	diachronic	zyajoba
dicho-	double	GREEK	dichotomy	engorbun
di(s)-	apart, un-	LATIN	disappear	oteaser
dys-	bad	GREEK	dysfunction	fuexen
ec(to)-	out	GREEK	ectomorph	oyebsan
en-, em-	in	GREEK	endemic	yebdita
endo-	within	GREEK	endomorphic	yebsana
equi-	equal	LATIN	equilateral	gekuma
eu-	good, nice	GREEK	euphemism	vidun
ex-, e-	out	LATIN	extract	oye(b)bixer
extra-	outside	LATIN	extraordinary	yizega
fellow-	fellow	LATIN	fellow-traveler	yanpoput, dat-
fore-	front	GERMANIC	foreskin	zatayob
gyro-	round, wheel	LATIN	gyroscope	zyunzebar
half-	half	GERMANIC	half-dead	eyntoja
hemi-	half	GREEK	hemisphere	eynzyunid
hect(o)-	hundred	GREEK	hectometer	asonak
hept(o)-	seven	GREEK	heptogonal	yeguna
hetero-	different	GREEK	heterogeneous	hyusauna
hexa-	six	GREEK	hexagongal	yaunguna
high-	high	GERMANIC	high-flying	yabpapea
homo-	same	GREEK	homogeneous	hyisauna
hyper-	over, too much	GREEK	hyperactive	graaxeya
hypo-	under, too little	GREEK	hypothermia	groaman
idio-	peculiar	GREEK	idiopath	asanbak
ill-	poorly	GERMANIC	ill-mannered	fubyena
in-	in	LATIN/GERMANIC	incoming	yebupea
in-	not, un-	LATIN	inadequate	ogrea
infra-	below	LATIN	infrared	oybivoza
inter-	between	LATIN	international	ebdooba
intra-	amid	LATIN	intramural	eybmasa
intro-	into	LATIN	introduce	yebber
iso-	equal	GREEK	isometric	genaga
kilo-	thousand	GREEK	kilogram	arokyik
macro-	big	GREEK	macrometer	agnagar
magn(i)-	big	LATIN	magnify	agaxer
mal-	badly	LATIN	malformed	fusana
many-	many	GERMANIC	many-hued	glavoza
maxi(m)-	biggest	LATIN	maximize	gyaxer
mega(lo)-	big	GREEK	megacephalic	agteba
meso-	middle	GREEK	mesomorph	zesanat
meta-	beyond	GREEK	metaphysical	yizmula
micro-	little	GREEK	microcosm	ogmir
mid-	middle	LATIN	midday	zejub
milli-	thousand	LATIN	milligram	arokyik
mini(m)-	tiny	LATIN	miniskirt	gyotyoyf
mis-	wrongly	LATIN	misunderstand	vyotider
multi-	many	LATIN	multilateral	glakuma
neo-	new	GREEK	neophyte	jogagsat
non-	not	LATIN	nonentity	oseas
nona-	nine	GREEK	nonagon	yuungun
oct(a)-	eight	GREEK	octagon	yigun
omni-	all	LATIN	omniscient	hyastea
ortho-	correct	GREEK	orthodontist	izteupibtut
out-	better	GERMANIC	outplay	gafieker
over-	too much	GERMANIC	overeat	grateler
pan-	all	GREEK	pantheon	hyastotyan
para-	alongside	GREEK	paraphrase	yeztesder
penta-	five	GREEK	pentagon	yoongun
per-	through	LATIN/GREEK	perpendicular	zyepyonada
poly-	many	GREEK	polyandry	glatadan
post-	after	LATIN	postscript	jodren
pre-	before	LATIN	preview	jateaxer, za-
pro	for	LATIN	pro-life	avtejina
pro-	forward	LATIN	progress	zaynogper
pseudo-	falsely	GREEK	pseudonym	vyodyun
quadri-	four	LATIN	quadrilateral	unkuma
quasi-	resembling, nearly	LATIN	quasi-scientific	yubtuna
quint-	five	LATIN	quintet	younatyan
re-	again	LATIN	redo	yegxer
rect(i)-	straight	LATIN	rectilinear	iznada
retro-	backwards	LATIN	retrogress	zoynogser
semi-	half	LATIN	semi-sweet	eynlevelaya
sept-	seven	LATIN	septempartite	yegona
sext-	six	LATIN	sextuplicate	yaungeyxwas
sub-, sup-, sur-	below	LATIN	submarine	oybmimpar
super-, supra-	above	LATIN	superscript	aybdren
syn-, sym-, syl-	with	GREEK	symphony	yanduzutyan
tele-	far	GREEK	telephone	yibdalar
tetra-	four	GREEK	tetragon	ungun
trans-	across	LATIN	transfer	zeyber
tri-	three	GREEK/LATIN	trigram	indresin
ultra-	beyond, extremely	GREEK	ultranationalist	gwadoobina
un-	not	LATIN	untie	oyanxer
under-	below	LATIN	underarm	oybtub
under-	not enough	LATIN	underactive	groaxeya
uni-	one	LATIN	unicycle	anzyus

Suffixes

Mirad has semantic suffixes, grammatical suffixes, and part-of-speech-changing suffixes

• Semantic Suffixes

Semantic suffixes are generally formed from the two last letters of a root morpheme. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material.

ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIX	SUFFIXED DERIVATIONS
mil water	-il liquid	teabil tear < teab eye
		teubil saliva < teub mouth
		tayebil sweat < tayeb skin
		mamil rain < mam sky
tam house	-am house	apatam chicken coop < apat chicken
		apelatam beehive < apelat bee
		melyexam farmhouse < melyex agriculture
		datibam hostel < datib guest-reception
nem place	-em place	vobyexem plantation, farm < vob plant + yex work
		vabem field < vab grass
		abem top, surface < ab above, upper
		obem bottom < ob below
nof cloth	-of material	tof clothes < t- human
		misof curtain < mis window
		faof wood < fa(b)- tree
		tayof leather < tayo(b) skin
sar tool	-ar instrument	par vehicle < p- motion
		zyupar rotor < zyup turn
		gorbar knife < gorb cut
		syaagar computer < syaag computation
sun thing	-un thing	dun word < d- utter, say
		gorfun piece, scrap < gorfer rip, shread, tear
		zyiun plaque, plate < zyia flat
		vyun spot < vyua dirty
tin doctrine	-in -ism	totin theism, religion < tot- god
		Kristin Christianity < Krist Christ
		vyisatin puritanism < vysiat puritan, clean person
		otofin nudism < otofa nude
fuf pipe	-uf cylinder object	manuf candle < man light
		tiibuf artery < tiib heart
		miluf toilet < mil water
		movuf cheminee < mov smoke
yel oil	-yel oil, gel, wax, pulp	kafyel olive oil < kaf olive
		apelatyel wax < apelat bee
		levyel jam, jelly, confiture < leve sugar, sweet
		bekyel salve < bek care, treatment
		megyel cement < meg stone
		yanyel paste < yan together

• Grammatical Suffixes

Mirad has only a few grammatical or derivational (non-inflexional*) suffixes:

DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX	BASE WORD → SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-er (verb infinitive)	sag- cipher → sager to count nab rank → naber to rank yex work → yexer to work
-n (deverbal or deadjectival noun)	yexe works → yexen working via beautiful → vian beauty yuba near → yuban proximity, nearness
-a (adjective)	yib- far away → yiba remote mor universe → mora universal ake wins → akea winning
-y (deadjectival adverb)	iga- quick → igay quickly yiba remote → yibay remotely

*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker -i fall under the latter category.

• Augmentative Suffixes

AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX	ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-ag (augmentative)	tam house	tamag mansion
-ayg (affectionate augmentative)	sem chair	semayg big old chair
-yag (pejorative augmentative)	apet horse	apetyag nag

• Diminutive Suffixes

DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX	ROOT MORPHEME	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-og (diminutive)	tam house	tamog hut
-oyg (affectionate diminutive)	tam house	tamoyg cottage
-yog (pejorative diminutive)	tam house	tamyog shack

• Suffixes Forming Nuanced Adjectives

ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-aya	full of, -ous, -y	miek dust	miekaya dusty
-oya	empty of, -less, -free	vyun spot	vyunoya spotless
-ika	full of, -ous, -y	miek dust	miekika dusty
-uka	empty of, -less, -free	miek dust	miekuka dust-free
-ea (present active particple)	doing X, -ing, -ant, -ent	ilp flow	ilpea flowing, fluent
-yea	given to doing X, -ive	vyod lie	vyodyea mendacious, given to lying
-wea (present passive participle)	being Xed	vyixer to clean	vyixwea being cleaned
-yena	like, -ly, -ic	tat angel	tatyena angelic
-(a)wa (past passive participle)	Xed	oter to ignore	otwa or otawa unknown
-uwa (potential passive participle)	-able, liable to be Xed	teater to see	teatuwa visible

• Other Suffixes

SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-an	abstract quality, -ness, -hood, -ity	iva happy	ivan happiness
		via beautiful	vian beauty
		ama hot	aman heat
-at	person who has the quality of	yova guilty	yovat guilty party
		oga little	ogat little person
-ut	agent, practitioner, one who does X, -er, -ant, -ent	yuxer to help	yuxut helper, assistant
		vyoder lie	vyodut liar
-eat	one who does X	vyixeat cleaning person
-(a)wat	one who has been Xed	tujber to kill	tujbwat or tujbawat murder victim
-(a)was	what is/was Xed	ter to know	twas or tawas what is known, fact
-et	a person a level down	ted father	tedet son
		tid uncle	tidet cousin
		tad spouse	tadet brother
-es	item of lesser importance	nas money	nases change, coin
-ob	child of, offspring	tob man	tobob infant
		apet horse	apetob foal
-un < sun	concrete thing	viber decorate	vibun ornament
-on < son	abstract thing	kyiser weight down	kyison problem
		ifer to love	ifon love
-tun	science, ...ology	tej life	tejtun biology
		tob man	tobtun anthropology
-in < tin	doctrine, -ism	tot god	totin theism, religion
		dot society	dotin socialism
-yan	collection, aggregate	fab tree	fabyan forest
		mar star	maryan constellation
-ar < sar	instrument, tool, device	per go	par vehicle
		teab eye	teabar eyeglasses
-ur < sur	machine	yalb lift	yalbur elevator

Many of the above suffixes and prefixes can be combined as in the following example:

• ov- against, anti- + dot society + -in ism + -at person having the quality of + -yena like, -ish → ovdotinatyena anti-socialistic

Rule #3: Scaling Words through Numerically-ordered Vowels

Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to root morphemes of the 1st group. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the root morpheme stem as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called first-level ordinal scaling.

• First-level Ordinal Scaling

t...b	m...r	j...b	m...s	t...m	d...b	f...b	s...m
tob man	mor universe	job time	mos floor (1st,2nd,etc.)	tom building	dob state	fob plant	som furniture
tab body	mar sun	jab year	mas wall	tam house	dab government	fab tree	sam armoire
teb head	mer planet	jeb season	mes door	tem hall	deb leader	feb treetop	sem table
tib trunk	mir earth	jib month	mis window	tim room	dib office	fib tree trunk	sim chair
tub arm	mur moon	jub day	mus stairs	tum wing	dub ministry	fub branch	sum bed
tyob leg		jyob* hour				fyob root
		jyab* minute
		jyeb* second

* Easier to pronounce as jwob, jwab, and jweb.

• Second-level Ordinal Scaling

A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem.

Examples:

mi...p	me...p	tu...b	tyo...b
mip river	mep way	tub arm	tyob leg
miap stream	meap road	tuab shoulder	tyoab hip
miep brook	meep path	tueb upper arm	tyoeb thigh
miip rivulet	meip trail	tuib elbow	tyoib knee
miup torrent	meup track	tuub forearm	tyoub shin
miyop trickle		tuyob wrist	tyoyob ankle
		tuyab hand	tyoyab foot
		tuyeb fist	tyoyeb heel
		tuyib palm	tyoyib sole
		tuyub finger	tyoyub toe
		tulob fingernail	tyolob toenail

• Third-level Ordinal Scaling

A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word.

Example:

...tuyub
tuyub finger
atuyub thumb
etuyub index
ituyub middle finger
utuyub ring finger
yotuyub pinky

So, to sum up, we have:

t...b	tob = man
FIRST-LEVEL	tub arm
SECOND-LEVEL	tuyub finger
THIRD-LEVEL	atuyub thumb

• Scaling with Prefixed Numbering

We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering.

Example:

...dob	...pet	...mer
dob state	pet animal	mer planet
adob empire	apet horse	Amer Mercury
edob kingdom	epet bull	Emer Venus
idob principality	ipet ass	Imer Earth
udob duchy	upet ram	Umer Mars
yodob marquisate	yopet goat	Yomer Jupiter'
yadob county	yapet pig	Yamer Saturn
yedob dominion	yepet dog	Yemer Pluto

Rule #4: Portmanteau Compouding

When forming a compound word, the generic consonant (the last one) of the determinant (first word) is the same as the classifier consonant (first) of the determined (2nd word), the generic consonant is suppressed so as to avoid two of the same consonants in a row. This is also called portmanteau compounding.

• dom city + mep way → domep boulevard
• pat bird + teub mouth → pateub beak
• pat bird + tub arm → patub wing
• teb head + bok illness → tebok headache

When forming a compound word, the principal word has one or two prefixed vowels, this vowel or these vowels come at the beginning of the compound word.

Examples:

• tuyub finger → atuyub thumb → iatuyub right thumb

Codifying the Negative and Opposite Senses

In the codification of core words and derived words of the 1st group, the negative sense or opposite sense is obtained by adding the prefixes o and yo, the latter being more intense.

• mola natural → omola unnatural, artificial
• tobyena humane → otobyena inhumane
• data friendly → yodata inimical
• tat angel → yotat devil

In the codification of core words and derived words of the 2nd group, the opposite sense is obtained by prefixing lo dis-, un-, de- if followed by a consonant, or ol if followed by a vowel, eg.:

• fwa wanted → lofwa unwanted
• yuxer to tie up → loyuxer to untie
• axaxer to activate → olaxaxer to deactivate
• afwa allowable → olafwa disallowed

Rule #5: Codification by the Addition of Ordinal Vowels

a) When you wish to form a compound word with words from a same family of vowels, if the ordinal vowel is an o, you replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word.

NUMERAL PREFIX	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	ORDINAL VOWEL	GENERIC CONSONANT	MEANING
a	d	o	b	republic
	d	e	b	leader
a	d	e	b	president

NUMERAL PREFIX	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	ORDINAL VOWEL	GENERIC CONSONANT	MEANING
i	d	o	b	kingdom
	d	e	b	leader
i	d	e	b	king

b) If, on the other hand, the two words are already subordinate, then the vowel of the determinant is placed between the ordinal vowel of the determined and the generic consonant.

Examples:

• mil water ↗ mal air ⇒ mial steam, vapor
• mel soil ↗ mil water ⇒ meil mud
• tul meal ↗ til drink ⇒ tuil soup

c) You can also form new compound words by applying the Rule # 6 above (a and b).

Examples:

• adob republic ↘ dab government ⇒ adab government of the republic
• adab government of the republic ↘ deb leader ⇒ adaeb president of the republic
• (Applying Rule #8 on feminizing words by post-iotation) ⇒ adaeyb Madam President of the Republic

Rule #6: Swapping Endings

When the generic consonant of a core word is replaced by that of another core word, all of the vowels of this latter word undergo the transformation required by the new generic consonant.

Examples:

TOB

man ↘

TOF

clothing

NOF ↗

cloth

TYOYAB

foot ↘

TYOYAV

sock

NOV ↗

linen

tob man	tof clothing	tov lingerie
tab body	taf suit
teb head	tef hat	tev scarf
teib nose		teiv handkerchief
tib' trunk	tif vest
tiab chest		tiav shirt
tyob leg	tyof pants	tyov underwear shorts
tyoyab foot	tyoyaf shoe	tyoyav sock
tuyob hand	tuyof glove

Rule #7: Scientific Vocabulary-building

Chemical Elements

The names of chemical elements are formed from a number representing the element's atomic number (number of electrons), followed by a letter combination indicating whether it is a metal or metalloid, and followed, if pertinent, by a combination of letters indicating whether it is a gas or liquid. The table that follows shows how this composition works:

ELEMENT	ELECTRON COUNT	METAL GENERIC = m
silver	47 = ulye	ulyem
aluminum	13 = ali	alim
iron	46 = elya	elyam
gold	79 = yelyum	yelyum
copper	29 = elyu	elyum
tin	50 = yolo	yolom
		METALLOID GENERIC = ms
phosophorus	15 = alyo	alyoms
carbon	6 = ya	yams
		GAS = al LIQUID = il
hydrogen	1 = a	amsal
nitrogen	7 = ye	yemsal
oxygen	8 = yi	yimsal
mercury	80 = yilo	yilomsil

The words amsal, yemsal, and yimsal each carry three pieces of information.

The first letter indicates their classification by number of electrons.

The two following letters: mc indicates metalloids; The two last letters: al indicates that they are a gas.

The word yilomil also carries three pieces of information:

The three first letters: 'yi-l-o show classification by number of electrons.

The fourth letter, m, indicates that it's a metal.

The two last letters, il, indicates that it's a liquid.

Other Non-elemental Substances

Non-elemental natural and man-made substances and alloys are formed using mnemonic components.

• steel = elyamyig < elyam iron + yig(a) hard
• plastic = sanyel < m- shape + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• rubber = yigyel < yig- soft + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• cement = megyel < meg stone + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• glass = zyev < zy(e) (see) through + (m)ev porcelain
• bronze = elyumyig < elyum copper + yig(a) hard
• paint = vozil < voz color + -il liquid
• ink = dril < dr(er) write + -il liquid
• coal = yamsmumun < yams carbon + mum mine + -un substance
• glue = yanil < yan together + -il liquid
• paste = yanyel < yan together + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• resin = defabyel < defab pine tree + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• wood = faof < fa(b) tree + (n)of material, tissue
• leather = tayof < tayo(b) skin + (n)of material, tissue
• concrete = yanmulmeg < yan together + mul matter + meg stone
• tar = movyik < mov smoke + yik(a) solid
• lava = magmebil < mag fire + meb mountain + -il liquid
• fuel = magil' < mag fire + -il liquid
• shampoo = tayevyiyel < taye(b) hair + vyi(a) clean + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• detergent = vyunobil < vyu(a) dirty + -(u)n substance + ob(er) remove + -il liquid
• soap = vyunobyel < vyu(a) dirty + -(u)n substance + ob(er) remove + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• cheese = bilyig < bil milk + yig(a) hard
• butter = bilyug < bil milk + yug(a) soft
• syrup = gyalevil < gya extremely + lev(el) sugar, sweet + -il liquid
• gravy = taobil < taob flesh, meat + -il liquid
• alcohol = fil < (levaf) ferment + -il liquid
• wax = apelatyel < apelat bee + -yel oil, wax, gel, gum
• honey = apelatil < apelat bee + -il liquid
• brick = mef < m(el) earthen + (no)f hard material
• porcelain = mev < m(el) earthen + (no)v soft material
• gem = mez < m(el) earthen + (no)z value, precious

Atomic and Subatomic Particles

From the word mul matter, substance, stuff, we get the following derivatives:

• mul matter, substance, stuff

• mula material, substantial, physical

• omula immaterial, unsubstantial, non-physical

• ovmul anti-matter
• omul nothingness, void, nihil

• omulxer anihilate

• moza mul black matter
• multun physics

• multuna physics-related
• multut physics scientist

• mulog particle

• muloga particulate
• mulogxer crush, crumble, pulverize
• vamulog proton
• omulog neutron
• vomulog electron

• vomuloga electronic
• vomulp electricity

• vomulpa electric, electrical

• vomulpaxer electrify

• mules element

• mulesa elemental
• mulesyan compound

• yanmul mix, mixture, chemical

• yanmula chemical
• yanmultun chemistry

• yanmultuna chemical
• yanmultut chemist

• gwomul atom

• gwomula atomic

• obgwomula subatomic

• zemul nucleus

• zemula nuclear

Rule #8: The Feminization of Words

To form the feminine of a word or to indicate that an object or thing belongs to females, post-iotate (append a y) to the ordinal vowel of the word.

Examples:

MALE-RELATED	FEMALE-RELATED
tob man	toyb woman
tad spouse, husband	tayd wife
tadet brother	taydet sister
ted father	teyd mother
tedet son	teydet daughter
tid uncle	tiyd aunt
tidet cousin	tiydet female cousin
apet horse	apeyt mare
epet bull	epeyt cow
tiav shirt	tiayv blouse
tyof pants	tyoyf skirt
tulyuxut waiter	tulyuxuyt waitress

Note that personal pronouns can be feminized as well. The unfeminized form is either masculine or neutral with respect to gender.

MASCULINE	FEMININE
at I / me	ayt we / us women
et you	eyt you gals
it he / him	iyt she / her
yat we / us	yayt we females / us women
yet you guys	yeyt you gals
yit they / them	yiyt they / them (f.)

This process works for the possessive adjective derivatives of these pronouns:

• iyta her
• yeyta you gals'

The animate demonstrative pronouns (animate deictic determiners) can also be feminized:

• huyt that female person, she, her
• huyti these females, they, them

The generic pronouns ot one, yot they (generic) and (y)ut are not normally feminized.

Rule #9: Geophysical Vowel Coding

Geophysical vowel coding, as it's name indicates, occurs on vowels by giving them a particular geophysical meaning.

• a = air, gas, skyward
• e = soil, ground
• i = water, liquid, juice, etc.
• u = concrete thing, material, mineral, underground
• o = abstract thing, initial item, outer space

This codification occurs on the ordinal vowel of 1st Group core words only.

Examples:

m...m	m...p	d...p	p...t	m...l	p...p
mom outer space	mop galaxy	dop military	pot animal	mol nature	pop travel
mam sky	map wind	dap air force	pat bird	mal air	pap flight
mem land	mep way	dep army	pet (land) animal	mel soil	pep ride
mim sea	mip river	dip navy	pit fish	mil water	pip sea voyage
mum underground	mup tunnel	dup submarine force		mul mineral	pup tunneling

Vowel coding also allows for arriving at other combined-concept word categories by placing a vowel having the value ascribed to it by Rule # 9 just a before the generic consonant of the initial word. (See Rule #5)

Examples:

COMBINED-CONCEPT WORD	CODIFICATION
pait aquatic bird	pat bird + liquid / sea
piat flying fish	pit fish + skyward / air
diap naval aviation	dip navy + skyward / air
meil mud	mel soil + liquid / sea

Rule #10: Directional and Positional Vowel Coding

Directional and positional vowel coding works along lines of the charts below. Those vowels preceded by a y (iotated vowels) are, for this analysis, considered to be vowels pure and simple. Those vowels that are capitalized are positional in nature and serve as prefixes to 1st group words. Those vowels that are italicized are directional as prefixes to 2nd group words. The vowels that are underlined are directional in nature and are infixed just after the classifying consonant of 2nd group words, mostly verbs.

	A a a ya ya
U u u yu u	E e e ye ye	I i i yi yi
	O o o yo yo

VOWEL	FUNCTION	ATTACHMENT	MEANING	EXAMPLE
A	positional	1st group prefix	above, north	zamer north
a	directional	2nd group prefix	on, onto	aber put on, ab on
a	directional	2nd group infix	on, onto	baer lean on
ya	directional	2nd group prefix	up	yaber lift up, yab up
ya	directional	2nd group infix	upward	pyaser jump up
O	positional	1st group prefix	under, south	zomer south
o	directional	2nd group prefix	off, under, below	ober take off, ob off
o	directional	2nd group infix	from below, downward	boer support
yo	directional	2nd group prefix	down	yober lower, yob down
yo	directional	2nd group infix	down with contact	pyoser fall down
U	positional	1st group prefix	left, west	zumer west, utuyab left hand
u	directional	2nd group prefix	toward	uper come, ub toward
u	directional	2nd group infix	to, toward with contact	puer arrive, bu to
yu	directional	2nd group prefix	near	yuber bring, yub near
yu	directional	2nd group infix	up to, as far as	byuer touch, byu up to, as far as
I	positional	1st group prefix	right, east	zimer east, ituyab right hand
i	directional	2nd group prefix	away	iper go away, ib away from
i	directional	2nd group infix	away with contact	pier depart, bi to
yi	directional	2nd group prefix	far away, far from	yiper go far away, yib far
yi	directional	2nd group infix	since, starting from	byier originate, byi since
E	positional	1st group prefix	center, middle equator	zemer equator, eb between
e	directional	2nd group prefix	staying in the middle, between	eper stay
e	directional	2nd group infix	stopped in the middle, at	beer hold, be at
ye	directional	2nd group prefix	inside	yeber contain, yeb in
ye	directional	2nd group infix	inside	byeer keep

Examples of verbs undergoing the rules of directional coding:

With ber put (transitive):

aber put on	eber hold	ober take off	iber receive	uber send
yaber raise	yeber contain	yober lower	yiber put away	yuber bring
baer lean on	beer keep	boer hold up	bier take	buer give
byaer lift	byeer conserve	byoer hang	byier obtain	byuer reach for

With per go (intransitive):

aper get on	eper stay	oper get off	iper go away	uper come
yaper rise	yeper enter	yoper descend	yiper put away	yuper bring
paer stand	peer wait	poer fall	pier depart	puer arrive
pyaer get up	pyeer stick around	pyoer get down	pyier originate	pyuer reach

Rule #11: Codifying Mnemonic Markers

By changing the classifying or generic consonant of a derived word, a new, but related meaning can be obtained. Also, the classifying consonant can be replaced with an entire or partial word. The relationship among the altered word forms is therefore mnemonic. Here are some examples:

teub mouth → teud cry     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ teuz voice     (z = precious, art, etc.)

→ deuz song     (d = communicate, utter, social)

tayab fat → fayab vegetable fat     (f = vegetable)

→ mayab mineral fat     (m = nature, mineral)

tub arm → fub branch     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vub twig     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ dub minister     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ xub department     (x = do, work)

→ patub wing     (pat = bird)

→ pitub fin     (pit = fish)

tayob skin → fayob bark     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vayob peel     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ piyetayob shell     (piyet = mollusk)

→ pitayob scale     (pit = fish)

→ epeytayob cowhide     (epeyt = cow)

tayeb hair → fayeb leaf     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ pitayeb scale     (pit = fish)

→ potayeb fur     (pot = animal)

→ patayeb feather     (pat = bird)

→ vosayeb petal     (vos = flower)

→ mayeb foil     (m = nature, mineral)

→ gorbayeb blade     (gorb = cut)

taob flesh, meat → faob wood     (f = vegetable, tree, etc.)

→ vaob hay     (v = plant, flower, etc.)

→ epeytaob beef     (epeyt = cow)

→ kovaob thatch     (ko = cover + v = plant)

→ fyaob pulp     (fy(ab) = fruit )

→ faof board, plank     (f = vegetable, tree, etc. )

teater see → teaxer look     (x = do, teab = eye)

→ teaper visit     (p = go)

→ teaser seem     (s = be)

→ teader testify     (d = communicate, utter, social)

→ izeader indicate     (iz = direct )

→ izteaxer aim     (x = do)

→ beaxer watch     (b(eer) = keep)

→ abeaxer survey     (ab = over)

→ yoneater discern     (yon = apart, t = know )

→ vyaleaxer check     (vyal = accurate )

→ yageaxer stare     (yag = long )

Suppressing Syllables for Brevity

Sometimes, syllables of longish words can be omitted for brevity as long as no confusion of meaning results. Here are some examples:

• vafil wine < vafyabil (vafyab grape + -il liquid)
• bil milk < tilabil (tilab breast + -il liquid)
• ateuder neigh < apeteuder (apet horse + (t)euder emit a cry)
• iteuder bray < ipeteuder (ipet donkey + (t)euder emit a cry)
• bilyig cheese < tilabilyig (tilab breast + -il liquid + yig(a) hard)

Rule #12: Creating Nuances of Meaning

Words following Rule #12 are those that relate to one another through similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances indicated by phonetic devices that activate these nuances.

These nuances are obtained by:

a) Adding a sub-ordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal:

a for a and ya

e for e and ye

i for i and yi

o for o and yo

u for u and yu

Examples:

NORMAL	NUANCED
valay surely	vaalay assuredly
nad line	naad rail
dab government	daab administration
dob state	doob nation
tam house	taam home
vyab rule	vyaab regime, system
job time	joob era, time period

b) Post-iotating ordinal vowels and subordinal vowels. Often, the meaning of the word with the post-iotated vowel is a mitigated nuance of the word without the iotated vowel:

NORMAL	DIMINISHED NUANCE
nad line	nayd ray
vua ugly	vuya plain
ifer love	iyfer like
iva happy	iyva content
tam house	taym cottage
ab on	ayb over
ob off	oyb under
en- two-	eyn- half-
ud that	uyd such
ama hot	ayma warm

c) Adding the sense-augmenting consonants l and r, the latter being the stronger.

NORMAL	AUGMENTED NUANCE	FURTHER-AUGMENTED NUANCE
iva happy	ivla glad	ivra delighted
via beautiful	vila magnificent	vira marvelous
yifa brave	yilfa courageous	yirfa heroic
fua bad	fula awful	fura horrendous
alo hundred	aro thousand	amso million
yufxer intimidate	yulfxer frighten	yurfxer terrorize
aga big	agla huge	agra tremendous

Note: Sometimes the l or r nuance-enhancing consonants come after the generic consonant.

d) Adding consonants other than l and r as generic consonants. Sometimes, more than one nuance-altering consonant is added in the same word:

vala = sure

valta = safe

---

fua = bad

futa = evil [t usually refers to people or animals]

---

vyaa = true

vyala = authentic

vyafa = precise

vyama = real [m usually refers to nature, minerals, etc.]

vyava = exact [v usually refers to veracity]

vyalva = right

vyaba = regular [b usually refers to an organization or organism]

vyada = frank [d usually refers to communicating, talking, writing, etc.]

vyata = reliable

vyasma = concrete

Forming Adjectives

You can form an adjective by adding the suffix a to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized.

Examples:

NOUN	ADJECTIVE
taam home	taama domestic
doob nation	dooba national
tej life	teja vital
tyoyapyaf ability to walk	tyoyapyafa ambulatory
martun astronomy	martuna astronomical
PRONOUN	ADJECTIVE
at I, me	ata my
etut yourself	etuta your own
hiyen this kind	hiyen this kind of
hot? who?	hota? whose?
GERUND	ADJECTIVE
ifeken recreation	ifekena recreational
VERB FORM	ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE)
teje (he) lives	tejea living
tojo will die	tojoa moribund, about to die
tojbu would kill	tojbua lethal
twe is known	twa known

Adjectival Suffixes

Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just a.

Examples:

SUFFIX	MEANING	NOUN	ADJECTIVE
-aya	full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly
		voz color	vozaya colorful
		futax resentment	futaxaya resentful
		tiibil blood	tiibilaya bloody
		yilf courage	yilfaya courageous
-oya	bereft of, -less, un-
		voz color	vozoya colorless, pale
		tajyaf talent	tajyafoya untalented
-ika	full of, -ous, -ful, -y (same as -aya)
		map wind	mapika windy
-uka	bereft of, without, -less (same as -oya)
		nas money	nasuka broke, penniless
-yena	-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of
		tobob child	tobobyena childish, infantile
		tot god	totyena divine, godly
		pit fish	pityena fish-like, fishy
-wa or -awa	-ed, past passive participle (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
		t- know	twa or tawa known
		dal- speak	dalwa or dalawa spoken, oral
		nisbu- sell	nisbuwa sold
-ea	-ing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
		ot- not know	otea ignorant
		tej- live	tejea living, alive
		tuj- die	tujea dying
-yea	-ive, prone to Xing, given to X (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
		tujb- kill	tujbyea murderous
		tex- think	texyea pensive, thoughtful
		tox- forget	toxyea forgetful
		ax- act	axyea active
-uwa	-able, apt to be Xed (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
		ex- operate	exuwa operable
		tos feel	tosuwa palpable
		tex- think	texuwa conceivable
		tel- eat	teluwa edible
-yafa	-able, capable of Xing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyafa sightful, able to see
		dyed- read	dyedyafa literate
-yafwa	-able, possible to be Xed (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyafwa visible
		tax- remember	taxyafwa memorable
		teet- hear	teetyafwa audible
		tel- eat	telyafwa edible
-yofa	incapable of Xing (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyofa blind
		tyoyap- walk	tyoyapyofa lame
		teet- hear	teetyofa deaf
		dal- speak	dalyofa dumb, incapable of speaking
-yofwa	un-X-able (added to verb stem)	VERB STEM	NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED
		teat- see	teatyofwa invisible
		teet- hear	teetyofa inaudible
		tox- forget	toxyofa unforgetable
		dal- speak	dalyofa unspeakable
-ifa	fond of, -phile (	NOUN STEM	ADJECTIVE
		pot animal	potifa pet-friendly
		hyitoob- same-gender	hyitoobifa homophile
		tobot child	tobotifa pedophile
		fitel food	fitelifa gourmand
		doob nation	doobifa patriotic
-ufa	adverse to, hating, miso-	NOUN STEM	ADJECTIVE
		tob human	tobufa misanthropic
		hyut- other person	hyutufa xenophobic
		toyb- woman	toybufa misogynist

Negating Adjectives

The sense of an adjective can be negated with the prefix o or the more intensive yo.

Examples:

• vlea probable → ovlea improbable
• vyafa perfect → ovyafa imperfect
• twa known → otwa unknown
• bosa calm → yobosa worried
• tatyena angelic → yotatyena diabolical

Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes

As in English, the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin. Here are the most common:

ENGLISH PREFIX	MIRAD	ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES
un-, a(n)-, in-, non-	o-	obaka unhealthy, oyezyebeya incontinent, oyelpea non-invasive, ototina atheist
anti-, counter-	ov-	ovzuina anti-leftist, oviztida counter-intuitive
pseudo-	kovyo-	kovyotepina pseudo-intellectual
all-, pan-, omni-	hyas-	yadtea all-knowing, omniscient
re-	yeg-	yegtajbwa re-born
mis-	vyo-	vyoseudwa mispronounced
semi-, half-	eyn-	eynlevelaya semi-sweet, eyntija half-awake
ultra-, super-	yiz-, gwa-	gwadoobina ultra-nationalist, yizmola supernatural
under-, hypo-	gro-	grojaga under-aged
over-, hyper-, uber-	gra-	graagxwa overgrown, gratoseya hypersensitive
miso- [see suffixes]
multi-, many-, poly-	gla-	glakuma multilateral, glatadaya polygamous
mal-, ill-	fu-	futeyenxwa ill-conceived, fusanxwa malformed
well-	fi-	fitofabwa well-dressed
quasi-	yuyb-	yuybdaba quasi-governmental
pre-, (a)fore-, pro-	ja-	jateyenxwa pre-conceived, jaigdawa aformentioned
post-	jo-	jodropeka post-war

English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison

Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts:

ENGLISH SUFFIX	MEANING	MIRAD SUFFIX	ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES
-ful	full of	-aya, -ika	vozaya colorful, tuzika skillful
-ous	full of	-aya, -ika	nazika precious, milaya aqueous
-filled	full of	-aya, -ika	movika / movaya smoke-filled
-y	full of	-aya, -ika	movika / movaya smoky,
-ous	of, like	-a	totina religious, vyosa erroneous
-ly	like	-yena	totyena godly, toybyena womanly
-like	like	-yena	patyena bird-like
-ish	like	-yena	tobobyena childish
-y	like	-yena	fyabyena fruity
-ic	like	-yena	tuzyena artistic, silyena acidic
-ic	of, related to	-a	tuna scientific, , beka therapeutic
-ical	of, related to	-a	zyunida spherical, iztexa logical
-ological	pertaining to the study of	-tuna	tejtuna biological
-ist(ic)	pertaining to the doctrine of	-ina	doparina militarist(ic), nasyanina capitalist(ic)
-ophobic (and miso- prefix)	hating, fearful of	-ufa	yudatufa xenophonic, tobyanufa misanthropic
-ophilic (and philo- prefix)	loving	-ifa	tobobifa pedophilic, tobifa philanthropic
-al	like	-yena	pyotyena bestial
-al	of, pertaining to	-a	teja vital, amana thermal
-less	without, empty of	-oya, -uka	tejuka lifeless, toboboya childless
-free	without, empty of	-oya, -uka	yomuka ice-free, vyosoya, error-free

Forming Adverbs

Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-iotating the adjectival suffix a, in other words, by adding a y to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Examples:

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
fia good	fiay well
vyaa true	vyaay truly
gyua easy	gyuay easily
iga quick	igay quickly
auta personal	autay personally

For brevity's sake, the stem of deadjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example:

• It tyoyape ig. He walks fast.
• Yit xa ad fi. They did it well.

Special Adverbs

Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in -ay.

Here are the principal such adverbs:

SPECIAL ADVERB
vay.... indeed, really, certainly, do (cf. va.... yes)
vey.... possibly, may, might (cf. ve.... maybe)
voy.... not (cf. vo.... no)
ga.... more (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
gay.... also, moreover, further, still
ge.... as, equally (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
gey.... even
go.... less (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb)
goy.... no longer, no more
gla.... very
glay.... quite, rather, so
gle.... so
glo.... not very, not so
gra.... too
gre.... enough, sufficiently, over-
gro.... not...enough, inadequately, under-
gwa.... most, super-
gwe.... average
gwo.... least, sub-

The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow:

• AFFIRMATIVE: Va, at vay se tadsa..... Yes, I am indeed married.
• DUBITIVE: Iyta dud se vey vyosa..... Her response is possibly wrong.
• NEGATIVE: At voy se eta yurxut..... I am not your slave.

The adverbs above beginning with g are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb:

• Et se gla via.....You are very beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].
• Et peya gra ig.'.... You were going too fast [=ADVERB].
• It gra dale.'.... He talks [=VERB] too much.

Other special adverbs, which do not end in -ay, include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions:

SPECIAL ADVERB	EXAMPLES
yab up	Ad pat papa yab bu ad mam. The bird flew up to the sky.
yob down	Teaxu yob bu ad mel. Look down to the ground.
yub near	Pesu yub ad mas. Stay near the wall.
yib far	Ad tobi igpia yib ad yovbyokam. The men fled far from the prison.
ib away	Teaxu ib, diwe. Look away, please.
ub this way	Tyoyapu ub. Walk toward this way.
yeb in, inward, inside	Kyedu odut ogja tyoyapa yeb! Guess who just walked in!
oyeb out, outside	'It tyoyapa oyeb zye ad zama mes. He walked out through the front door.
yuz around	Yit daza yuz yat. They danced around us.
yiz beyond	Et yefe teaxer yiz id titam av yux. You must look beyond this school for help.

Pro-adverbs

There are also adverbial expressions that are agglutinated with deictic and quantitative morphemes to produce what are known as pro-adverbs. These include interrogative pro-verbs like hom? (where?), hoyen? (how?), hoj? (when?), hogla (to what extent?), and their answers, such as hum (there), heyen (somehow), and hyoj (never), hugla (so, to that extent). These words are discussed under the chapter on Determiners in Deictic Pro-adverbs.

Forming Verbs

Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech.

Forming Verbs from Nouns

Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix er:

NOUN	VERB
syag count	syager to count
tof clothes	tofer to dress
tam house	tamer to dwell, live, reside
dyun name	dyuner to name, call
teud cry, shout	teuder to cry, shout, exclaim
taj birth	tajer to be born
tej life	tejer to live
toj house	tojer to die
ej present	ejer to continue
ij beginning	ijer to begin
uj end	ijer to end
yuj sleep	tujer to sleep

Verb Formants

Sometimes an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such verb formants are in this chart:

• -ser to be usually intransitive and stative (unite = become one)
• -xer to do/make usually transitive and dynamic (unite = make one)
• -per to go usually intransitive and a verb of motion (mount = get onto)
• -ber to put usually transitive and a verb of gesture (apply = put onto)
• -ier a stub from the verb to take, usually an action verb benefitting the agent (eat = take food)
• -uer a stub from the verb to give, usually an action verb benefitting the patient (feed = give food)
• -der to say, a verb of communication (affirm = say yes)
• -ter to know, verbs of the perception and knowledge (teater = see_

NOUN	AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB	VERB
yav innocence	der to say	yavder to acquit
yov shame, guilt	aber to apply, put on	yovaber to shame, accuse
yov shame, guilt	ober to remove, take off	yovober to excuse, exculpate
tof clothes	aber to apply, put on	tofaber to dress, don
tof clothes	ober to remove, take off	tofober to undress, strip
det associate	ser to be, become	detser to associate
dat friend	xer to do, make	datxer to befriend
san form	ser to be, become	sanser to form (intransitive)
san form	xer to do, make	sanxer to form (transitive)
tel food	(b)ier to take	telier to eat, consume
tel food	(b)uer to give	teluer to feed, nourish
if pleasure	(b)ier to take	ifier to enjoy
if pleasure	(b)uer to give	ifuer to please
taj birth	(b)uer to give	tajuer to give birth
tej life	(b)ier to take	tejier to come alive
tej life	(b)uer to give	tejuer to bring to life
toj death	(b)ier to take	tojier to drop dead
toj death	(b)uer to give	tojuer to kill
tij wakefulness	(b)ier to take	tijier to wake up
tij wakefulness	(b)uer to give	tijuer to awaken
tuj sleep	(b)ier to take	tujier to fall asleep
tuj sleep	(b)uer to give	tujuer to put to sleep
tax memory	(b)ier to take	taxier to recall
tax memory	(b)uer to give	taxuer to remind
yev justice	der to say, tell	yevder to judge
vyan truth	der to say, tell	vyander to tell the truth
vyon falsehood	der to say, tell	vyonder to tell a lie
il liquid	aker to gain	ilaker to take on liquid
il liquid	oker to lose	iloker to leak, lose liquid
il liquid	(b)ier to take	ilier to soak up
il liquid	(b)uer to give	iluer to pour, water
il liquid	ikser to get full	ilikser to be soaked (intransitive)
il liquid	ikxer to fill up	ilikxer to flood, soak (transitive)
il liquid	ukser to become empty	ilukser to drain (intransitive)
il liquid	ukxer to empty	ilukxer to flush (transitive)
il liquid	ser to be, become	ilser to liquify, melt (intransitive)
il liquid	xer to do, make	ilxer to liquify, melt (transitive)
il liquid	aber to apply, put on	ilaber to wash (transitive)
il liquid	aper to get on	ilaper to float (intransitive)
il liquid	per to go	ilper to flow (intransitive)
il liquid	zyaber to spread	ilzyaber to spray, shower (transitive)
il liquid	zyober to squeeze	ilzyober to squirt (transitive)
il liquid	pyexer to strike	ilpyexer to splash (with liquid)
il liquid	yujer to close	ilyujer to plug

Note that verbs ending in -ser and -ier are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in -xer and -uer are transitive. Also, -ier verbs are inchoative, while -uer verbs are causative (making someone do something).

Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser

The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with -xer to do, make, cause, and the intransitive group with -ser to be, become.

The following chart shows how these verbs are formed:

ADJECTIVE	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
aza strong	azaxer fortify, strengthen, make strong	azaser get strong
oza week	ozaxer weaken	ozaser grow weaker
kyia heavy	kyiaxer weigh down	kyiaser grow heavy
kyua light	kyuaxer lighten, make lighter	kyiaser get lighter
yana together	yanaxer bring together	yanaser get together

The final adjective ending a is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the a makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart:

ADJECTIVE	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
aga big	agaxer magnify	agaser get big
	agxer grow	agxer grow up, mature
iga fast	igaxer accelerate	igaser speed up
	igxer rush	igser hurry up
baka healthy	bakaxer make healthy	bakaser get healthy
	bakxer heal	bakser heal
sana formal	sanaxer formalize	sanaser become formal
	sanxer form, shape	sanser form, take shape

Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per

Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb ber to put, while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb per to go. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in b, the b is dropped. Here are some examples:

PREPOSITON BASE	TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB	INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB
ab on	aber apply, put on	aper mount, get on
eb between	eber block	eper intervene
ob off	ober remove, take off	oper dismount, get off
ib away	iber receive	iper leave
ub toward	uber send	uper come
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise
yeb in oyeb out	yeber insert oyebertake out	yeper enter oyeper exit
yob down	yober lower	yoper descend
yib far	yiber take away	yiper move away
yub near	yuber bring	yuper approach
zay forward	zayber advance	zayper advance, go forward
zey across	zeyber take across, transfer	zeyper cross, go over, transit
zoy back	zoyber set back, return	zoyper retreat, go back, return
iz straight	izber guide	izper aim for
uz crooked	uzber divert	uzper turn, diverge
yiz beyond	yizber take beyond	yizper pass by
yuz around	yuzber take around	yuzper go around

More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of ser and xer, plus the intensifiers y, l and r. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: s for intransitive and x for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions.

bluserswoop || bluxershove || pluserlunge, pounce || pluxerthrust
apluxer

GESTURE VERB	GESTURE VERB	MOTION VERB	MOTION VERB
INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE	INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE
	ber put beer have byeer contain beler carry	per go
baer lean on	barer press yanbarer compress yobarer depress, suppress yuzbarer hug zoybarer repress	paer ?
baser gesticulate	baxer make a gesture abaxer caress, pat	paser move	paxer move
byaser stand up	byaxer set up, erect	pyaser jump up	pyaxer shoot, launch
blaser budge	blaxer rouse ablaxer massage	plaser get excited	plaxer excite aplaxer sweep
braser shake	braxer shake abraxer rub		apraxer brush
beser stay	bexer hold zoybexer restrain yobexer detain, hold down	peser wait	pexer trap
byeser behave	byexer hit	pyeser run into, bump into	pyexer strike, knock yonpyexer break yopyexer knock down yanpyexer fight apyexer attack ovpyexer offend kunpyexer sideswipe tuyapyexer slap
bleser adhere	blexer retain		plexer pound, beat aplexer assault yonplexer shatter, burst
		yanpreser implode yonpreser explode	prexer blast, bomb
boser calm down boyser rest	boxer quieten, quell	poser stop poyser pause	poxer stop
byoser hang	byoxer hang	pyoser fall yonpyoser decay	pyoxer drop, throw down yopyoxer topple
biser originate	bixer pull yanbixer contract yonbixer distract yubixer attract yibixer distract oyebixer extract yebixer push in		pixer catch
bliser spring	blixer yank		plixer snag, capture yiplixer abduct
buser be destined	buxer push, drive zyobuxer squeeze yebuxer expel abuxer impose	apuser assault	puxer throw, thrust
byuser bump into	byuxer touch yanbyuxer contact	pyuser run into	pyuxer crash

Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb baxer (and its intransitive partner baser) as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart:

PREFIX	VERB
	baxer gesture, make a bodily motion
ab on	abaxer caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub
iz straight	izbaxer point
teb head	tebaxer nod
va yes	vatebaxer nod yes
vo no	votebaxer nod no
ve maybe	vetebaxer shrug
tuyab hand	tuyabaxer wave
tub arm	tubaxer flail, swing
teubab tongue	teubabaxer lick
teab eye	teubaxer wink
patub wing	patubaxer flap
tiyub tail	tiyubaxer wag
	baser gesticulate
ig- fast	igbaser jerk
zay forward	igzaybaser lurch
zoy back	zoybaser recoil
yob down	yobaser bow, bend down
ku- side	kubaser slide
ig- fast	igkubaser slip
iz straight + uz curved	izuzbaser sway, swagger, swish
zi right + zu left	zizubaser wiggle, wobble, totter

Forming Frequentative Verbs

A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by affixing the syllable eg to the verb stem. Here are some examples:

REGULAR VERB	FREQUENTATIVE VERB
paser move	paseger shake, shudder
pyaser jump	pyaseger bounce
paper fly	papeger flutter, flit
braser shake	braseger shudder, quivver, vibrate
teupixer bite	teupixeger nibble
ilzyaber spray	ilzyabeger sprinkle

Word Families

The core words serve as nuclei for the word families. The nuclei represent an idea, an element, a type, a gesture, a movement that can be categorized or classified. Thus, the word families formed according to word-building rules represent large word groups that have meaningful relationships among them.

This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word teub mouth:

ceux sound

xeus noise

xeuz tune

teuz voice

deuz song

seuz tone

deus accent

Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum:

teb head	deb leader	xeb boss	feb treetop
tub limb	dub minister	xub subsidiary	fub branch	vub twig	patub wing	petub paw	pitub fin
teub mouth	pateub beak	peteub muzzle
tayeb hair	patayeb feather	pitayeb scale	fayeb leaf	vosayeb petal	potayeb mane
tayob skin	tayof leather	petayob hide	fayob bark	vayob peel
tyob leg	fyob root	vyob plant root
tib trunk	fib tree trunk	vib stem
tulob nail	petulob claw	fulob thorn	defulob needle	mulob pin, prick
tiibuf artery	fuf pipe	muf stick, rod	movuf cheminee	fauf log	manuf candle
til drink	teabil tear	teubil saliva	dril ink	mil water	mamil rain	tayobil sweat	bil milk

The xer (Do) Family

The verb xer means to do. Many words are built from this core word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in xer contrast with those ending in ser, in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object).

Core Words

This chart shows the core verbs in the xer family:

axer act	exer function	oxer abstain	ixer effect	uxer cause
alxer activate	elxer operate	olxer fail	ilxer react	ulxer influence
arxer perform
xaer execute	xeer exercise	xoer undergo, submit	xier result	xuer affect
	xeyer behave
xaler accomplish	xeler practice	xoler fail	xiler undertake	xuler achieve
	yexer work	yoxer be idle	yixer use, hire	yuxer help, serve
	yerxer struggle	yorxer resign	yirxer exploit	yurxer slave

Creating Derived xer Words with Prefixes

Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words:

Keep in mind that xer can mean do, make, or cause in the following derived terms:

PREFIX	BASE	DERIVATION
ana single	xer make	anaxer unify
an- one-	xer make	anxer unite
yana together	'exer operate	yanexer cooperate
yan- together	yexer work	yanyexer collaborate
yon- apart	xer make	yonxer split
ge- equal	xer make	gexer copy
ja before	xer make	jaxer prepare
je while	xer do	jexer continue
ig- fast	xer do	igxer rush
ug- slow	xer do	ugxer delay
oj future	xer do	ojxer plan
yeg- re-	xer do	yegxer redo
sa(n) shape	xer make	saxer create
se(n) being	xer make	sexer build
lo- un-	sexer build	losexer destroy
mel soil	yexer work	melyexer plough
tea(b) eye	xer do	teaxer look
o- un-	yirxer hire	oyirxer fire
mag fire	xer cause	magxer burn
yuf fear	xer cause	yufxer frighten
dofun crime	xer do	dofunxer commit a crime
gra too much	xer do	graxer exaggerate
yeg- re-	axer act	yegaxer react
fu- bad	xeyer behave	fuxeyer misbehave

Using xer to Build Verbs from Adjectives

Hundreds of verbs can be created with adjectives and xer as a suffix like -ify, -ate, -ize in English.

ADJECTIVE	VERB
aga big	agaxer magnify
goa lesser	goaxer diminish
fia good	fiaxer improve
jwoa late	jwoaxer retard
uva sad	uvaxer sadden
via beautiful	viaxer beautify
ebdooba international	ebdoobaxer internationalize

Note: Sometimes, the adjectival ending -a is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, agaxer means to magnify, make bigger, but agxer is more idiomatic and means to grow.

The passive of xer, xwer to be done can be used to mean to happen or to become. For example:

• Hoj hus xwa? When did that happen?
• At uvaxwa ham wa at teata ad tobob. I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.

Using xer for All-Purpose Idioms

The verb xer can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example:

• xer deuz to perform a song
• xer ifpop to take a cruise
• xer ebdid to conduct an interview

Derived Words

Here are some important derivations of the verb xer:

xer do

xen doing

xun deed

xut doer

xwa done

xwer be done, happen

xwen happening, event

xwas fact, happening, deed, event

xwasyan facts, news, happening, events

eja xwasyan current events

xwasdren fact sheet, log

xwasa factual, actual

loxer undo

loxen undoing

loxwa undone

yegxer redo

yegxwa redone

xeut agent

xeun business

xeem agency

xeon fact

xeona factual

xeoj case

xeoja casual

xej event

xeja eventual

xejay eventually

xejan eventuality

xejaya eventful

xejes incident

xejesa incidental

xejesay incidentally

xem studio, office, bureau

xemsem desk

xeb boss, manager, foreman

xag frequency

glaxaga frequent

glaxagay frequently, often

gloxagay seldom

hoxag? how often?

hyoxag never

hexag sometimes

gaxag more often

goxag less often

gexag as often

gexag ev yafwa as often as possible:::

axer act, perform

ax act, performance

axyan activity

oax inaction, non-action

axen action, performance

axea acting, performing

oaxea inactive

oaxean inactivity

jaaxea proactive

jaaxean proactivity

loaxer deactivate

loaxen deactivation

loaxwa deactivated

axeya active

oaxeya inactive

axar activator, on switch

loaxar deactivator, off switch

axut actor, performer

axun act, performance

joax followup

alxer operate

alxen operation

alxena operational

alxut operator

alxim operating room

exer operate, function, work

ex function

exa functional

oex dysfunction, breakdown

oexa dysfunctional, out of service

exen operation

exena operational, functional

exea operational, functioning, in service

oexea out of service, not operating, non-functioning, out of service

exean operating state

exuwa operable

oexuwa inoperable, disfunctional

exuwan operability

exut operator

exutyan operating staff

exeb chief, boss, manager, foreman

oxer be idle

oxen idling

oxea idling, idle

yexer work, labor

yex work, labor, job, employment

yexes task, job

yexen working

yexea working

yexut worker, laborer

yexem worksite

yexam workplace

yexim work room, laboratory, office, lab

yexsem desk

yexeb boss, task master

yextaf work attire

yexpox strike

yexpoxut striker

yexpoxer strike

yexirper retire

yexirpen retirement

yexirpa retired

yexirpat retiree

yexoya jobless

yexoyan joblessness

yexoyat jobless person

yexoyaser become jobless

yexorber fire, dismiss

yexorbwer be fired, be dismissed

yexorbwa fired, dismissed

yexorben firing, dismissal

tuyabyex manual labor

tuyabyexut manual laborer

yexwer struggle, work hard, try, endeavor

melyex farming, agriculture

melyexut farmer

melyexam farmhouse

melyexem farm

melyexa agricultural

gonjob yex part-time work

ganjob yex full-time work

yizjob yex overtime work

onus yex pro bono work

fanaya yex volunteer work

yurxwat yex slave work

yex jwobyan work schedule

azatay yexer work hard, work strenuously

azyexer work hard

azyexut hard worker

ozyexer slack off

ozyexut slackard

grayexut workaholic

grayexen workaholism

grayexea workaholic, overly industrious

groyexut slackard, underworker

groyexen slacking off, underworking

groyexea slackard, underworking, unindustrious

yanyexer cooperate, collaborate, work together

yanyexen cooperation, collaboration, working together

yanyexa cooperative, collaborative

yanyexeya cooperative

yanyexeyan cooperativeness

oyanyexeya uncooperative

yanyexut colleague, co-worker, collaborator

yexyan works

yonyexer work apart, compete

tamyexer work at home, telecommute, work domestically

tamyexut work-at-home, telecommuter, house worker

tamyexen working from home, telecommuting

tamyex house work, domestic chore

ebyexer interwork

ebyex interworkings, network, complex

xaer execute

xaen execution

xaeya executive

xaut executive

xaler accomplish

xal accomplishment

xalwa accomplished

xalaya accomplished, gifted

graxalaya very accomplished, very gifted

xeyer behave

xeyen behavior, comportment

xeyena behavioral

xelier busy oneself, occupy oneself, take on business xeluer busy, occupy

xel practice, rite

faxel sacrifice, mass, holy service, sacred rite

faxela ritual, ceremonial, sacrificial

faxeler perform the mass, perform a sacred service

faxelut celebrant, priest

ivxeler celebrate

ivxel celebration, feast, ceremony

ivxela celebratory, festive, ceremonial

xerer exercise, practice, profess

xeren practice, profession,, occupation

fuxeren malpractice

xerena practical, professional

xerenan practicality

xerut practicioner, professional

xena active

xenaxer activate

xenaxen activation

xenaxwa activated

oxenaxer deactivate

oxenaxen deactivation

oxenaxwa deactivated

xeut agent, author

xeem agency

xeon fact

xeoj case:

xeun business

xeunut businessman

xeunuyt businesswoman

xuer affect, bring about

xun effect, factor

xuen affecting

xuna affective

xuwa affected

xier result

xin result

xiea resulting

xina resultative

ge xin as a result

ge xin bi as a result of

uxer cause

ux cause, factor

uxen causation

uxa causal

uxwa caused

uxeya causative

bi odux? why?

bi adux lav because

ulxer influence

ulx influence

ulxwa influenced

ulxeya influential

uyxer motivate

uyx motive

uyxen motivation

uyxena motivational

uyxwa motivated

ix effect

ux ay ix cause and effect

ixeya effective, effectual

oixeya ineffectual, ineffective

ixeyan effectiveness

yuxer help, aid, assist, serve

yux help, aid, assistance, service

yuxut helper, aid, assistant, servant

yuxen helping, aiding, assisting, serving

yuxun means, aid

yuxwa helped, aided, assisted, served

yuxea helping, assisting, serving

oyuxea unhelpful

yuxeya helpful

yuxeyan helpfulness

fiyuxer benefit

fiyux benefit

fiyuxea beneficial

aayux first aid

igefyux emergency assistance

igefyuxut emergency assistance personnel

yulxer serve

yulx service, labor

yulxen serving

yulxut server, servant, laborer

yulxutyan service staff

yulxun means, agent

yulxam agency

yulxuwa serviceable

yurxer be a slave, slave

yurxen slavery

yurxut slave

yurxwa enslaved person, slave

yurxwat enslaved

yurxwan enslavement

yixer use, utilize

yix use, utility

yixen using, utilization

yixwa used, utilized

oyixwa unused

yixut user

yixun utility, tool

yixunyem toolbox

yixunyan equipment

fiyix good use, benefit

fiyixuwa beneficial

fiyixer put to good use

fiyixwa well-used

fuyix misuse, abuse

fuyixer misuse, abuse

fuyixut abuser

fuyixwa abused, misused:

yilxer employ, hire

yilx employment, hire

yilxen employment, hiring

yilxut employer

yilxwa employed, hired

yilxwat employee

oyilxwa unemployed

oyilxwan unemployment

oyilxuwa unemployable

oyilxwat unemployed person

yilxpar taxi, taxicab, cab

yirxer exploit

yirx exploit

yirxen exploitation

yirxena exploitational

yirxwa exploited

yirxuwa exploitable

yirxuwan exploitability

oyirxwa unexploited

oyirxwa unexploitable

oyirxwan unexploitability

yirxut exploiter

yirxeya exploitative

yirxeyan exploitativeness

jaxer prepare, ready

jaxen preparation, readying

jaxena preparatory

jaxwa prepared, ready

ojaxwa unprepared, not ready

jaxwan preparedness, readiness

jaxeya preparative

jaser prepare oneself, get prepared, get ready

jexer continue

jexen continuation

jexeya continual

jexea continuing, continual

jexwa continued

lojexer discontinue

lojexen discontinuation

lojexwa discontinued

gexer copy

gex copy

gexar copier

gexun copy

gexwa copied

gexut copycat

egxer re-do, repeat

egxen re-doing, repetition

egxwa re-done, repeated

egxeya repetitive

ojxer plan, project

ojxen planning

ojxun plan

ojxwa planned

olojxwa unplanned, spontaneous

ojxut planner

xeser organize

xes organ

xesa organic

oxes mess, disarray, disorganization

xesen organizing, organization

xesena organizational

loxeser mess up, disorganized

loxesen disorganization

xeswa organized

oxeswa disorganized

xesut organizer

egfiaxer fix, repair

egfiaxen reparation

egfiaxeya reparative

egfiaxena reparational

egfiaxwa repaired, fixed

egfiaxut repairman

egfiaxam repair shop

egfiaxuwas fixer-upper

loxer undo

loxen undoing

loxwa undone

igxer hurry, hasten, rush

igxen hurring, haste, rush

igxwa hurried, rushed

igser hurry up, rush, hasten

aaxer initiate

aaxen initiation

aaxwa initiated

aaxut initiator

aaxwat initiate

saxer make, fabricate, create, craft

saxun creation

saxut creator, manufacturer

saxen creation, fabrication, making, craft, manufacturing

saxwa created, fabricated, made, crafted, manufactured

tamsaxwa homemade, domestically crafted

saxem factory, plant

saxim studio, lab

saxwat creature

saxeya creative

saxeb manufacturer

tuyabsaxwa hand-made, hand-crafted, made by hand

sexer build, construct

sexun building

yabsexun skyscraper, highrise

sexen construction

sexeya constructive

sexeyan constructiveness

osexeya unconstructive

sexut builder, constructor

sexeb master builder

visextun architecture

visextut architect

visextuna architectural

sexem construction site

sexwa built, constructed

fisexwa well-built

fusexwa shoddy

osexer destroy

osexen destruction

osexeya destructive

osexut destroyer

osexwa destroyed

amber found

ambun foundation

ambut founder

ambea ted founding father

amben founding

ambwa founded

Note the following parallelism:

xyen industry

byen manner

tyen occupation

syen fashion

tryen profession

The ser (Be) Family

Core Words

The core verb ser means to be and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in ser are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in xer, which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in ser often are stative, i.e. linking verbs.

Summary:

aser become

eser exist, there to be

oser cease to be

iser start out

user end up

Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives

The core verb ser can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning become X, and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in xer. If the adjectival ending a is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense.

ADJECTIVE	STATIVE VERB
aga big	agaser get big
aga big	agser grow
uza curved	uzaser curve, bend, bow
kyaa mobile	kyaser change, vary
mayna clear	maynaser clear up
iga fast	igaser become fast, accelerate
iga fast	igser rush, hurry

Stative verbs in -ser are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in -xer. Here are some comparative examples:

• It agxe vafyabi. He grows grapes. (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC)
• Vafyabi voy agse fi him. Grapes do not grow well here. (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE)

• His kyaxa yata teji. This changed our lives.
• Yata teji kyasa hujub. Our lives changed on that day.

• Ha mapi uzaxa ha fabi. The winds bent the trees.
• Ha fabi uzasa je ha mapilag. The trees bowed during the storm.

• Wo igxu at. Don't rush me. (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC)
• Igsu! Hurry up! (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE)

Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns

The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning to become X

NOUN	STATIVE VERB
meg stone	megser petrify, become rock
abnod peak	abnodser peak, climax
mus scale, stair	musser escalate
yom ice	yomser freeze
maf cloud	mafser cloud over
il liquid	ilser liquefy, melt

Creating Dynamic Verbs from Inherently Stative Verbs

Some verbs with stems ending in -j are inherently stative. Their dynamic/transitive counterparts end in -ber. Here are some examples:

STATIVE VERB	DYNAMIC VERB
tojer die	tojber kill
tajer be born	tajber give birth (to), bear
tejer live	tejber bring to life
tijer be awake	tijber awaken
tujer sleep	tujber put to sleep
ijer begin	ijber begin (something)
ujer end	ijber finish, put an end to
yijer open up	yijber open up (something)
yujer close	yujber close, bring to a close

Derived Words

Here are some common words derived from ser:

saer form, represent, comprise

san shape, form, representation

sanaya shapely

sanayan shapeliness

sanxer form, shape [transitive]

sanxen formation, shaping

sanxena formational

sanxeya formative

sanxwa formed, shaped

fisanxwa well-formed

fisanxen reformation

fusanxwa poorly-formed, malformed, deformed, misshapen

fusanxen malformation, deformation, misshapening

egsanxer reshape, reform, shape up

egsanxen reshaping, reformation

egsanxwa reshaped, reformed

egsanxut reshaper, reformer

kyasanxer transform

kyasanxen transformation

kyasanxena transformational

kyasanxwa transformed, morphed

kyasanxar transformer

kyasanxeya transformative

sanser form, morph [intransitive]

kyasanser change shape, transform

egsanser shape up, get into shape

yansanser conform

yansanen conformity

yansanin conformism

yansanina conformist

yansaninat conformist

oyansanina non-conformist

oyansanin non-conformism

oyansaninat non-conformist

santun morphology

santuna morphological

santut morphologist

oyebsan aspect, outer form

oyebsana aspectual

sana formal

sanaxer formalize

sanaxen formalization

sanan formality

sanay formally

osana informal

osanan informality

sanin formalism

sanina formalistic

saninat formalist

ansana uniform

ansanan uniformity

anasana unique

anasanan uniqueness

sanoya formless

sanoyan formlessness

visana classic

visanyena classical

visantun classics

visantut classisist

vyasan original, true form

vyasana original

vyasanan originality

zyusan round shape, circle

ukunsan rectangle, rhombus

ukunsana rectangular, rhomboid

ugekunsan square, rectangle

ugekunsana square, square-shaped, rectangular

igunsan triangle

igunsana triangular

ugunsan tetragon

ugunsana tetragonal

yogunsan pentagon

yogunsana pentagonal

yagunsan hexagon

yagunsan hexagonal

yigunsan octagon

yigunsana octagonal

agvusan blob, big ugly shape

sandren formulation

sandrena formulaic

sandrer formulate

sandrun formula

yansaner constitute

yansan constitution

yansana constitutional

yansanea constituent

saun model, pattern, kind, genre, type, genus, species, sort

sauna generic, typical

saunaber classify, assign to a type, sort

saunaben classification, sorting

saunabwa classified, sorted

saunaser typify, be modeled after

salun specimen aasaun prototype, archetype, pattern, model

aasauna prototypical, archetypical

asauna special, especial, specific

asaunay especially, specially, specifical

asaunan speciality

asaunaxer specialize

asaunaxen specialization

asaunaxwa specialized

yasauna general

yasaunay generally

yasaunaxer generalize

yasaunaxen generalization

yasaunaxwa generalized

yansaun class anasauna unique

anasaunay uniquely

saunes sample

saunesier sample

saunesien sampling

utsaun example

utsauna exemplary

vyasaun original, original specimen

vyasauna original

vyosaun counterfeit, fake

vyosauna counterfeit, fake

visaun classic

visauna classic, classical, high-class

vusauna degenerate, low-class, base gesauna same kind of hisauna this kind of husauna that kind of, such duhesauna? what kind of? hyasauna every kind of hyesauna any kind of, whatever kind of hyosauna no kind of, no sort of hasauna the kind of hesauna some kind of hisauna the same kind of, the very kind of husauna another kind of, a different sort of hihusauna various kinds of: soer undergo, submit

soen submission

soeyea submissive

son matter, thing, subject, affair, issue

kyison important matter, grave matter, grave issue

kyisona important, grave

kyisonay importantly, gravely

kyisonan importance, gravity

kyuson triviality, trivial matter

kyusona trivial

kyusonay trivially

kyusonan triviality

dalson issue, topic, subject

zeson focus

zesoner focus

zesonwa focussed

ozesonwa unfocussed

gyison problem, difficult matter, hard issue

gyisona problematic, difficult

gyisonxer complicate

gyisonxen complication

gyisonxwa complicated

ogyisonxer uncomplicate, resolve

ogyisonxen resolution

oson non-issue, blank, nothingness, nihil

koson secret, mystery

kosona secret

kosonan secrecy

kosonaya secretive, mysterious

kason solution

kasoner solve, resolve

kanonen resolution

vyeson theme, subject, topic

vyesona thematic, topical, relevant

ovyesona irrelevant, immaterial, athematic

ifson pleasure, fun

ifsonuer please

ifsonuea pleasing, pleasant

ifsonier enjoy, have fun

ifsoniuwa enjoyable

yevson law case, court case, suit

doyevson civil case

ovson suit

evson contingency

avson cause, case

ivson comedy

ivsona comic

uvson tragedy

uvsona tragic

keson question, query

igefson emergency, crisis

igefsona critical

jeson situtation

jesona situational

kyeson imponderable matter

sin picture, image

sina pictorial

sinxer depict, describe

sinxun depiction, description

sinyuz picture frame

tepsin imagination

tepsina imaginary

tepsiner imagine

otepsinuwa unimaginable

sinier visualize, imagine

sinien visualization, imagination

siniwa imagined, imaginary

sinuer display, exhibit, show, depict

sinuun display, exhibit, show, depiction

sinuut display artist, exhibitor

sinuwa displayed, exhibited, depicted

sinuem scene, stage, exhibition site, display site

sinuwasyan scenery

sinuwasyana scenic

mansin photograph, photo, still shot

mansina photographic

mansinar camera, still camera

mansinxer photograph

passin movie, motion picture

passinam movie theatre, cinema

passinar movie camera

passinagat movie star

fasin icon, idol

fasina iconic

fasinxer iconify

fasinxen iconification

fasinxwa iconified

fasinifrer idolize

fasinifrun idol

fasinifren idolatry, idolization

tujsin dream

tujsiner dream

tujsinut dreamer, reverer

tujsinen dreaming, reverie

tujsina chimeric

tujsinaya dreamy

tujsinyena dream-like

otujsinwa undreamed of

pensin trace

pensiner trace

pensinwa traced

zoysin reflection

zoysiner reflect

zoysineya reflective

zoysinar reflector

zoysinwa reflected

tabsin figure

tabsina figurative

tebsin face

tebsina facial

tebsinay facially

tebsinuer face

tobsin portrait

tobsinut portrait artist

tobsinun portrayal

tobsiner portray

utsin character

utsiner characterize

utsinen characterization

utsinwa characterized

utsineya characteristic

olutsineya uncharacteristic

memsin landscape, scene

memsina scenic

memsinyan scenery

siun sign

siunmuf signpost

mansiun signal, light

tuyabsiun hand sign

tuyabsiuner wave

tebsiuner nod

siunar signal

siunarer signal

siunaren signaling

siundaf sign board

mepsiun road sign

siuner make a sign, give a sign, signal

siunen signing

dyunsiun signature

dyunsiuner sign

dyunsiunen signing

dyunsiunut signer, signatory

dyunsiunwa signed

odyunsiunwa unsigned

siyn mark

siyner mark

siynun marking

siynwa marked

osiynwa unmarked

sun thing

suna real

sunan reality

sunxer realize

sunxwa realized

sunxen realization

osun nothing, nihil, nil

osunxer anihilate

osunxen anihilation

osunxwa anihilated

osunin nihilism

osunina nihilistic

osuninat nihilist

sunyen structure

sunyena structural

sunyener structure

sunyenwa structured

osunyenwa unstructured::

syen style

syenxer style

syenxwa styled

syena stylistic

syeen fashion, manner, mode

be syeen bi a la mode, in the fashion of

syeenaya fashionable

syeena manneristic

syeeninat fashionista

utsyen genre

xesyen process

yixsyeen manner of use

syentun manners

syin subject

syina subjective

syinay subjectively

syinan subjectivity

syun object

syuna objective

syunay objectively

syunan objectivity

syunes article

syufi effects

eser exist, there to be

ese there is, there are, exists

esen existence

esea existant

eson entity

oser cease to exist

osea nonexistant

osean nonexistance

oson nonentity

syemer establish

syem establishment

yansyem corporation, company, firm

yansyema corporate

yansyemeb CEO, chief corporate office

syemwa established

syember install, set up

syemben installation

osyember uninstall

dosyem public institute, institution

dosyember institute

dosyemben institution

dosyema institutional

The ber (Put) and per (Go) Families

The core words ber to put and per to go, combined with positional/directional prefixes and various nuance-creating consonants, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in ber are transitive verbs, while those ending in per are mostly intransitive.

Common ber/per Verbs Built from Postional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels

PREFIX	GESTURE	MOTION	PREFIX	GESTURE	MOTION
ab on	aber put on	aper get on		baer lean	paer stand
yab up	yaber raise	yaper rise		byaer lift	pyaer jump
ob off	ober remove	oper dismount		boer hold up	poer hang
yob down	yober lower	yoper descend		byoer hang	pyoer fall
ub toward	uber send	uper come	bu to	buer give	puer arrive
ib away	iber receive	iper go away	bi from	bier take	pier leave
yub near	yuber bring	yuper approach	byu up to	byuer touch	pyuer reach
yib far	yiber take away	yiper move far away	byi since	byier emanate	pyier originate
eb between	eber block	eper intervene	yeb in oyeb out'	yeber inject oyeber eject	yeper enter oyeper exit
za front	zaber advance	zaper advance	zay forward	zayber promote	zayper proceed
zo behind	zober put behind	zoper follow	zoy back	zoyber put back	zayper return
ze middle	zeber balance	zeper mediate	zey across	zeyber transfer	zeyper cross
zu left	zuber put to the left	zuper go left	uz crooked	zuber turn	zuper detour
zi right	ziber put to the right	ziper go right	iz straight	ziber guide	izper head
zya all over	zyaber spread	zyaper tour	zye through	zyeber interject	zyeper permeate
zyu round	zyuber rotate	zyuper roll	yuz around	yuzber turn	yuzper circulate
yiz beyond	yizber take beyond	yizper surpass	zyag stretched out	zyagber stretch	zyagper stretch out
ja before	jaber prepare	japer precede	aj past	ajber pass	ajper pass
jo after	jober delay	joper follow	oj future	ojber postpone	ojper wait?
je during	jeber continue	jeper continue	ej present	ejber present	ejper present oneself
yan together	yanber assemble	yanper join	bay with	bayber impart	bayper accompany
yon apart	yonber take apart	yonper separate	boy without	boyber deprive	boyper go without
ki oblique	kiber bend	kiper slant
ku side	kuber set aside	kuper avoid

The der (Say) Family

Words ending in der have to do with communicating, thus saying, talking, writing, reading.

daler speak	der say deler announce	doler be silent	diler request direr demand	duler suggest durer urge
	drer write dryener print	droer erase
	dyeder read		dider ask	duder answer
	deser pronounce dyen book drez verse		din story	dun word dyun name drun phrase
daf card dyaf notebook	def paper	dof cardboard		dyuf sheet dyuv page

Here are the most common words in this family:

der say, tell, utter, communicate

den utterance, saying, telling

denyen diction, manner of saying

teypden proverb, saying

teypdena proverbial

teypdenay proverbially

teypdenaxer proverbialize

teypdenaxen proverbialization

teypdenaxwa proverbialized

otedden gibberish::

dwa uttered

dwas utterance

odwa unsaid

odwas something left unsaid

dut sayer, teller

vyandut truth-teller

vyondut liar

dun word

duna verbal

oduna non-verbal

dunxer verbalize

dunxen verbalization

dunika wordy, verbose

dunikan wordiness, verbosity

dunnyan list

dunnyanaber list, put on a list, register

odunnyanabwa unlisted, unregistered

dunnyanober de-list

dunnyanobwa de-listed

dunyan vocabulary, lexicon

dunyana lexical

dunyantun lexicology

dunyantuna lexicological

dunyantut lexicologist

dundyen dictionary

dundyentun lexicography

dundyentuna lexicographical

dundyentut lexicographer

dunnad sentence

dunnayd phrase

dunnayda phrasal

dunnaydyan phraseology

dunnadyan text

dunnadyana textual

fadun blessing

fodun curse

fudun bad word, epithet

fidun compliment

sundun noun

sunduna nominal

sundunxer nominalize

sundunxen nominalization

sundunxwa nominalized

xundun verb

zunduna verbal

vyendun preposition

vyenduna prepositional

sindrendun adjective

sindrenduna adjectival

byendun adverb

byenduna adverbial

yanardun conjunction

dungon syllable

dungona syllabic

dungonxer syllabicize

dungonxwa syllabicized

gladungona polysyllabic

andungona monosyllabic

endungona disyllabic

zadunes prefix

zadunesaber prefix, attach a prefix

zadunesaben prefixation

zodunes suffix

zodunesaber suffix, attach a suffix

zodunesaben suffixation

zedunes infix

zedunesaben infixation

abdunes affix

abdunesaben affixation

yuzdunes circumfix

dunsan morpheme

dunsana morphemic

dunsantun morphology

dunsantuna morphological

dunsantut morphologist

yuddunsan allomorph

dunseux pronunciation, sound of a word, enunciation, articulation

dunseuxer pronounce, enunciate, articulate, sound out a word

vyodunseuxer mispronounce

deser pronounce

desen pronunciation

vyodeser mispronounce

vyodesen mispronunciation

vyodesun mispronunciation, pronunciation error

vyadeser pronounce correctly, dictate, enunciate properly

vyadesyen diction

vyadesen dictation

vyadesar dictation device, dictaphone

odesuwa unpronounceable

dreser spell

dresen spelling

vyodreser misspell

vyodresun misspelling, spelling error

vyadreser spell correctly

vyadresyen orthography

vyadresyena orthographical

dresek spelling bee::

avder favor, advocate

avdwa favored

fander volunteer, express willingness

fandut volunteer

fader bless

fad blessing

fadwa blessed

foder curse

fod curse

fodwa cursed

layder greet, say hello, salute

loyder say goodbye

sagder count out loud, enumerate

sagden counting, enumeration

sagdwa enumerated

egder repeat, retell, say again

egdeya repetitive

egdeyan repetitiveness

egden repetition

ekder pretend

ekden pretending

ekdut pretender

ekdeya pretentious

ekdeyan pretentiousness

epader quack

epeder snort

epeyder moo

evfiader critique

evfiadut critic

evfiden critique

fepader warble, yodel

flider praise, eulogize

fliden praise, eulogy

fliduwa praiseworthy

fliduwan prasieworthiness

fiader recommend

fiaden recommendation

fiadwa recommended

fiaduwa recommendable

fider congratulation, bless

fiden congratulation, blessing

fivader approve, affirm

fivaden approval, affirmation

fivadwa approved, affirmed

frider brag, brag out, flatter, glorify

friden bragging, flattery, glorification

fridut bragger, bragadoccio, flatterer

flyuder insult

flyud insult

flyudea insulting

fruder blaspheme

frud blasphemy

frudut blasphemer

frudeya blasphemous

fruder castigate

fruden castigation

fryuder outrage

fryud outrage

fryudeya outrageous

fuader criticize, demean, malign

fuaden criticism, maligning

fuadeya critical, demeaning

fuder curse, damn

fud curse

fuden damnation

fudwa cursed, damned

fuivader mock

fuivaden mockery

fuvader condemn

fuvaden condemnation

fuvadwa condemned

ebder discuss

ebden discussion

ebdut discutant

gelder echo

grader exaggerate

graden exaggeration

gradwa exaggerated

groder underplay, minimize

groden minimization

gyapyoder laugh like a hyena

ivder thank

ivden thanks

ipader gobble

ipeder bray

ipeder hehaw

ivsader laugh

ivsaden laughter

ivsaduwa laughable, ridiculous

izder say frankly

izeader indicate

izeaden indication

izeadeya indicative

izeadar indicator

iznoder focus

jader predict, foretell

jad prediction

jadwa predicted

jaduwa predictable

ojaduwa unpredictable

jaduwan predictability

ojaduwan unpredictability

javeder guess

javed guess

jouvder mourn

jouvden mourning

jwader warn, forewarn

jwad warning

jwadwa forewarned

boy jwad: without warning

kader admit, confess

kad admission, confession

kebider vote

kebid vote

kebidut voter

kebidaf ballot

kebidafyem ballot box

kider hint

kid hint

klapeder squeek

koder deny

kod denial

okoduwa undeniable

okoduway undeniably

kuder remark, comment

kud remark, comment

kudut commentator

kyoder insist

kyoden insistence

kyodea insistent

lopyeder hiss

naxder cost out

nazder evaluate, estimate

nazden evaluation, estimate

nazdut evaluator, estimator

oder keep silent

oden keeping silent

ofder ban

ofden banning

ofdwa banned

ofivader disapprove

ofivaden disapproval

ofivadwa disapproved

ogelder disagree

ogelden disagreement

ojder foretell

ojden foretelling

ojdwa foretold

ovader contradict

ovaden contradiction

ovder object, oppose

ovden objection, opposition

ovduwa objectionable

ozder hint

ozden hint

pader chirp, tweet

poder make an animal noise

rapyoder roar

repyoder growl

rupyoder howl

tapader parrot

tapeder make monkey noises

tapelader chirp

tatader bless, sanctify

tataden blessing, sanctification

tatadwa blessed, sancified

teader witness

teaden witnessing

teadut witness

tepyoder growl

teuder scream, yell, shout

teud scream, yell, shout

teuden screming, yelling, shouting

tider understand

tid understanding

tidwa understood

vyotider misunderstand

vyotid misunderstanding

vyotidwa misunderstood

teder mean, signify, intend

ted meaning, intention

tedwa intentional

tuder explain, explicate, clarify

tud explanation, explication, clarification

tuda explanatory

otuduwa unexplainable, unexplicable

otuduwan unexplainability, unexplicability::

ujder conclude

ujden conclusion

ujdeya conclusive

upeder bleat

upeden bleating

uvader apologize

uvad apology

uvder complain

uvden complaint, complaining, plea

uvdut plaintiff

uzder say indirectly, equivocate

uzden equivocation

vaader affirm

vaaden affirmation

vaadwa affirmed

vader assent

vad assent

vadea assenting

valder assure

valden assurance

valdwa assured

volder threaten

volden threat

voldea threatenin

veder guess, suppose, speculate

ved quess

veden speculation

vedwa speculative

vetexder express doubt

viader compliment

viad compliment

viadeya complimentary

vikader express admiration

virader marvel

vodebder prohibit

voder deny

vod denial

vodwa denied

vuader malign, insult

vuad insult

vuadea insulting

vyader swear

vyad oath

vyaden swearing

vyadwa sworn

vyander tell the truth

vyandut truth-teller

vyoder lie

vyod lie

vyodut liar

vyodeya mendacious

yevder judge

yevden judgment

yevdut judge

yevdeya judgmental

yevdun verdict

yavder acquit, excuse

yavden acquittal

yavdwa acquitted, excused

yovder indict

yovden indictment

yovdwat indictee

yovduwa indictable

yokder improvise

yokden improvisation

yokdwa improvised

yokteuder exclaim

yokteud exclamation

yokteudwa exlamatory

yagder elaborate

yagden elaboration

yagdwa elaborated

igder mention, make note of

igden mention, notation

igdwa mentioned

nazea igdwer worth mentioning, notable

yapader coo

yapeder squeal

yepeder bark

yipder meow

yiypeder purr

apeder neigh

yogder summarize

yogden summary

yogdwa summarized

zyader announce, broadcast

zyad announcement

zyadut announcer

ozyadwa unannounced

afder permit, allow

afden permission, license

afdwa permitted

oafwa illicit

afdren permit, license

fuder decry, frown on, reject, reprove

fud rejection, reproval, objection

fudwa decried, reproved, rejected, frowned on

fuader badmouth, criticize, insult

fuad insult, criticism

fuadeya critical

fyuder insult

fyud insult

fyudea insulting

fyudwa insulted

daler' speak, talk

dal speech, talk

dalen speaking, talking

dalut speaker, talker, orator

dalutsem pulpit, dais

dalun speech, talk, oration

dalwa spoken, oral

odalwa unspoken

odalwas something unspoken

odaluwa unspeakable

odaluwas something unspeakable

daltuz rhetoric

daltuza rhetorical

daltuzut rhetorician

dalyen language

dalyena language-related, lingual

gladalyena multilingual

gladalyenut polyglot

dalyentun linguistics

dalyentuna linguistic

dalyentut linguist

dalyenes dialect

meama dalyenes: regional dialect

dalyenesa dialectal

dalyenestun dialectology

dalyenestuna dialectological

dalyenestut dialectologist

dalbyen manner of speaking, speaking style, figure of speech, idiom

dalbyena idiomatic

dalbyenay idiomatically

be dalbyen: in a manner of speaking

fadaler preach, sermonize

fadalut preacher

fadalun sermon

fadalsem pulpit

avdaler speak of behalf of, advocate, campaign for, defend, argue for, pitch, plead

avdal argument, defense, plea

avdalen advocacy, defense, pleading

avdalut advocate, defender

avdalutan advocacy, defense

ovdaler speak out against, protest, condemn, oppose, argue against, downplay

ovdalen protest, condemnation, opposition, counterargument

ovdalut protester, opponent, prosecutor

ovdalutyan prosecution

dodaler speak in public, orate, stump

dodalen speaking in public, oration

dodalun public speech, oration

dodalut orator, public speaker

dodalsem rostrum

izdaler address, speak directly

izdalun address, demarche

izdalwat addressee

ebdaler communicate, discuss

ebdal communication, exchange, linguistic exchange, discussion, discourse

ebdalun communique

ebdalut communicant, interlocutor, discutant

ebdaloger chat

ebdalog chat

ebdalogen chatting

glaebdalogut chatterbox

ebdaleya chatty

ozdaler mumble, murmur, mutter

gradaler yammer, talk too much, harangue

yagdaler ramble on, blab, speak at length

daleker debate

dalek debate

daleken debating

dalekut debator

dalekutyan debate team

dalekem debate forum::::

doler: be quiet, be mute, shut up, be silent

dol quiet, silent

dolxer shut up, muzzle, silence

dolxen muzzling, silencing

dolxwa muzzled, silenced

dolser stay quite, be mum, be silent

dolea mute, mum, silent

dola quiet, silent

dier ask, request

dien request

diut requester, asker

diun request

Diwe! Please!, it is requested

fadier pray

fadiun prayer

fadiena precatory

fadiim chapel

diler demand

dil demand

dilea demanding

dilun demand

direr require

dir requirement

odir option

odira optional

diren requirement

dirwa required

odirwa optional

did' question

dider question, interrogate

diden questioning, interrogation

didut questioner, interrogator

diduwa questionable

dida interrogative

didsiun question mark

din story, account, tale

dinder narrate, tell a story, relate

dinden narration, story-telling, recitation, narrative

dindut narrator, story-teller, reciter

yogdin short story, tale

yagdin novel

yagdinut novelist

ajdin history

ajdina historical

ajdinyena historic

ajdindren historiography

ajdindrena historiographical

ajdindrut historiographer

ajutbyendin tale of tradition, lore, tradition

ajutbyendina traditional, folkloric

ajutnyandin folklore, folk tale, lore, popular myth

ajutnyandina folkloric, mythical

dodin history, public record

dodina historical

dodindyen history book, public record

agdodin epic, saga, legend

agdodina epic, legendary

agdin epic, saga, legend, tall tale

agdina epic, legendary, epical

tejdin biography, life story, bio

tejdina biographical

tejdinut biographer

tojdin obituary, obit

ifondin love story, romance

ifondina romantic

ifondinaxer romanticize

ifondinaxen romanticization

ifondinaxwa romanticized

dezdin musical, musical story

dezdinog operetta

dezdinag opera

dezdinaga operatic

dezdinagifut opera buff, opera lover

dezdinagut opera performer

jubxwasdin news story, news account, news of the day, news article, daily news report

jubxwasdinut reporter, news reporter, journalist

jubxwasdinam news station

jubxwasdinen journalism

zyadinuer report, broadcast

zyadin report, rumor, broadcast

zyadinuut reporter, broadcaster

zyadinuen reportage, reporting, broadcasting

zyadinam broadcasting station

dinier catch a story, hear, receive a report

dinuer report, put out a story

dinuen reporting

dinuut reporter

dinuun report

kodin cover story

vyodin lie, false story, fabrication, fake news, tall story, slander, calumny

vyodiner lie, purjure oneself

vyodinen perjury, lying, calumny

vyodinuer spread a false story, slander

vyodinea slanderous, calumnious

eyvyodin white lie, fib

eyvyodiner fib

eyvyodiut fibber

eyvyodinen fibbing:::

zyudin rumor, story going around, story circulating

zyudinwer be rumored

zyudinut rumormonger

'kadin expose

kadiner expose

kadinen exposure

kadinwa exposed::

tyezdin saga, legend

tyezdina legendary

ivdin joke, funny story, comedy

ivdina comical, jocular

ivdinyena comedic

ivdiner joke, tell a funny story

ivdinen comedy, joking

ivdinut joke-teller, comedian, comic

uvdin sad story, dirge, tragedy

uvdina tragic

uvdinyena tragic, tragical

aguvdin tragedy

aguvdina tragic

uvivdin tragicomedy::

tujdin dream

tujdiner dream

tujdinyena dreamlike, dreamy

tujdinut dreamer

tujdinem dreamscape, dream world

vyomdin fantasy, fiction, fairy tale

vyomdina fantastic, ficticious

vyamdin prose, factual story

vyomdina factual, prosaic

podin fable, tale of animals

podina fabled

podinut fabulist

dofindin morality tale, fable, parable

todin myth, tale of the gods

todina mythical

todintun mythology

todintuna mythological

todintut mythologist

todiner mythologize

todinen mythologizing

agfindin myth, saga

agfindina mythical

agfindinyan mythology

agfindinyana mythological

kosdin mystery, mystery tale

kosdina mysterious

taxdin memoire

fadin gospel, sermon, hadith

fadinyan collection of holy tales, testament

fadina testimonial

fadiner preach, sermonize, testify

fadinut preacher, sermonizer

duer suggest, propose

duen suggestion, proposition

duun suggestion, proposal

dueya suggestive

duut suggester, proponent

duwa suggested, proposed

duwas something suggested, proposition

duuwa suggestible

duuwan suggestibility

ozduer hint

ozduun hint

ozduuwa hinted

azduer urge, strongly suggest

azduen strong suggestion, urging

azduuwa strongly suggested, urged

azdueya urgent

azdueyan urgency

azdueyay urgently

duler insist

dulen insistence

duleya insistant

dulut insister

dulwa insisted

oduler back off, resist

odulen resistance

oduleya resistant

odulut resistor

odulutyan resistance

durer prod, instigate, provoke, incite

duren instigation, provacation

dureya instigative, provocative

durut instigator, provocateur

dud answer, response

duder answer, respond

duden aswering, responding

dudut respondant

duduwa responsible

duduwan responsibility

oduduwa irresponsible

oduduwan irresponsibility

dudeya responsive

odudeya unresponsive

dun word, vocable, lyric, utterance

duna verbal, lexical

dunay verbally

dunan verbality

dunaxer verbalize

dunaxen verbalization

dunaxwa verbalized

gladuna multi-word

yanbwa dun compound word

fodun curse word, cuss word, curse

ebdun message

kudun remark

kodun code word

zadun foreword

erdun verb

erduna verbal

adun adjective

aduna adjectival

aydun adverb

ayduna adverbial

sundun noun

sunduna nominal

yanxdun conjunction

vyexdun preposition

yokdun interjection, exclamation

yokduna exclamatory

yokdunsiun exclamation point

dunaun lexeme

dunauna lexemic

dunyan list, verbiage, wordlist, collection of words, vocabulary

dundyen dictionary, lexicon

dundyena lexical

dundyenaxer lexicalize

dundyenaxen lexicalization

dundyenaxwa lexicalized

dundyentun lexicography

dundyentuna lexicographic

dundyentut lexicographer

be yuda duni in other words

dunes syllable

dunesa syllabic:

duyn term, lexeme

duyna lexemic

duynyan terminology, glossary, lexicon, term bank, vocabulary

duynyana terminological, lexical::

drun phrase, expression

druna phrasal, expressive

drunyan phraseology

drunyana phraseological

drundyen phrase book

druner phrase, express

drunen phrasing, expression

drunwa phrased, expressed

anutdrun idiom, idiomatic expression

anutdruna idiomatic

anutdrunay idiomatically

egdruner rephrase

egdrunen rephrasing

egdrunwa rephrased

ayndrun clause

ayndruna clausal, holophrastic

ikdrun sentence

ikdruna sentential

dyeder read

dyeden reading

dyedun passage, reading, lecture

dyeduner lecture

dyedunut lecturer

dyedunyan conference, series of lectures

dyedunyanem conference hall

gladyedea well-read

glodyedea unread, illiterate

dyedut reader

dyedutyan readership

gladyedut avid reader

dyedutem lecture hall

dyedutseym lecturn

dyedyafa literate, able to read

dyedyafan literacy

dyedyofa illiterate, unable to read

dyedyofan illiteracy

dyen book

dyenyan book collection

dyentam library

dyntamut librarian

dyennam bookstore

dyennamut bookseller

dyennames bookstall

dyenog libretto, pamphlet

dyenifut bibliophile

dyenifon bibliophilia, love of books

dyensam bookcase, bookstall

dyensamneg bookshelf

dyennyami stacks

dyenabdren book title, book label

dyendyun book title, book name

dyendyunyan bibliography, list of book titles

dyendyunyana bibliographical

dyudren title

dyudrer title

dyudrwa titled, entitled

dyudrena titular

dyenyena bookish

dyenyenat bookworm, nerd

dyenes volume, tome

dyenabun bookcover

dyensiundaf bookmark

dyenujun bookend

yixwa dyen used book

yixwa dyennam used book store

dyenem book gallery

dyen dodryenxut book publisher

dyen dodryenxen book publishing

dyen dodryenxam book publishing house, book publishing firm

dyes document, piece of literature

dyesyan literature, documentation, readings

vidyes work of literature

vidyesyan litterature, belles lettres

vidyesa literary

vidyesana literary

dodyes official document

dodyesyan official documentation, paperwork

dodyesgran redtape, bureaucracy

dyun name

dyuna nominal

dyunay nominally

dyuner call, name

dyunwa called, named, denominated

odyunwa unnamed, nameless

dyunen naming, calling, appelation, denomination

dyunwer be called, be named

At dyunwe... My name is...

dyunyan list

dyunyaner list

dyunyanwa listed

odyunyanwa unlisted

dyunder cite, address

dyunden citation, addressing

dyunaber assign a name, designate

dyunaben name assignment, designation

egdyuner rename

egdyunwa renamed

egdyunen renaming

dyunzayber nominate

dyunzayben nomination

dyunzaybwat nominee

emdyun address

emdyuner address

emdyunwa addressed

vyosemdyunwa misaddressed

dyundaf name badge, name card

zadyun first name, given name

zedyun middle name

zedyunij middle initial

abdyun surname, last name, family name:toda dyun: family name

tajdyun given name, birth name

yogdyun nickname, short name

auta dyun proper name

dodyun official name, public name

ijdresini bi ota dyun initials of one's name

nundyun trade name, label, commercial label, product name

lyudyun alias, alternate name

dezdyun stage name

drutdyun pen name

kodyun code name, secret name, hidden name

ifpota dyun pet name

yogjoba dyun temporary name

drer write, record

dren writing, script

drenyan scripture, collection of writings

vidrenyan literature

vidrenyana literary

jodren postscript

drenes article

dreyn text

dreyna textual

dreynnad line of text

dryeynxar editor

drenvyasaxer edit

drenvyasaxut copy editor

drenvyasaxen copy-editing

drenvyasaxwa edited

odrenvyasaxwa unedited

egdrer rewrite, revise

egdren rewriting

egdrwa rewritten, revised

egdrawa rewritten, revised

egdrun rewrite, revision

igdrer jot, scribble, scrawl

igdrawa jotten, scribbled, scrawled

abdrer inscribe, label, title

abdren inscription, label, title, superscript

tuyadrer write by hand

tuyadren manuscript, handwriting, chirography

yagtuyadren long-hand

yogtuyadren short-hand

yugtuyadren block script

vituyadren calligraphy

vituyadrut calligrapher

vituyadrena calligraphic

tuyadrwa handwritten

tuyadrawa handwritten

obdrer subtitle

obdren subscript, subtitle

sindrer describe

sindren description

sindrena descriptive

osindruwa indescribable

osindruway indescribably

ebdrer mail, post:

ebdren letter, post, missive, message

ebdrenyan mail, correspondence, post

ebdrenyanam post office

ebdrenuber mail, post

ebdrenubut mailman, postman, messenger

ebdrenyem post box, letter drop, mailbox

vyedrer correspond

vyedren correspondence

vyedrut correspondent

vyedrea corresponding

sandrer formulate

sandren formulation

sandrena formulaic

sandrun formula, form

dyudrer title

dyudren title

dyudrwa titled

yibdrer wire, telegraph

yibdren telegram

yibdrenuber send a telegram, wire, telegraph

yibdrur telegraph machine

dyundrer sign

dyundren signing, signature

dyundrwa signed

dyundrwa unsigned

dyundrut signatory, signer

obdyundrwat undersigned

tubdyundrer sign in, register, sign up

tubdyundren signing in, registration, signup

tubdyundrwa signed in, registered, signed up

tubdyundrwa unregistered

tubdyundrut registree

tubdyun member name

sardrer type, typewrite

sardrar typewriter

sardrwa typewritten

sardrawa typewritten

sardren typewriting

sardrun typewritten manuscript

sardrut typist, secretary

sardrutyan typist pool, secretary pool

bardrer print

bardren printing

bardrwa printed

bardrawa printed

bardrawas printed material, something printed

bardrut printer

bardrar printing press, press

bardrun printed copy, print

geldrer copy

geldren copying

geldrwa copied

geldrun copy

geldrar copier::

dreun document

dreunyan documentation

dreunxer document

dreunxen documentation

dreunxwa documented

odeunxwa undocumented

dreundyez documentary

dreundyezut documentarian

dreder report

dred report

dreden reporting

dredyan reportage

dredut reporter

dredwa reported

odredwa unreported

drut writer

drwa written, graphic

drawa written, graphic

drwas something written, notation, graph

drawas something written, notation, graph

odrwa unwritten

odrawa unwritten

drevyab grammar

drevyaba grammatical

odrevyaba ungrammatical

drevyabdyen grammar book

drebyen writing style

dres note, notation, missive

ifondres love note

dres bi uttujbut suicide note

dreser note

dresen notation

kudreser annotate

kudresen annotation, annotating

kudres annotation

kudreswa annotated

dodres bulletin

dresam office, bureau

dresem desk

dresim den, bureau, office

dresin design, draft, plan

dresiner design, draft, plan

dresinut designer, drafter, plan

dresinen designing, drafting, planning

domdresin urban design

dresinam design studio

dreyeb wallet

nodrer punctuate, dot

nodren punctuation, dotting

nodrun point, dot

nodrwa punctuated, dotted

siyn mark

nodren siyn punctuation mark

pos siyn period

pos nodrun period

pes siyn comma

pos pos siyn colon

pos pes siyn semi-colon

yok siyn exclamation point

yok nodrun exclamation point

'did siyn question mark

yebdun siyn hyphen

ebdun siyn dash

zenades dash

yebzenades hyphen

dryener print

dryenam printing plant

dryenut printer

dryenen print, impression

dryenar printing press

dryen print

jubdryen newspaper

jubdryenyan press

jubdryenut journalist, newspaperman

jubdryenutyan journalist pool

jubdryentun journalism

jubdryentuna journalistic

jubdryentut journalist

yejubdryen weekly magazine

jibdryen monthly magazine

deldryen advertisement, ad

sinjobdryen magazine, illustrated review

cindryen illustration

cindryener illustrate

cindryenwa illustrated

dryenes ticket, billet

dryenesam ticket office

dryenesar ticket machine

dryenesmis ticket window

dryenog ticket, billet

zyadryen poster

zyadryener post

dryesun type, printer's type, font character

dryesunyan font

dryesin letter, grapheme, glyph, character

dryesina litteral, graphemic, graphic, glyphic

dryesinay litterally

dryesinder spell

dryesinden spelling

vyodryesinder misspell

vyodryesindun misspelling

voyodryesindwa misspelled

vyadryesinden orthography

vyadryesindena orthographical

vyadryesindek spelling bee

dryesinyan alphabet

dryesinyana alphabetical

odryesinyana unalphabetic

dryessinyanxer alphabeticize

dryesinyanxen alphabeticization

dryesinyanxwa alphabeticized

dryesinij initial, initial letter

dryesinijber initialize

dryesinijbwa initialized

dryesinijben initialization

andryesin monograph

endryesin digraph

indryesin trigraph

fadryesin hieroglyph

fadryesinyan hieroglyphics

sindryes ideograph, pictorial character

sindryesa ideographic

dodryen publishing

dodryenyan publicity

dodryenxer publish

dodryenxen publication

dodryer publicize

dodryut publicist

dodryun publication

daf chart, card, badge

dafnyan stack of card, deck of cards

jabdaf calendar

judaf calendar

judar calendar

ekdaf playing card

ekdafyan deck of cards

mepdaf map, route map, street map

mepdafer map

mepdafwa mapped

mepdaftun cartography, mapmaking

mepdaftuna cartographic

mepdaftut cartographer

mircindaf atlas, world map, geographic map

jwobdaf schedule

jwobdafer schedule

jwobdafen scheduling

jwobdafwa scheduled

jonusdaf credit card

jonisdaf debit card

valdaf certificate, security badge

dyundaf name badge

ebdrendaf postcard

popdaf postcard, picture postcard

def paper

defyan paperwork, stationery

defnam stationery

defnamut stationery shopowner

defnyan stack of paper

milukdef toilet paper

defes scrap of paper, piece of paper

dof cardboard

dofnyem cardboard box

siundof signboard, sign, poster

dyof board

maksiundyof electronic signboard

ijujbar dyof: switch board

dyaf notebook

yagdyaf register

yagdyafut registrar

yagdyafer register

yagdyafen registration

yagdyafam registry

yafdryafwa registered

dyafes book

dyuf sheet, leaf of paper

dyufbuar sheetfeeder

dyufes leaflet

dyuv page

zyedyuver page through, leaf through, paginate

zyedyuven pagination

zadyuv front page

zodyuv back page

zedyuv middle page

dyuvsan page layout, layout

gladyuva many-paged, thick

drar pencil

draryeb pencil holder

drarer pencil, draw

drarun drawing

drarwa drawn

yilemdrar lead pencil, pencil

drasin drawing, illustration, picture, depiction

drasiner draw, illustrate, depict

drasinwa drawn, illustrated

drasinut illustrator

drasinam drafting studio, picture studio

drasintem picture gallery

tejdrasinen life drawing

tejdrasin life drawing

tejdrasiner draw from life

tejdrasinwat life drawing model

tejdrasinam life drawing studio

tebdrasin portrait

tebdrasinyan portraiture

tebdrasiner portray

tebdrasinut portrait artist

tebdrasinam portrait studio

tebdrasintem portrait gallery

tebdrasien portrayal

uttebdrasin self-portrait, selfie:

dril ink

drilar ink pen, pen

drilyeb inkwell

drilvyun ink stain

drilardyun pen name

drilarer pen

drilarwa penned

lodrer erase

lodrun erasure

lodrar eraser

lodrwa erased

drear feather pen

drearyeb feather penholder

vozdrar crayon meyagdrar chalk, stick of chalk meyagdyof chalkboard

The ter (Know) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with t, meaning human and mental activities like knowing and thinking:

Summary:

	tep mind, intellect	top soul
taxer remember taxier memorize taxuer remind	texer think ter know tyer recognize tyier familiarize oneself tyuer acquaint tez culture ten knowledge tyen skill, craft teyen idea teyenier conceive of teyenuer seed the idea tijtep conscious mind tujtep subconscious vyatex reason vyaten wisdom vatex belief vatexuer persuade vetex suspicion votex doubt votexuer dissuade	toxer forget	tixer study	tuxer teach
taser feel tayoter feel	teser mean tesier infer tesuer imply tester understand tesder explain		tiser learn tin doctrine iztis intuition	tuser inform tun science tuin theory tuz art

Here are the most important words derived from ter to know:

ter know

ten knowledge

twer be known

twa known

fitwa well-known

zyatwa known all around, famous

zyatwan fame

glatwa much-known

twas known fact, fact, datum, something known

twasyan data, information, known facts, news

twassyagar computer, data calculator

oter not know, ignore

oten ignorance

otwa unknown, ignored

otwas mystery

otwasyena mysterious

otwasyenan mysteriousness

otea ignorant

otean ignorance

oteat ignorant person

yadter know everything, be omniscient

yadtea all-knowing, omniscient

yadtean omniscience

yadteat omniscient person

glater know a lot

glatea knowledgeable, savant

glatean knowledgeability

yekter be interested, be curious

yektea interested, curious

yektean interest, curiosity

tyek inquiry, question, curiosity, interest, interrogation, research

tyeker inquire, ask about, query, interrogate

tyeken inquiry, inquisition, questioning, interest

tyekut inquirer, inquisitor, questioner, interrogator, researcher

tyekeya inquisitive, interrogative

tyekeyan inquisitiveness

tefer want to know, be interested, be curious

tefea interested, curious

tefeat interested person, curious person

tef interest, curiosity

tefier take an interest in

tefuer interest, make curious

tefuea interesting

otef lack of interest

otefuwa uninterested

otefuwan boredom

tefder express interest, query, question, inquire

tefden expression of interest, inquisition, inquiry

tefdeya inquisitive

tefdeyan inquisitiveness:::

vyater see through things, be wise, possess insight

vyatea wise, sagacioius, witty

vyatean wisdom, sagacity, wit

vyaten wisdom, sagacity, insight

vyatut sage, wise man, wise person, wit

jater know in advance, be prescient

jatea prescient

jatean prescience

jaten foreknowledge

jatwa known beforehand, anticipated

ojatwa unanticipated, surprise

ojter see the future, foresee, anticipate

ojten foresight, anticipation

ojtut seer

ojtwa anticipated

ajter know the past, be wise

ajtea wise, sagacioius

ajten wisdom

ajtut sage

oter be unaware, not know, ignore

otea unaware, not knowing, ignorant, unfamiliar

otean ignorance, unfamiliarity

tyer be familiar with, know, recognize

tyen familiarity, recognition, acquaintanceship, skill, craft

tyea familiar, acquainted

otyer be unfamiliar with, fail to recognize, not know

yegtyer recognize

egtyen recognition

egtyawa recognized

egtyuwa recognizable

egtyuwa recognizability

oegtyawa unrecognized

oegtyuwa unrecognizable

tyawa known, familiar

tyawan familiarity, acquaintanceship

tyawat acquaintance, familiar person

otyawa unfamiliar, unknown, unrecognized

otyawan unfamiliarity

glatyawa famous, renown, illustrious

glatyawat celebrity, famous person

glatyawan celebrity, fame, renown

glatyawaxer celebrate

glatyawaxen celebration

glatyawaxena celebrational

glatyawaxwa celebrated

yagtyawa long-known

zyauvtyawa notorious, infamous

zyauvtyawan notoriety, infamy

zyauvtyawat notorious individual, infamous person

zyauvtyawaser gain notoriety, become infamous

tyuer familiarize, acquaint, introduce

tyuen familiarization, introduction

tyuwa familiarized, acquainted

tyier become familiar, get acquainted, become acquainted with

tyien acquaintance

tijter know consciously, be conscious, be aware

tijten consciousness, awareness

tijtea conscious, aware, alert

tijteay consciously

tijtean consciousness, awareness

otijtea unconscious, unaware

otijtean unconsciousness, unawareness

gratijtea hyperconscious

gratijtean hyperconsciousness

tijtuer alert, make aware, prompt

tijtier be alert, pay attention, keep oneself aware

tijtien attention, paying attention

tijtiea attentive, alert

tijtep conscious mind

tujten subconscious

tujtena subconscious

tujtep subconscious, subconscious mind

taxer remember, recall

tax memory

taxon memory, recall

taxun memory, recollection

taxos memory, seat of memory

taxen remembering, recollection

taxwa remembered

taxwas something remembered, recollection

taxuwa memorable

taxuwas keepsake, souvenir

otaxuwa unmemorable

taxdin memoir

taxbeler memorize, keep in one's memory, remember

taxbelen memorization

taxbelwa memorized

bi tax from memory

taxmeg monument, headstone

taxmega monumental

taxem memorial, memorial grounds

taxxel commemoration, memorial

taxxeler commemorate, memorialize

taxxela commemorative, memorial

taxxelen commemoration, memorialization

tajtax birthday

tajtaxxel birthday celebration, birthday party

xeler ota tajtax celebrate one's birthday

taxier recollect, recall, commit to memory, memorize, make a note of

taxien recollection, recall, memorization, notation

taxuer remind

taxuun reminder, memorandum, memo

taxkyoer memorize, fix in one's memory

taxkyoen memorization

taxkyowa memorized, fixed in one's mind

texer think, cogitate

tex thought, cognition

texa cognitive, cogitative

texen thinking, cogitation, cognition::

texij idea, notion, concept

texija ideational, notional, conceptual

kyotexij idee fixe, fixed notion

igtex quick thought, flash, sudden thought

texeya pensive, thoughtful

texeyan pensiveness, thoughtfulness

texier consider

texien consideration

otexieya inconsiderate

texuer make think, give the idea, suggest the thought, seed the thought

yagtexer ponder, reflect, meditate

yagtexen pondering, reflection, meditation

jayagtexer premeditate

jayagtexwa premeditated

ojayagtexwa unpremeditated

yantexer agree

yantexwa agreed

yantex agreement

yantexder consent, express agreement, assent

yantexdut consenter

yantexden consensus

yontexer disagree, dispute

yontex disagreement

yontexder dissent, express disagreement, contest, dispute

yontexdut dissenter, disputant

yontexden dissension, disputation

yontexdeya disputatious

yontexduwa disputable

oyontexduwa indisputable

oyontexduwan indisputability:

avtexer assent, favor

evtexer question, wonder, be neutral

ovtexer contest, oppose

vatexer think so, believe, expect

vatex belief, expectation

vatexut believer

vatexuwa believable, credible, expected

vatexuwan believability

ovatexuwa unbelievable, incredible

ovatexuwan unbelievablity

vatexuer make believe, persuade, convince

vatexueya convincing

vatexuuwa credulous, convinceable

vatexuuwat credulous person

vetexer suppose, guess, hypothesize

vetex supposition, guess, hypothesis

vetexena suppositional, hypothetical

vetexwa supposed, guessed, hypothesized

fuvetexer suspect

fuvetex suspicion

fuvetexea suspicious

ofuvetexea unsuspecting

fuvetexwa suspected, suspect

fuvetexwat suspect

fuvetexuer make suspicious, arouse suspicion

fuvetexuea suspicious

votexer think not, disbelieve, doubt

votex disbelief, doubt

votexea circumspect, doubtful

votexuwa dubious, doubtful

votexut disbeliever, doubter

ovotexuwa undoubtable, indubitable

ovotexway undoubtedly, indubitably

vyatep reason, seat of reason, logical mind

vyatexer reason, rationalize

vyatex reason, rationale, logic

vyatexa rational, logical, reasonable

vyatexen rationalization, reasoning

vyatexwa reasoned

vyatexuwa reasonable

vyatexea reasoning, rational

ovyatexa irrational, unreasonable, illogical

vyatextun logic, study of logic

vyatextuna logical

vyatextut master of logic

vyatexin rationalism

vyatexina rationalistic

vyatexinat rationalist

vyatexan rationality

ovyatexan irrationality

vyatexyaf faculty of reason, ability to reason

vyotexer think wrongly, err

vyotex wrong-headedness, fallacy, false reasoning

vyotexa wrong-headed, fallacious, irrational

iztex logic?

jatexer plan, think ahead, project, premeditate

jatex plan, project, forethought

jatexen planning, premeditation

jatexutyan planning staff, oroject committee, board

jatexwa planned, projected, premeditated

jatexdren plan, draft, blueprint

ojatexwa unpremeditated, unplanned

jotexer ponder the aftermath of, review

jotex afterthought, recollection, review

ivtexer be grateful, be thankful, appreciate

ivtex thanks

ivtexder express thanks, thank

Ivtexwe! Thanks!, Thank-you!

uvtexer regret, remorse

uvtex regret, remorse

uvtexder express regret, express remorse, apologize

uvtexden apology, expression of regret

uvtexdea apologetic, regretful

Uvtexwe! Sorry!, Excuse me!, My condolences!

futexer resent, harbor ill feelings

futex resentment

futexder express resentment

futexeya resentful

futexika resentful

futexikan resentfulness

futexaya resentful

futexayan resentfulness

futexwa resented

texuer persuade, convince, make thing, suggest

texueya persuasive, convincing, suggestive

texuen persuasion, suggestion

texier get the idea, conceive of

texien conception

texiun concept

texiuna conceptual

texiuwa conceived

otexiuwa inconceivable

otexiuwan inconceivability

teyxer opine, believe

teyx opinion, belief

oteyx disbelief

teyxdren opinion piece, editorial

kitex bias

kitexea biased

kitexuer bias, slant one's views, sway

texyen opinion, view, belief, way of thinking, mental bias

texyener opinion, have the opinion, be of the view, believe

texyender express the opinion, opine

texyenika opinionated, biased

texyenaya opinionated, biased

antexyena single-minded, biased

antexyen bias, single-mindedness

kitexyena biased, slanted

kitexyen bias, slant

kitexyenuer bias, slant, influence, sway

geltexyena like-minded, of a similar opinion

geltexyener think alike, be of a similar opinion

ogeltexyena of a different opinion

ovtexyena of the opposite opinion, opposed, contrary

ovtexyener believe the opposite, think the contrary, dispute

ovtexyeneya contrarian, disputatious

ovtexyeneyan contrarianism

ovtexyeneyat contrarian, disputant

entexyena of two minds, split in one's opinion, divided

aztexyender strongly opine, express a forceful opinion, argue vehemently

texyendek debate, crossfire, battle of opinions, arguing, dispute

texyendeker debate, argue, dispute

texyendekut debator

texyendekutyan debate team

texyendekuwa debatable

textun philosophy

textuna philosophical

textut philosopher

tep mind, intellect

tepa mental, intellectual

tepay mentally, intellectually

tepyen mentality, mental framework, mood, disposition, state of mind, attitude

tepyena attitudinal

fitepyena in a good mood, well-disposed

futepyena in a bad mood, ill-disposed

vatepyena optimistic, favorably-disposed

votepyena pessimistic, negatively-inclined

tepyenika moody

tepyenikan moodiness

kyetepyena volatile, given to swing moods

kyatepyena in an altered state of mind, distracted

kyotepyena in a fixed mood, stable-minded, attentive

tijtep conscious mind

tijtepa conscious, aware, alert

teptija mentally alert, conscious, attentive

teptijan altertness, consciousness, attention

oteptija unattentive, unalert, distracted

oteptijan unattentiveness, unaltertness

eyteptija semi-alert, semi-conscious

eyteptijan semi-alterness, semi-consciousness

tujtep subconscious mind

tujtepa subconscious

teptuja mentally asleep, unconscious

teptujan unconsciousness

tepaza smart, intelligent, mentally strong

tepazan smartness, intelligence

tepoza dumb, stupid, of weak intelligence, mentally weak

tepozan dumness, stupdity, weak intelligence

tepeza mentally normal

tepezan average mental competence

tepiga quick-witted, witty, sharp-minded

tepigan quick-wittedness, wittiness, sharp-mindedness

tepuga slow-witted, mentally slow, dull-minded

tepugan slow-wittedness, mental dullness

tepyiga stern, strict, hard-minded, stubborn, tough-minded

tepyigan sternness, strictness, stubbornness, tough-mindedness

tepyigat stickler, tough cookie

tepyuga lax, soft-hearted, lenient

tepyugan laxness, soft-heartednes, leniency

tepyija open-minded

tepyijan open-mindedness

tepyuja closed-minded

tepyujan closed-mindedness

tepava favorable, favorably disposed, pro

tepova unfavorable, contrarian, con

tepbaka sane, mentally sound, of sound mind

tepbak mental health

tepbakam mental health facility

tepbakan sanity, mental soundness

tepboka insane, mentally ill

tepbok mental illness

tepbokan insanity, mental illness

tepbokat mental ill person

tepbek psychiatry

tepbeka psychiatric

tepbekam psychiatric clinic

tepbekim mental ward

tepbekwat mental patient

tepbekut psychiatrist

teptun psychology

teptuna psychological

teptut psychologist

tepsin mental image

tepsiner imagine

tepsinen imagination

tepsinwa imaginary, imagined

vyotepsin illusion, hallucination

vyotepsina illusory

vyotepsiner hallucinate

vyotepsinen hallucination

vyotepsinwa hallucinatory, illusory

vyatepa wise, sagacious

vyatepan wisdom, sagacity

vyatepat sage, wiseman, wise person

vyotepa foolish

vyotepan folly

vyotepat fool

yotepa crazy

yotepat crazy person

yotepan craziness

anagtepa simple-minded

anagtepat simpleton

anagtepan simple-mindedness

tepaga broad-minded

tepagan broad-mindedness

tepagat broad-minded person

tepoga silly, narrow-minded, petty

tepogan silliness, narrow-mindedness, pettiness

tepogat silly person, narrow-minded person, petty person

gitepa mentally sharp, keen

gitepan mental sharpness, acuity, keenness

gitepat keen wit

gutepa dull-minded

gutepan dullness, stupidity

gutepat dullard

zyatepa broad-minded

zyatepan broad-mindedness

zyatepat broad-minded person

zyotepa narrow-minded, petty

zyotepan narrow-mindedness, pettiness

zyotepat narrow-minded person, petty person

vatepa optimistic, positive

vatepan optimisim

vattepat optimist, positive person

votepa pessimistic, negative-minded

votepan pessimism

votepat pessimist, negative person

tepiza straight-minded, focused, clearheaded

tepuza scatterbrained

tepyiva free-spirited

tepyuva close-minded

tepyeva fair-minded

tepiva cheerful

tepuva downcast, depressed'

kyatepa flexible-minded

kyatepan flexibility

kyotepa fixed-minded

kyotepa fix-mindedness

kitepa slanted, biased

okitepa unbiased

kutepa distracted

gyitepa easy-minded, forgiving, lenient

gyutepa hard-minded, tough-spirited

kotepa opaque-minded

kyitepa serious-minded, serious, grave

kyutepa light-hearted, frivolous, silly:::

tyep intelligence

tyepa intelligent

tyepay intelligently

otyepa unintelligent

tyepaga ingenious

tyepagan ingeniously

tyepagan genius, ingenuity

tyepagat genius

toxer forget

toxwa forgotten

toxwas forgotten item

toxuwa forgettable

toxuwan forgettableness

toxeya forgetful

toxeyan forgetfulness

taxun memory

taxuna mnemonic

tixer study

tixut student

tixutyan student body

tixen study

tit pupil

tityan class, body of pupils

tin doctrine, lesson, study

tina doctrinal

tinuer indoctrinate, brainwash

tinuen indoctrination, brainwashing

tinuwa indoctrinated, brainwashed

tuinn theory

tuina theoretical

tuinxer theorize

tuinxen theorization

tuinxut theoretician

tijob training course, course of study, course

titim classroom

titam school

titameb principal

titamdyen schoolbook, textbook

titamem schoolyard

titamper matriculate, go to school, attend school

atitam grade school, primary school

atitamut grade-schooler

aajaba atitamut first-grader, first-year grade school pupil

etitam high school, secondary school

etitamut high-schooler

ititam college

ititama collegiate

ititamut college student

utitam university

utitama university, of a university

utitamut university student

aajabat freshman

eajabat sophomore

iajabat junior

uajabat senior

joutitam post-graduate school

joutitamut post-graduate student

tuxer teach, inform

tuxut teacher, informant

tuxutyan faculty

tut scholar, scientist, doctor, -ologist

tun science, information, -0logy

tuna scientific, -ologic

tutam academy

tutama academic, scholarly, scholastic

tutaman academia

tutamat scholar, academician

tiser learn

tisen learning

tisut learner

tisutyan class

tisun lesson, class

tisundyen lesson book

eftisun homework

tisim classroom

tisem lecture hall

tin doctrine

tina doctrinal

tit doctor

tuser inform

tusut informant

tusun information

fituswa well-informed

tas feeling, sense

taspan emotion

taspana emotional, emotive

taspaner emote, express emotion

taspanier get excited, get aroused

taspanuer move, excite, arouse

taspanuea moving, exciting, emotional, rousing

taspanuen exicitement, excitation

taspanuwa excited, aroused

taspanuuwa excitable

taspanuuwan excitability

tes meaning, significance, sense

teser mean, signify

tesaya meaningful, significant, important

tesayan meaningfulness, significance, importance

tesoya meaningless, insignificant, unimportant

tesoyan meaninglessness, insignificance, unimportance

tesier infer, understand, apprehend, comprehend

tesuer imply

tester understand, comprehend

otestuwa incomprehensible

tesder explain

otesduwa unexplainable

glatesaya important

tesaya meaningful, significant

tesoya unmeaningful, senseless

tayoter feel, physically feel

tayotun feeling, sensation

tayoxuwa palpable

tayoxuwan palpability

tayoxer feel, sense

tayoxar feeler, sensor

tayoxer touch, contact, palpate

tayoxen touching

tayoxena tactile

tayoser feel

fitayoser feel good

futayoser feel bad

tayosyea sensitive

tayosyean sensitivity

otayosea numb

otayosean numbness

tayosober numb

tayosobwa numbed

tayosobeya numbing:

tuser inform

tusut informant, lecturer

tusen instruction, lecturing

tusun information

tusuna informational

tusundyen information manual

tusunyan information

tusam institute

tusama institutional

tusim classroom

tusem lecture hall

tuseya instructive

tester understand, comprehend, apprehend

testen undertanding, comprehension, apprehension

bay testen ha with the understanding that

testwa understood, comprehended

otestawa not understood

testuwa understandable, comprehensible

otestuwa incomprehensible

otestuwan incomprehensibility

vyotester misunderstand

vyotesten misunderstanding

vyotestwa misunderstood

fitestwa well-understood

futestwa poorly-understood

eytestwa half-understood

iztesten intuition, direct apprehension

iztester intuit, directly apprehend, get it off the bat

oiztesten lack of intuition

bey iztesten through intuition

iztestyea intuitive

iztestyean intuitiveness

iztestwa intuitive

iztestwan intuitivness

iztestwas something intuited

iztestway intuitively

oiztestwa unintuitive

tesuer 'imply, suggest

tesuen implication, suggestion

tesuwa implied, suggested

otes nonsense

otesa nonsensical

glatesea meaningful, important, great significance

glatesean meaningfulness, importance, great significance

glotesea of little important, not very meaningful

glotesean unimportance, insignificance:

tesun symbol

tesuna symbolic

tesuner symbolize

tesunen symbolization

tesunyan symbology

tesier infer, get the sense, take it

tesien inference

tesieya inferential

tesder explain, explicate, clarify

tesden explanation, reason, rationale, explication, clarification

tesdena explanatory, rational

bay owa tesden with no explanation

boy tesden without explanation

tesden explaining, explanation

tesdawa explained, explicit

otesdawa unexplained, unclear

otesdawas something unexplained, mystery

otesduwa inexplicable

otesduwan inexplicability

otesduwas something inexplicable

bey tesin bi by reason of, by dint of

bay tesin ha because

tesdier seek an explanation, ask why

tesduer suggest an explanation, explain why

bay od tesin? Why?

tez culture

teza cultural

tezay culturally

tezyena cultured

otezena uncultured, uncouth

otezenan uncouthness

tezuer acculturate

tezuen acculturation

tezuwa acculturated

tezier acculturate oneself, get accustomed

tezien acculturation, accustomization

teziwa accultured, accustomed

tezxer cultivate

tezxen cultivation

tezxwa cultivated

yobtez subculture

yobteza subcultural

yabtez high culture

yabtezut a person of high culture

teyz cult

teyza cultic

teyzin cultism

teyzina cultist

teyzinat cultist

koteyz occult

koteyza occultic

koteyzat occultist

fateyz magic, wizardry

fateyza magical

fateyzer practice magic

fateyzut magician, wizard

foteyz witchcraft, sorcery

foteyza of witchcraft

foteyzer practice witchcraft

foteyzut witch, sorcery

foteyzuyt witch, sorcerer

xetyen practice

xetyena practical

xetyener practice

xetyenut practitioner

xetyenem practice venue

xyen industry

xyena industrial

xyenaxer industrialize

xyenaxen industrialization

xyenaxwa industrialized

xyenem industrial site

xyenam industrial plant

xyeneb plant manager

yexyen occupation, trade

yexyena occupational

yexyentitam trade school

yexyenijer start a trade, intern

yexyenijut intern, rookie, novice, freshman

xetun practice

xetuna practical

xetunan practicality

xetunaber apply a practice

xetunabut practicioner

tetun technique

tetuna technical

otetuna non-technical

tetut technician

tetunyan technology

tetunyana technological

tetunyanut technologist

tetunaber apply a technique

tuz art, skill, craft, practice

tuza art, of art, artificial

tuzam art museum

tuzem art fair, art exhibition

tuzut artist, practicioner

tuzyena artistic, skillful

tuzyen artistry, skill

tuzaya skillful, skilled

tuzayan skillfulness

tuzoya unskilled

tuzun artifact, piece of art, art object, objet d'art

tuzunyan art collection

tuzunyanam museum of art

tuzier gain skill

tuzuer teach a skill

tuzunxer craft

tuzunxen crafting

tuzunxut craftsman

tuzunxun craftiwork

tuzunxwa crafted, artificial

tuyz artisanry, craft

tuyza artisanal

tuyzyena crafty, artisanal

tuyzut artisan, crafter

tuyzun piece of artisanship

tuzyan set of skills

vituz art, fine art

vituz of fine art

vituzam fine arts museum

vituzyan beaux arts, fine arts

vituzut fine artsman, artist

vituzyena finely crafted, artistic

vituzaya artful, artistic

tuyatuz handicrafts

tuyatuzun handiwork, handcrafted item, knick-knack

tuyatuzunswa handicrafted, made by hand

tuyatuzut hand craftsman

teyen idea, concept

teyena conceptual, ideal, abstract, ideational, notional

teyenser conceive, conceptualize

teyenxer conceptualize, conceive

teyenxen conceptualization, conception

teyenxwa conceived, conceptualized

teyenier get the idea, abstract, get the notion

teyeniun abstraction

teyeniwa abstracted, abstract

teyenuer give the idea, suggest

teyenueya suggestive

teynueyan suggestiveness

teyenuen suggestion

teyenyan ideology, set of ideas

teyenyana ideological

teyenyanut ideologue

teyenin idealism

teyenina idealistic

teyeninat idealist

teyentun philosophy

teyentuna philosophical

teyentut philosopher

kyoteyen idee fixe, fixed idea

koteyen hidden concept

ijteyen initial concept, germ of a notion

agteyen grandiose idea, grande idee, grand ideal

teyentun philosophy

teyentuna philosophical

teyentut philosopher

obteyen underlying notion, basic idea

abteyenxer abstract

abteyena abstract

abteyenxen abstraction

abteyenxwa abstracted

zeyteyen metaphor, crossover notion

zeyteyena metaphorical, transnotional

izteyen direct concept

tyen technique, skill

tyena technical, skilled

tyenay technically

tyenan technicality

tyenson technicality, technical issue

tyenar technical device, tool

tyenarut technician

tyenaryan toolset, equipment, technology

tyenaraya equipped

tyenaram tool shop

tyenijut apprentice

tyenijutan apprenticeship

tyeneb master technician

tyentun technology

tyentuna technological

tyentut technologist

tyenyan industry, skillset, technology

tyenyana industrial, technologal

tyenyanxer industrialize

tyenyanxen industrialization

tyenyanxwa industrialized

jatyenyana pre-industrial

jotyenyana post-industrial

tyenyanem industrial site

eytyenyana semi-industrial

tyenier train, take training, master

tyenien training, learning a skill, mastery

tyeniut apprentice, trainee

tyenuer train, supply training, school, familiarize

tyenuut trainer, master

tyenuam training facility

tyenuuwa trained

tyenuwat trainee

tyenmep career

tajtyen talent, in-born skill

tajtyenaya talented

tajtyenoya untalented, talentless

kotyen hidden skill, secret technique, hidden power

tyez magic, wizardry, divination

tyeza magical

tyezay magically

tyezer perform magic, divine, charm

tyezut magician, wizard, diviner, enchanter, charmer

tyezun charm, magical object

tyezil magic potion

fatyez miracle, thaumaturgy

fatyeza miraculous, thaumaturgical

fatyezay miraculously

fatyezer perform a miracle

fatyezut miracle-worker, shaman, thaumaturge

fotyez witchcraft, sorcery

fotyeza of witchcraft

fotyezer perform witchcraft

fotyezut witch

fotyezuyt witch, sorceress

fotyezil witch's brew

kotyez occult

kotyezin occultism

kotyeza occultic

kotyezer practice occult

kotyezut occultist

The job (Time) Family

Here are the most important words derived from job time. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for time. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by job in Mirad, and the other refers to an point in time, an instance or occasion, i.e. a countable noun concerning 'frequency', which is translated by jod in Mirad.

Calendar Time Units

TIME	SEASONS	MONTHS	DAYS OF THE WEEK
job time	jeab spring	jiab January	juab Monday
jab year	jeeb summer	jieb February	jueb Tuesday
jeb season	jeib autumn	jiib March	juib Wednesday
jib month	jeub winter	jiub April	juub Thursday
jub day		jiyob May	juyob Friday
jwob* hour		jiyab June	yuyab Saturday
jwab* minute		jiyeb July	juyeb Sunday
jweb* minute		jiyib August
		jiyub September
		jilob October
		jilab November
		jileb December
OTHER
yejab week	sojab century	amlojab millennium

* These would normally be jyob, jyab, and jyeb, but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the y is replaced by a w.

Times of Day

TIMES OF DAY
maj daytime
ijmaj dawn
imaj morning
eymaj noon
joeymaj afternoon
ujmaj dusk
umaj evening
moj night
eymoj midnight

General Time Words

GENERAL TIME WORDS
job time
jod time, instance, occasion
jodsag frequency
jud date
jood period
jag age

Some Parallel Time Terms

taj birth	aj past	ja before	jana previous	ajna old
tej life	ej present	je during	jena current	ejna new
toj death	oj future	jo after	jona next	ojna future
tij wakefulness	ij beginning	ji since		ijna initial
tuj sleep	uj end	ju until		ujna final

Time Questions and Answers

In the chart below, there may be a shorter alternative expression in the second line of each row.

WHEN	HOW OFTEN	HOW OLD
hojob?....when? hoj?	hogla jodi?.... how often? hoxag	hogla jaga?.... how old? hojaga?
hajob hu....when haj hu	hagla jodi hu.... as often as haxag hu	hagla jaga.... of the age hajaga
hejob.... sometime hej	hegla jodi.... sometimes hexag	hegla jaga.... of some age hejaga
hijob.... now hij	higla jodi.... this often hixag	higla jaga.... this old hijaga
hujob.... then huj	hugla jodi.... that often huxag	hugla jaga.... that old hujaga
huyjob.... at such a time huyj	huygla jodi.... so often huyxag	juygla jaga.... so old huyjaga
hyojob.... never hyoj	hyogla jodi.... never hyoxag	glejaga.... rather old
hyajob.... always hyaj	hyagla jodi.... at all times hyaxag	glajaga.... very old
hyejob.... whenever hyej	hyegla jodi.... however often hyexag	grajaga.... too old
hyijob.... at the same time hyij	ge jodi.... as often	grojaga.... under-aged
hyujob.... some other time hyuj	oge jodi.... not as often	gejaga.... as old, of the same age
be jobi.... at times	awa jod.... once	awa jab jaga.... one year old
be hujobi.... in those times	ewa jodi.... twice	yuwa jabi jaga.... two years old
byu jobuj.... forever	gla jodi.... very often glaxagay	alo jabi jaga.... ten years old
byi hujob.... since that time byi huj	aloni bi jodi.... hundreds of times	ga jaga ev et.... older than you

Words in the job Family

job time

joba temporal

ponjob vacation

ivjob leisure time

yogjob short time

yogjoba temporary

yagjob long time

yagjoba chronic

jejoba chronic

gonjob part-time

gonjoba part-time

joob epoque

jooyb era

ejjoba contemporary, present-day

ebjob interval

jobuj end of time

byu jobuj until the end of time, forever

ojobuj eternity

ojobuja eternal

ojobujay for eternity, eternally

jobij beginning of time

byi jobij since the beginning of time, forever, always

igjobay soon

glojo soon, not long after

odjob when...?

byu odjob until when...?

byi odjob since when...?

byu odgla job for how long...?

byi odgla job for how long...?

bye odgla job for how long...?

adjob when, at the time (that)

edjob sometime (when)

idjob now, at this time

byu idjob up to now, so far, heretofore

byi idjob from now on, henceforth, hereafter

idjobi these days

udjob then, at that time

byu udjob until then

byi udjob since then

udjobi in those days

udyenjob at such a time

udyenjobi at such times

yadjob always

yadawa jod each time, every time

yadjod each time, every time

yadjodi at all times

yedjob at any time, whenever, at any time whatever, at whatever time

yidjob at the same time, at the very time

yudjob some other time, at another time

yudjobi at other times

yodjob never, not at any time, at no time

yodawa jod on no occasion, never, not a single time

gajob longer, yet, more time, still

Iyt yexe idem gajob She still works here.

Iyt voy yexeyo idem gla gajob She won't be working here much longer.

voy gajob no longer

gojob less time

glajob a lot of time, much time, a long time

ja glajob a long time ago

gla ajay long ago

be yuba aj in the recent past

glojob a little time, a short while

jo glojob soon, in a short while

glo ojay very soon

be yuba oj in the near future

bi job bu job from time to time

jod point in time, instance, moment, occurrence, occasion, time, instant

jodsag frequency

glajoda frequent

glajoday frequently

odgla jodi how often? (lit: how many times?]

idgla jodi this often

udgla jodi that often

udyengla jodi so often

gle jodi somewhat often

ga jodi more often

ga jodi ev more often than

ge jodi as often

ge jodi ev as often as

go jodi less often

go jodi ev less often than

gla jodi very often

gle jodi rather often

glo jodi not so often, seldom

gra jodi too often

gre jodi often enough

gro jodi not often enough

gya jodi most often, as often as possible

gyo jodi least often, as seldom as possible

ajod once

awa jod once, one time

be awa jod at one time

awa ga jod one more time, again, once again

ejodi twice

ewa jodi twice, two times

be ewa jodi on two occasions

ewa ga jodi two more times

ga jod again

awa ga jod again, once again, one more time

be awa ga jod at one more point in time

ewa ga jodi two more times

Eku ud gajod, Sam! Play it again, Sam!

idjod this time

be ida jod at this moment

idjodi on these occasions, at these times

udjod that time

be uda jod at that moment

udjodi on those occasions, at those times

udyenjod at such a time

be udyena jod at such a moment

yodjod never, at no point in time

be yoda jod on no occasion

yadjod every time, always

be yada jod at every occasion

yadawa jod each time, on each occasion

yadjodi at all times, on all occasions

yedjod at any moment, any time

be yeda jod at any point in time

ed jodi on some occasions, at times

be eda jodi at certain times, at times, on occasion

odjod at what point?

odjodi on what occasions?

eg- re-, again, over

egxer redo, fix

egteaxer review

egtajwa reborn

egder repeat

jab year

jaba annual, yearly

jabay annually, yearly

sojab century

idjab this year

udjab that year

yadjab every year

axagay lyajab once a year

je ad jab during the year

eynjaba semiannual

eynjabay semiannually

ejaba biannual

ejabay biannually

jabjea year-long

jabij new year's

jeb season

jeba seasonal

jeab spring

jeeb summer

jeib autumn, fall

jeiba autumnal

jeub winter

jeuba hibernal

jeuber hibernate

jib month

jiba mensual

ijib trimester

yajib semester

jiab January

jieb February

jiib March

jiub April

jiyob May

jiyab June

jiyeb July

jiyib August

jiyob September

jiyub October

jilab November

jileb December

jibjea month-long

jub day

juba diurnal, daily

edjub someday

idjub today

udjub that day

yadjub every day

yad ea jub every other other

ejodi yadjub twice a day, two times a day

yedjub any day, whatever day

yidjub the same day

yudjub another day, the other day, some other day

odjub which day

zajub tomorrow

zajub imaj tomorrow morning

zajub umaj tomorrow evening

zajub moj tomorrow night

zojub yesterday

yejub week

yejuba weekly

yejubuj weekend

ojna yejub next Monday

ajna yejub last Monday

id yejub this Monday

juab Monday

be juab on Monday

ja juab before Monday, by Monday

ji juab since Monday

ju juab until Monday

jueb Tuesday

juib Wednesday

juub Thursday

juyob Friday

juyab Saturday

juyeb Sunday

jozajub the day after tomorrow

jazojub the day before yesterday

Fijub! Good day!

ivjub feast, holiday

ivjuber celebrate

ivjuben celebration

ivjuba festive

ivjuban festivity

jabjub anniversary

tajjub birthday

fatajjub Christmas

zoybitojjub Easter:

jwob hour

jwoba hourly

jwobar watch

tuyojwobar wrist watch

jwobur clock

sagzyiun dial, face, screen

jwodar hour hand

jwadar second hand

jwobder tell time

jwab minute

jwayb moment

jwayba momentary

jweb second

jweyb instant

jweyba instantaneous

maj daytime

imaj morning

imaja matinal, morning

jimaj dawn

eymaj noon

joeymaj afternoon

umaj evening

ujmaj dusk

Fimaj! Good morning!

Fijoeymaj! Good afternoon!

Fiumaj! Good evening!

moj night

moja nocturnal, nightly

mojob nighttime

eymoj midnight

Fimoj! Good night!

jud date

judrer date

judrawa dated

ojudrawa undated

jojudrer post-date

jojudrawa post-dated

jajudrer ante-date

jajudrawa ante-dated

judar calendar

dulojud? on what date?

Dulojud se idjub? What date is today?

tajjud date of birth

Od se eta tajjud? What is your date of birth?

ujjud deadline, end date

judnab date range

jag age

Odjaga et se? How old are you?

Du eta jag? How old are you?

At se elijaga I am twenty-three years old.

jaga old, aged, year old, elderly

jagan old age, seniority, senility

jagat old person, oldster, senior, elder

jagser get old, grow old, age

jagsen growing old

ajaga one-year-old

ajagat a one-year-old baby

alojaga ten years old

aloyjaga teenaged

aloyjagat teenager

aloyjagan teens

yilojaga octogenarian

gyejaga adult

gyajagan adulthood

grojaga minor

gyojagat minor

zejaga middle-aged

zejagat middle-aged person

jagyena elderly, old-acting, senile

joga young

jogan youth

joganika youthful

joganik youthfulness

joganoker lose one's youth

jogat youngster, boy, young man, neophyte, newbie, rookie

jogayt girl, young lady

jogtob young man

jogtoyb young woman, young lady

egjogaxer rejuvenate

egjogaxen rejuvenation

egjogaxwa rejuvenated

jogyena youthful, youngish

jogyen youthful manner

ajna old, olden, ancient, stale

ejna new, current, modern, young, fresh

ojna not out yet, future

The sag (Number), xag (Frequency), nog (Measure), nod (Point) Families

The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc.

Summary:

...AG WORDS	N..[DBP] WORDS
ag size	nod point
sag number	nad line
syag count	ned plane
syaag calculation	nid volume
nog degree	nab rank
nag measure	nap order
neg level	naab organization
jag age	naap system
xag frequency	nyap rule
yag length

sag number, cypher

saga numeric

sager count

sagder enumerate, number

sagdawa numbered

osagdawa unnumbered

sagaya numerous

sagtun mathematics

sagtuna mathematical

sagtut mathematician

asagtun arithmetic

asagtuna arithmetical

asagtut number cruncher

esagtun geometry

esagtuna geometric

esagtut geometrist

isagtun trigonometry

usagtun algebra

yosagtun calculus

syag count, computation, tally

syaga computational

syager count, compute

syagar computer

syagartun computer science

syagartut computer scientist

osyaguwa countless

syagdyen account

syagdyentun accounting

syagdyentut accountant

syagsem counter

jag age

jaga aged, old, stale

zejaga middle-aged

yilojaga octogenarian

jagoya ageless

jagser get old, age

jagxer age, make old

jagan oldness, age, antiquity

jagat elder, oldster, old person

jagatam elder care facility, old folks' home

joga young, new

jogan youth, newness

jogat youngster, young person

jogas novelty, something new

jogaser become young

jogaxer rejuvenate

jogaxen rejuvenation

jogaxwa rejuvenated, renewed, refreshed

ag size

aga big, large, great

agan' bigness, largness, greatness, size

agaser get big

agaxer magnify

agaxwa magnified

agaxen magnification

agaxar magnifier

agxer grow

agser grow up

agsa grown, adult

agsat grown-up, adult

agsatan adulthood

agseat adolescent

agseatan adolescence

yabaga tall

yobaga deep

yaboga short

yabaga shallow

yag length

yaga long

yagan longness, length

yagaxer lengthen

yagxer stretch

yagxwa stretched

yagjob long while, long time

yagdin novel

yagder narrate

ja yagjob a long time ago

jo yagjob a long time from now

yagjoba long-term

yoga short

yogaxer shorten, abbreviate

yogdun abbreviation

yogdin short story

yogder summarize

yogxer cut, clip, snip

yogjob short while, short time

ja yogjob a short while ago

jo jogjob soon, a short time from now

yogjoba temporary, short-term

nog degree

musnog step

musnogar ladder, step ladder

finnog grade

tyoyanog step, pace, stoop

tyennog degree

tyennogier get one's degree, graduate

tyennoguer graduate, give out a degree

duznog pitch

duzijnog key

yabnog step up

yabnoga high-grade, upscale

yobnog step down

yobnoga downscale, low-grade

amnog degree of temperature

nogder grade

nogper escalate, climb

nogpen escalation

onogber de-escalate

onogben de-escalation

noga gradual

yignoga steep

yugnoga gradual

anoga primary

enoga secondary

inoga tertiary

unoga quaternary

zanoger graduate, advance

yobnoguer downgrade, degradate, downscale

yobnogier become degraded, step down

yabnoguer upgrade, upscale

yabnogier go up in grade, advance, step up

yabnogper climb, scale

yabnogput climber

anoga primary

enoga secondary

odnog how (to what degree)?

adnog to the degree

ednog somewhat

idnog this, to this extent

udnog that, to that extent

uydnog so, to such an extent

yodnog in no way

yadnog completely

yednog in any degree, however

yidnog just as

yudnog to a different extent

nogyan scale

nogyana scalar

nogyena gradual

nogyenay gradually

noog stage

nag measure, measurement

naga metric

nager measure

nagder measure

nagdar meter

amnagdar thermometer

barnagdar barometer

ignagdar speedometer

yabnagdar bathymeter

nayg dimension

nayga dimensional

anayga one-dimensional

enagya two-dimensional

inayga three-dimensional

neg level

glanega multilevel

negser level out

negxer level

ebnegar elevator

nig space, room

niga spatial

yeznig inner space

yoznig outer space

yuznig environment

yuzniga environmental

yuznigtin environmentalism

yuznigtinat environmentalist

nigay spatially

yonnigxer space apart

yonnigxwa spaced apart

gloniga cramped

glonigaxer cramp

glaniga roomy

nod point, tip

nodxer punctuate

nodxwa punctuated

noda punctual

uknod hole, puncture

uknodxer puncture, create a hole

uknodxwa punctured

zenod midpoint, focus, center point, hub, bull's eye

zenoder focus, target

abnod summit, top, tiptop, peak, vertex

obnod zenith, bottom point, nadir

yabnod highpoint, climax, peak

yabnoda climactic

yabnoder climax, top out

yobnod lowpoint, ebb

yobnoder ebb, bottom out

ijnod starting point, origin

ujnod end point, target, destination, pole

drenod dot

drenoder dot

drenodwa dotted

abdrenod diacritic

drunod punctuation mark

ujdrunod period

poysdrunod comma

eyndrunod semi-colon

eondrunod colon

yokdrunod exclamation point

diddrunod question mark

drunoder punctuate

drunoden punctuation

mepnod mile marker

byinod original

byunod destination, direction, target

ebnod intersection, node

ebnoda nodal

ebnodyan grid

ebnoder intersect

amir north

yibamir north pole, far north, extreme north

amira northern

aomira north-south

omir south

'yibamir south pole, far south, extreme south

omira southern

imir west

imira western, occidental

iumira east-west

umir east

umira eastern, oriental

emnod locus

kyonod fixed point

kyanod moving target

emnoder locate, spot

zenod focus, nucleus, hub

zenoda focal, nuclear

zeynod crosspoint, intersection, crossing

mepzeynnod highway intersection

mirnod pole

mirnoda polar

amirnod north pole

omirnod south pole

yibnod extremity, pole

yibnoda polar

yibnodan polarity

yibnodaxer polarize

yibnodaxen polarization

yibnodaxwa polarized

zyupnod pivot, hub, fulcrum

ozoypnod point of no return

dalnod talking point

gyisonnod sticking point, point of difficulty

nodeaxer point out, point, demonstrate, show, aim, target, pinpoint, focus

nodeaxar pointer

iznoder point to, focus, aim, target, pinpoint

ginod sharp point, apex

nad line

nada linear

nadan linearity

onada non-linear

onadan non-linearity

ebnad line in-between

ebnada interlinear

be nad bay in line with

zenad midline, median, line down the middle

yuznad border, frame, outline, circumference, periphery

yuznader frame, outline

yuznadwa framed, outlined, bordered

zyunad circle

zyunada circular

be zyunad bi around, circling

iznad straight line, vector, bee-line, direction

iznada vectorial, directional

be iznad bu on a straight path to

uznad curve, curved line, crooked line, arc

uznada curved, curvilinear

uznader curve, arc, arch

uznadwa curved, arched

uznadea curving

uznadaya curvaceous

aonad vertical line, vertical, north-south line

aonada vertical, along a north-south line

aonadan verticality

iunad horizontal line, horizontal, east-west line

iunada horizontal, along an east-west line

iunadan horizontality

zyenad perpendicular line, perpendicular

zyenada perpendicular

zyenadan perpendicularity

zeynad transverse line, transverse

zeynada transversal

zeynader cut across, transverse

kunad edge, frontier, sideline

be kunad bi on the edge of, bordering on

zakunad front edge

gikunada sharp-edged

ogikunada blunt-edged

zyokunad brink, narrow edge

be zyokunad bi on the brink of, on the verge of

yuz kunadi bi around the edges of

kunadyuba close to the edge

kunadyuban brinkmanship

kinad diagonal line, slant, slope, slash

kinada diagonal

kinader slope, slant

kinadwa sploped, slanted

eykinad radius

eykinada radial

eykinader radiate

eykinaden radiation

yankunad parallel line, parallel

yankunada parallel

yankunadan parallelism

yankunader parallel

be yankunad bay on a parallel with

mamnad skyline, horizon

mamnada horizontal

elyanad rail, rail line

elyanadpar train, locomotive

elyanad posam railroad station, train station

ijnad starting line

ujnad limit

yoza ujnad outer limit

ujnader limit

ujnaden limitation

ujnadwa limited

oujnadwa unlimited, absolute

oujnadway without limitation, absolutely

ujnadoya limitless

abnad upper limit, maximum

obnad lower limit, minimum

oyebnad outline

fufnad pipeline

yelfufnad oil pipeline

milfufnad water pipeline

aomirnad longitude

aomirnada longitudinal

iumirnad latitude

iumirnada latitudinal

eymirnad equator

eymirnada equatorial

nadxer align

nadxen alignment

vyonadxer misalign

vyonadxen misalignment

vyonadxwa misaligned

mipkunad river bank

mimkunad sea coast

nadgorber score

nadgorbwa scored

yaknad queue, waiting line, line

yaknader queue up, line up

jopnad line of succession, sequence, lineup

izuznada snaky, serpentine

naad lane, file

annada single-file, single-lane, one-way lane

ned plane

neda planar

nedes facet

domned plaza, place, public square

glanedesa multifaceted

abned surface, top, roof

abneda superficial, top

obned bottom, base, floor, lower surface, foundation, lower plane

obneda basic, fundamental, bottom

kuned side, lateral surface, wall, face, flank

kuneda lateral

kuneder flank

zaned front, front side, face, frontal plane

zaneda frontal

zoned back, dorsal plane, rear, backside

zoneda rear, dorsal, back

zyagned expanse, area, field

zyagneder expand, spread out

ebneda interplanar

geneda even, smooth, level

genedxer even out, smooth over

ogeneda uneven

ogenedan unevenness

nid volume

nidaya voluminous

zyunid sphere, globe, ball

zyunida spherical, global

eyzyunid hemisphere

zyunidog globule, droplet, bead

nyefnid cube

yakumnid cube

yakumnida cubic

igunid pyramid

zyuginid cone

defyabnid cone

defyabnida conical

nab rank

nabder rank

granabdwa over-ranked

gronabdwa under-ranked

nabxer arrange

nabxen arrangement

nabxwa arranged

nabyan array, grid, pattern, matrix

debnabyan hierarchy

debnabyana hierarchical

onab disarray

dopnab military rank

yobnaba low-ranking

yabnaba high-ranking

zenaba mid-ranking

abnaba superior in rank, ranking

obnaba inferior in rank

genaba equal in rank

ogenaba unequal in rank

aanaba first-ranking, top

eanaba second-ranking

eanabat runner-up

nabuer assign a rank, rank

nabier take on a rank, rank

aonab column

'aonaba columnar

iunab row

be aonabi ay iunabi in rows and columns

nap order

napa ordinal

be nap bi in order of

napyena orderly

onapyena disorderly

napber put in order, arrange

napbwa ordered, arranged

finapbwa well-ordered

onapbwa unordered, random, mixed

funapbwa disordered, messy, poorly organized

vyonapbwa misordered, out of order, mixed up, discombobulated

ebnapber mix up, shuffle, intersperse

ebnapbwa mixed up, shuffled, interspersed

napder ordain, order, command

napdut one giving the orders, commander

napden ordinance, order, commandment

donapden public ordinance, public mandate

dota napden social ordinance

dopa napden military order

onap disorder, mess

yonap utter mess

onapa messy, disordered

onapxer mess up

onapxwa messed up

donap public order

janap priority

janapa prior, last, previous

jonap sequence

jonapa sequential, next

glajonap' series

glajonapa' serial

napbyen discipline

napbyena disciplinary

napbyenier discipline

naab organization

naaba organizational

naabser organize

naabxer organize

onaabxwa unorganized

naabaya organized

naaboya unorganized

naap system

naapa systematic

naapay systematically

naapyena systemic

naapaxer systematize

naapaxen systematization

naapaxwa systematized

nyap rule

nyapa regular

aanyap principle, standard

aanyapaya principled

utnyap discipline

utnyapaya disciplined

utnyapber impose discipline, discipline

nyapbyen' rule of law, legal discipline

nyapdyen rulebook

nyapber impose a rule

nyapder decree, rule, dictate

'nyapden decree, regulation, dictat

nyapdena regulatory

'nyapdut governor, ruler

nyapyan regime

donyap law

donyapa legal

doynyapa licit

odoynyapa illicit

odoynyapan illiciteness

doynyapa legitimate

doynyapan legitimacy

odonyaypa illegitimate

odonyaypan illegitimacy

odonyapa illegal

donyapan legality

donyapay illegally

odonyapan illegality

donyapaxer legalize

donyapaxen legalization

donyapyan constitution

donyapyana constitutional

odonyapyana unconstitutional

odonyapyanan unconstitutionality

donyapxer legislate

donyapxut legislator, parliamentarian, deputy

donyapxutyan legislature, parliament

donyapxutim chamber of deputies, congress

donyaptun jurisprudence

donyaptut doctor of jurisprudence

donyaptuna juridical

donyaptitam law school

donyapxeen practice of law

donyapxeut lawyer

donyapxeam law office

Shapes

Summary:

zyus circle

zyuys oval

zyunid sphere

unizgun rectangle

ungekun square

ungun quadrangle

unoizgun rhombus

ingun triangle

yoongun pentagon

ginid cone

yagunid cube

inguginid pyramid

fufnid cylinder

amezsan diamond

tosan cross

uznad arc

ilpsan wave

gunsan wedge

amarsan star

san shape, form, figure

sana formal

osana informal

sanaxer formalize

sanaxen formalization

sanan formality

sanser form

sanxer form, shape

yegsanxer reform, re-shape, reconfigure

yegsanxen reformation, re-shaping, reconfiguration

yegsanxwa reformed, re-shaped, reconfigured

sanxen formation

fisanxwa well-formed

fusanxwa malformed

fusanxen malformation

fusanxun malformation

fisan good form, good figure

fusan bad form

sandren formula

sandrena formulaic

sandrun formula

sandruna formulaic

sandrunxer formulate

sandrunxen formulation

gin sharp point

gun angle

unizgunsan rectangle

ungekunsan square

ingunsan triangle

ungunsan quadrangle

unoizgunsan rhombus

ginid cone

ingunginid pyramid

yagekunid cube

nyem box

zyusan circle, circular shape

zyusana circular

zyusanan circularity

zyusandrer draw a circle

eyzyusan semi-circle

eyzyusana semi-circular

zyus cycle, wheel, circle

anzyus unicycle

enzyus bicycle

inzyus tricycle

unzyus four-wheeler

yazyus six-wheeler

zyusun tire

yigyelzyusun tire, rubber tie

ozyusa wheelless

zyusa cyclical

'ozyusa uncyclical

zyuysan oval

zyuysana oval-shaped

patijsan oval, egg-shape

patijsana egg-shaped, oval

fufsan cylinder

fufsana cylindrical

zyuf wrinkle

zyozyes slit, groove, slot

yagmeluk furrow, ditch, trench

mob chasm, precipice, dropoff, cliff, abyss

moab gulf, gulch

moeb ravine, valley, dale

moib cave, cavern

moibog cavity

moub ditch, furrow, trench

moyab dimple, depression, dip

moyeb hole, hollow, pit, depression, well, shaft

meb mountain

mebyan mountain chain

mebnad mountain range

mebaya mountainous

mebika mountainous

meyb mount

zyimeb plateau

zyiabmeb plateau

meab hill

meabaya hilly

meabog hillock

meeb knob

meib mound, protrusion, swell, tumor

meibser swell, protrude

meibsa swollen

meub ridge, fold

meyob bump

meyobika bumpy

omeyoba smooth

meyab pimple

nod point

zenod hub, focus, center-point, mid-point

ijnod starting point

ujnod endpoint, extreme, pole

ujnoda polar

ujnodan polarity

ujnodaxer polarize

ujnodaxen polarization

ujnodaxwa polarized

enujnoda bipolar

zyenod intersection, throughpoint

zyenoder intersect

zeynod cross point, crossover point

ebnod junction

abnod peak, tip, zenith, summit, top

abnodser peak

obnod lowpoint, bottom, nadir

obnodser bottom out

yabnod highpoint, summit, peak

yobnod lowpoint, bottom, nadir

yannod point of convergence, meeting point

yonnod point of divergence, split off point

drenod dot

drenodber dot

drenodbwa dotted

andrunod period

endrunod colon

eydrunod semi-colon

iznod' target, aim, focus

kyonod fixed point, target, focus, pinpoint

kyanod variable point, moving target

kelnod goal, target

byunod destination, goal

nad line

nada linear

nadan linearity

onada non-linear

ijnad starting line, threshold

ujnad finish line, limit

yuznad border, fence, frame, periphery, circumference

kunad edge, border, boundary

mimkunad coast

yankunad parallel

yuzkunad frame, periphery

mesyuzkunad door frame

obmisyuzkunad door threshold, door sill

misyuzkunad window frame

obmisyuzkunad window sill

zakunad front edge

zokunad back edge

mepkunad road shoulder

mipkunad river bank

yankunad parallel line

kinad slope, slant, diagonal

eykinad radius

iznad vector, straight line, bee-line, direction

iunad horizontal line

aonad vertical line

iumirnad latitude

aomirnad longitude

mamnad horizon, skyline

manad ray, beam

abnad upper limit

obnad lower limit

uznad curve, arc, arch, bend, bow, crook

mamuznad rainbow

oyebnad outline

fufnad pipeline

jopnad line of succession

dreznad verse, verse of poetry

elyanad rail, iron way, railroad

emirnad equator

dobnad frontier, border

amarnad sunray, sunbeam

ebnad separating line

dunnad sentence, line of text

jobujnad time limit, deadline

mebnad mountain chain

besnad queue, wait line

fabnad treeline

teasnad line of sight

tejnad lifeline

zanad frontline

zonad rearline

zyenad penpendicular line

zenad median, mid-line

zeynad transverse

ned plane, level, story

neda planar

glaneda multiplanar, multi-level, multi-story

anneda uni-level, single-story

enneda bi-level, split-level, two-story

abned surface, top, upper plane

obned bottom, lower surface, nether plane

zaned front, foreplane, face

zoned back, rear, dorsal plane

ebned interplane

yebned inner plane

oyebned outer plane

yabned raised surface, platform, stage

kined sloped plane

geneda even, level

ogeneda uneven, unlevel

kuned lateral plane, side

nid volume

zyunid sphere, ball

ugunid cube

The tom (Building), em (Place) Families

The stems in this family end mostly in -m, meaning place. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers.

Summary:

FULL WORDS	ENDINGS
tom building	-em general place
tam house	-am indoor place
tem hall	-yem enclosed space
tim room	-im room
tum cell	-yeb container

tom building, structure, edifice

toma structural

tomxer build, construct

yegtomxer rebuild, reconstruct

yegtomxen rebuilding, reconstruction

yegtomxwa rebuilt, reconsructed

tomxen construction

tomxut builder, construction engineer

tomxem construction site

otomxer destroy, demolish

ootomxen destruction, demolition

otomxwa destroyed

otomxeya destructive

otomxeyan destructiveness

otomxuwa indestructible

otomxuwan indestructibility

tomyofwa indestructible

tomtun architecture

tomtuna architectural

tomtut architect

tomsan structure

tomsana structural

tomyan complex, block, building complex

toom residence, residential building, habitat, habitation, apartment building, dwelling

tooma residential, habitational

toomer reside, inhabit, live, dwell

toomut resident, inhabitant

tomof tent

tomofem campground

tomofsum sleeping bag

tomes apartment, flat

tomesyan apartment complex

tomfaob timber

tombelut concierge

zyutom tower

jobnuer lease, let, rent out

jobnuut lessor

jobnuwat lessee

jobnuwa rental

jobnier rent

jobnien rental

jobniut renter

jobniuta yantexdren rental agreement, lease

fatom church, temple, mosque, sacred building

tomog abode

beer have, own, possess

beut owner, possessor, proprietor

beutan owernership, proprietorship

bewa own

bewaxer take ownership of, repossess

obewa unowned

obewaxer disown, appropriate, dispossess

obeer let go, release

bewas property, possession

bewaseb property manager, lord, proprietor

tam house, domicile

tama domiciliar

tamog hut

tamoyg cottage

tamyog shack, shanty, hovel

vutamog shack, ramshackle

tamyogdom shantytown, slum

tamag mansion

mebtam cabin

domtam brownstone, townhouse

vitamag palace

vitamaga palatial

tamaz castle

vitamaz chateau

tambeut homeowner

tamoya homeless

tamoyat homeless person

tomoyan homelessness

taam home, household, domain

taama domestic, tame

taamxer domesticate, tame

taamxen domestication, taming

taamxwa domesticated, tamed

otaamxwa undomesticated, untamed, wild

tamer live, dwell, inhabit

tamut inhabitant, dweller

tamier settle

tamien settlement

tamiut settler

tamuer house, shelter

tamuen housing, sheltering

tamuwa housed, sheltered

tamyan block of houses, block

tamyex house work, domestic chores

tamyexer work at home, telecommute

tamyexut domestic, work-at-home

tamyuxut house servant, domestic

tamyuxuyt maid, house maid

tamper go home

tampier leave home

tampuer arrive home

tampet pet

tampettel pet food

tampeta tame

tapetxer tame, housebreak

tampetxwa tamed, domesticated, housebroken

otampetxwa untamed, undomesticated, unhousebroken

tamtyal in-home meal, take-out

tamsaxwa home-made

tamoyeper go outdoors

tamyeper go indoors

yebtama indoor

tamtuler dine at home

tamtulxwa home-cooked

tamkum side yard

tamzam front yard

tamzom backyard

tambeser stay at home

tambesut stay-at-home

tameb head of household, master, lord

tameyb mistress

tameber dominate, master, lord over

tameben dominance, mastery, lording over

tambeya domineering, dominant

tamab domain

tamber settle, take up residence

tamkyaxer move, change residence

tamkyaxen moving

tamober uproot

tamkeler house hunt

tamkelut house hunter

tamkelen house hunting

tamyuva house-bound

titam school

jatitam pre-school, kindergarten

atitam grade school

etitam high school

ititam college

utitatam university

joutitam post-graduate school

donyaptitam law school

tutam academy, institute

totam church, house of God

judina totam temple

kristina totam Christian church

islama totam mosque

potam hotel

potameb hotelier

kostam cloister

dyentam library

fabtam treehouse

tem hall

abtem gallery

yagtem gallery

zatem lobby, foyer

zotem back room

zyutem rotunda

zyetem corridor, hallway

kutem side hall

obtem cellar, cave

drasintem picture gallery, art gallery

dyeduntem lecture hall

datuputtem reception hall

tultem dining hall

tim room, chamber, salon

abtim attic

bektim hospital room

beltim holding cell

fatim sacristry

obtim basement, cellar

teltim dining room

tapektim exercise room

tutim classroom

tultim kitchen

tiltim bar, saloon

tojtim death chamber

yantim suite

yebtim inner chamber

yontim apartment, compartment, quarters, flat

zatim antechamber

zyotim corridor

zotim backroom

miltim bathroom, restroom, washroom

igef biktim emergency room

deztim theatre salon

dezzatim theatre lobby

mimpartim ship cabin

mimparebtim ship's captain quarters

pestim waiting room

popdatim guest room

yextim bureau, den, office

timog closet

sumtim bedroom

glasumtim dormitory

datim living room, salon, sitting room

mustim stair well

timyan quarters

timuf wing

tum cell, compartment, unit, section

tuma cellular, compartmental

tumaxer compartmentalize

tumaxen compartmentalization

tumaxwa compartmentalized

The a (One) yan (Together) Families

The stems in this family are based on a one, and yan together and their opposites, o zero and yon apart.

Summary:

Header text	Header text
a one	o zero
an- uni-	on- non-
yan together	yon apart
yad all	yod none

a one

a gab a gese e: 1 plus 1 equals 2

anapa first, primary, foremost

anapan primacy

anapber rank first, put in first place

anoga primary, first-rung, first-degree, first-ranking

anogay primarily

ajaga one year old

ajagat one-year-old

awa jaga one year old

anida single-file, serial

aniday in a single line, single-file, serially

anidser line up, queue up

anidxer serialize

anidxen serialization

yanida parallel

yanid parallel, parallel line

yaniday in tandem, in parallel

an- mono-, uni-, one-, single-

antyoba one-legged

anteaba one-eyed, monocular

anteabar monocle

antepyena single-minded, obstinate

antoosa unisex

anzyuspar unicycle

anfatin monotheism

antex obsession

antexa obsessed

antexer obsess

antexeya obsessive

antada monogamous

antadan monogamy

antotin monotheism

antotina monotheistic

antotinut monotheist

annusutyan monopoly

annusutyanxer monopolize

annusutyanxwa monopolized

annaad monorail

aniznad one-way, single direction

aniznada one-way

anmepesa single-laned

anteuza monotone

anteuzan monotony

anteuzaya monotonous

antima unicameral

antuyabay single-handedly

annayga unidimensional

anvoza monochromatic

anzyus monocycle

anteaba one-eyed

anzyemepa one-track, single-track

anteuza unanimous

anteuzan unanimity

ansana uniform

ansanan uniformity

olansana disparate, non-uniform

andab dictatorship, autocracy

andaba dictatorial, autocratic

andeb autocrat, dictator

andalyena monolingual

anes unit

anesa unitary::

awa one

awas one, one of them, one thing

awat one person, one, one of them

awan oneness, unity

away only

awa jod once, one time

awa ga jod once again, again, another time

aa first, prime

aas first one, first, first thing

ad aas the first thing

aat first person, numero uno

aan priority, primacy

aanxer prioritize, make first

aanxem prioritization

aanxwa prioritized

aanay primarily

aay firstly, first

aaper go first

aapen going first

aaput person who goes first

aayux first aid

aadudut first respondant

aatajba first-born

aana unique

aanan uniqueness

aanay uniquely

aa- arch-, proto-, original, prime

aasaun prototype, model, archetype

aasauna prototypical, model, archetypical

aaovekut archrival

aayodat arch enemy

aaojduut prime lender

aafox original sin

aatex principle

ay and

aon whole, entirety

aon- holo-

aonina holistic

aonyamxen holocaust

aona whole, entire, integral, complete, perfect

olaona unwhole, incomplete, imperfect

aonay wholly, entirely, completely, perfectly

aonas whole thing, entire thing, sum

ad aonas the whole thing, the entire thing

aonan entirety, integrity, perfection

aonxer integrate, complete, perfect

aonxen integration, completion, perfection

aonxwa integrated, completed, perfected, perfect

olaonxwa unintegrated, imperfect, uncompleted

aonser become whole, heal, integrate

aonsag integer, whole number

aonsagyan set of integers

olaonxer disintegrate

olaonxen disintegration

olaonxwa disintegrated

aonder sum up

aonden summation

aondwa summed up, summary

ad aona mir the whole world

gel aon as a whole

aun unit, component, item

auna unitary

aunxer itemize

aunxen itemization

aunxwa itemized

aunyan complex

aunyana complex::

yaun component, constituent

anyan series, chain

anyana serial

anyanxer serialize, string together, chain together

anyanxen serialization

anyanxwa serialized

olanyanxer break the chain, unchain

anyanes link, chain link, item in a series

angona united, consisting of one part, whole, integral, unipartite

angonan wholeness, unison, integrality

alo ten

aloti group of ten people

alosi a group of ten things

lojab decade

ala eleven

ale twelve

aleon dozen

aleoni dozens

alogoler decimate

aluna decimal

aso one hundred, hundred

sojab century

sojaba centennial

asa one hundred one

ase one hundred two

asoney per cent

asoneyn percentage

asoni hundreds

aro one thousand

rojab millennium

rojaba millennial

rojabat millennial

aroni thousands

amlo one million, million

amloni millions

amro one billion, billion

amroni billions

aan unison

aanxer unify

aanxen unification

aanxwa unified

aanay in unison

aana unique, one and only

aanan uniqueness

aanay uniquely

be aan in unision

ana single, only, solitary, sole

ad ana the only, the sole

anay only, solely, merely

anan singularity, unison

ad anas the only thing

ad anat the only person

ad anasi the only things

ad anati the only people

anta alone, solitary

antan aloneness, solitude

antaxer isolate

antaxen isolation

antaxwa isolated

antaser isolate oneself, stay alone

antasa isolated

yanta combined

yantaxer combine

yantaxen combination

yantaxwa combined

yantaxun combination

anla singular

anlan singularity

anlaxer singularize

anlaxen singularization

anlaxwa singularized

yanla plural

yanlan plurality

yanlaxer pluralize

yanlaxen pluralization

yanlaxwa pluralized

anxer unite

anxen union

anxon union

anxan unity

anxwa united

olanxer disunite, break up

olanxwa disunited, broken up

yonxer divorce, separate, disunite, break up

yonxen divorce, separation, breakup

yonxwa divorced, separated, broken up

yonper go apart, separate, deviate, diverge

yonpea divergent, deviant

yonpen divergence, deviance, separation

yonput deviant

yonber put asunder, break apart

yonbun break

yonbyexer break, crack, disrupt, rupture

yonbyexun crack, disruption, rupture. fissure

yonbuxer push apart

yanbuxer push together, compress

yanbuxen compression

yanpeper ride together, share a ride

yanteler eat together, dine together

yantelut dinner companion

yandaler converse, discuss, deliberate

yandal conversion, dialog, communication, discourse, discussion, deliberation

yandala deliberative

yagyandaler converse at length

yandalut deliberator, discutant

yandalutyan congress, parliament, convention

yandalutyana congressional, parliamentary

yondaler dispute, argue, debate

yondal dispute, argument, debate

yondalut disputant, debater

yondaleya disputatious, argumentative

yondaleyan disputatiousness, argumentativeness

yandat ally

yandatan alliance

yandatser ally, become allies

yandatxer ally, make allies

yandatsa allied

yanek match, meet, competition, game

yanekut competitor

yanekeya competitive

fiyanekbyen gamesmanship, good sportiveness

ekutyan team

ekutyantup team member

anyafer tie, bind, connect

anyaf tie, binding, ligature, bond, connection

anyafwa tied, bound, connected

anyafen tying, binding, connection

olanyafer untie, unbind, disconnect, unlace

olanyafen untying, unbinding, disconnection, unlacing

olanyafwa untied, unbound, disconnected, unlaced

yanifer sew, stitch

yanif thread, stitch

yanifen sewing, stitching

yanifwa sewn, stiched

yanifar stitching needle

yanivar needle

yanifur sewing machine

yaniftyen couture

yanker combine

yank combination

yanken combination

yankwa combined

zoyyanber reassemble, rejoin, put back together

zoyyanben reassemblage, rejoining

zoyyanbwa put back together, reassembled, rejoined

yanbixer attact, pull together, contract

yanbixen attraction, contraction

yanbixeya attractive

yonbixer distract, pull apart

yonbixen distraction

yonbixea distracting

yonbixwa distracted

yanmul mix, melange, fusion

yanmulxer mix, fuse

yanmulxen mixing, melange, fusing

yanmulxwa mixed, fused

yanmel continent

yanmela continental

zeyyanmela transcontinental

yonmel island

yonmela insular

eyyonmel peninsula

eyyonmela peninsular

yanmeg concrete

yanmegyel cement

yanmegyelber cement

yanmegyelbwa cemented

yanbyeer conform, keep together

yanbyeen conformance

yanbyeya conformant

yanbyeyan conformity

yanbyea bay in conformance with

oyanbyea non-conformant

yansaner constitute

yansanen constitution

yansanea constituent

yanbexer adhere, hold together, cling, stick together

yanbexea adherent

yanbexeya clingy, sticky

yanbexen adherence

yanbexut adherent

yanbexwa adhered, held together, stuck

yanbexof adhesive

yanbexil paste, glue

yanbexiler paste, glue

yanbexilwa pasted, glued

yanbexilwas poster, sticky, sticker

yanbexileya sticky

yanas funds

yanasbuer fund

yanasbuwa funded

yanasbuen funding

yanasbuut funder

yanabier collect, harvest

yanabien collection, harvesting

yanabiut collector, havester

yanabiwa collected, harvested

yanabiut collector, havester

yantamer live together, cohabit

yantamen cohabitation

yantamea cohabiting, living together

yantamut cohabitor

yanyexer work together, cooperate, collaborate

yanyex cooperation, collaberation

yanyexa collaborative

yanyexut collaborator

yantexer agree, concord

yantex agreement, concord

yantexwa agreed

yantexuwa agreeable

yantexdren written agreement

yantexea bu according to, in accordance with

yontexer disagree

yontex disagreement, discord, dispute

yontexaya discordant

yontexwa disputed

yontexeya disputatious

yontexeyan disputatiousness

yanteser sympathize, commiserate, empathize

yantesea sympathetic

yantes sympathy, empathy

oyantes lack of sympathy

oyantesea unsympathetic

yonteser feel antipathy, resent

yontes antipathy, resentment

yontesea antipathetic:

yanbyen harmony

yanbyena harmonic

yanbyenxer harmonize

yanbyenxen harmonization

yanbyenxwa harmonized

be yanbyen bay in harmony with

yonbyen disharmony

topyanat soul-mate:

ebyana mutual

ebyanay mutually

ebyanan mutuality

ebyona rival

ebyonut rival, contestant

ebyonan rivalry

ebyonut rival

ebyonutser rival:

anaxer unify

anaxen unification

anaxwa unified

yanbier bring together, collect

yanbien collection

yanbiwa collected, brought together

ya- multi-, more than one

yatada polygamous

yatadan poygamy

yadalyena polyglot

yadalyenat polyglot

yasana poly-morphic, generic

yasauna various, varied

yasun chain

yasuna serial

yasunxer concatenate

yasunxen concatenation

yasunxwa chained, concatenated::

yan- co-, fellow-, mate

yanmemut fellow-countryman

yandit fellow citizen

yanfatinat co-religionist

yanpoput fellow-traveler, travelmate

yan together

yana together

yanay together

yanat partner, fellow, mate, companion, associate

yanatan partnership, fellowship, companionship, association

yanatser partner, mate, associate

yanatsen partnering, mating, association

yanatseya sociable

yanatseyan sociability

yanatyan association, society, committee

yanatyana associational, societal, social

timyanat roommate

sumyanat sleep-mate, bed-mate

telyanat dining companion

yanil glue

yanilber glue

yanilbwa glued

oyanilbwa unglued

yanilben gluing

yanyel paste

yanyelber paste

yanyelben pasting

yanyelbwa pasted

yanyelyena pasty

yanxer gather, assemble, collect

yanxen gathering, meeting, assemblage

yanxwa gathered, assembled

yanxon assembly

yanser join, meet, collect, assemble

yansen meeting, collection, assembly

yans meeting

yansem meeting place

yanper go together, accompany, associate

yanput accompanist, companion, associate

yanputan companionship, companion, association

yanuper meet, come together, assemble

yanup meeting, convocation, get-together

yanupem meeting venue:

yanber put together, compose, assemble

yanben composition, assemblage

yanbut composer, assembler

yonber take apart, break up, disassemble

yonben disassemblage

yanyeber mix

yanyeben mixing, tangling

yanyebun mixture, melange, mixup, tangle

yanyebwa mixed, tangled

yonyeber disentangle, untangle

yonyeben untangling, resolution

yanun pile, accumulation, stack, grouping, heap

yanuna cumulative

yanunser pile up, accumulate, stack up, group

yanunxer pile up, stack, stack up, make a pile

yanunxwa piled up, stacked, accumulated, heaped up

yanunxen piling up, stacking, accumulation, heaping

nyaun pile, mass, heap, cluster

nyauna massive

nyaunser pile up, cluster

nyaunxer pile together, cluster, group, amass

nyaunxwa piled together, clustered, grouped, amassed

nyaunag bloc, crowd

nyaunagser crowd together, form a bloc

nyaunagxer crowd together, make into a bloc:

nyan ensemble, gathering, collection

nyana collective

nyanay collectively

nyanan collectivity

nyanaxer collectivize

nyanaxen collectivization

nyanaxwa collectivized

nyanag mass, herd, crowd

nyanaga massive

nyanagber mass, crowd, gather, assemble, herd together, gather together

nyanagbwa crowded, massed, herded together

nyautyan crowd

nyautyana crowded

-yan: collection, grouping

fabyan forest

tobyan humankind, mankind, humanity

potyan animal kingdom

patyan flock of birds

tulyan meal, set of dishes

dunyan verbiage

yanar link, joint, juncture, nexus, yoke

yanarser link up, join

yanarxer link, join

yanarxen linking, joinning

yanarxwa linked, joined

yanaryan chain

yanzyus chain

yanzyusaber chain, shackle

yanzyusaben chaining, shackling

yanzyusabwa chained, shackled

yanzyusober unchain, unshackle

yanzyusoben unchaining, unshackling

yanzyusobwa unchained, unshackled

aut person

agaut personage, v.i.p.

ogaut little guy, man on the street, average Joe

auta personal

autaxer personalize

autaxwa personalized

autan personality, personhood

autyan public

autyana public

autyanyux public service

autyanyuxut public servant

autyander publicize, advertise

autyanden publication, publicity, advertisement, ad

anut individual, private person

anuta private, particular, individual

anutay privately, individually

anutan privacy, ndividuality, particularity

anutaxer privatize

anutaxen privatization

anutaxwa privatized

olanutaxer de-privatize

olanutaxen de-privatization

olanutaxwa de-privatized

yanuta general

yanutan generality

yanutay generally

yanutaxer generalize

yanutaxen generalization

yanutaxwa generalized

yanaut people

yanauta popular

yanautan popularity

yanautaya populous

yanautber populate

yanautben population

yanautin populism

yanautina populist, populistic

yanautinat populist

yauta common, communal

yautay commonly

yautan community

yautana communitarian, communal

yaut commune::

yautin communism

yautina communist

yautinat communist

yautinyena communistic, communist-leaning

ovyautina anti-communist

avyautina pro-communist

autnyan community

autnyana communitarian, communal

utyan group

utyanser group together

grautyan crowd, mass of people

grautyanser crowd together, mass

grautyansa crowded

asana special

asanay specially, especially

asanan specialty

asanxer specialize

asanxen specialization

asanxwa specialized

asanxut specialist

asuna specific

asunay specifically

asunder specify

asunden specification

asunxwa specified

yasana general

yasanay generally

yasanan generality

yasanxer generalize

yasanxen generalization

yasanxwa generalized

yasuna generic, typical

yasunay generically, typically

oyasuna ungeneric, atypical:

tyan class

tyana classic, classical

tyanxer classify

tyanxen classification

tyanxwa classified

tyanes genre, type, genus

tyanesa generic, typical

aatyan first class

eatyan second class

iatyan third class

yabtyan high class

yabtyana high-class

yobtyan low class

yobtyana low-class

zetyan middle class

zetyana middle-class

vityana classical

vutyana vulgar

vutyanan vulgarity

vutyanun vulgarism

vutyanxer vulgarize

vutyanxen vulgarization

tyanin classism

tyanina classist

tyantijtea class-conscious::

utyan group

utyanser group, band together

utyansen grouping

utyanxer group, band

utyanxen grouping

utyanxwa grouped

utyana collective

utyanan collectivity

utyanaxer collectivize

utyanaxen collectivization

yebutyan in-group

oyebutyan out-group

utyanes team

utyanesyex teamwork

ovutyanes opposite team

utyanog band

utyanogser band together

avutyan party

dobtuna avutyan political party

avutyana partisan

avutyanan partisanship

ovutyan opposition party

utnyan assembly

syan species, type

syana specific

syanes type

syanog category

syanogxer categorize

syanogxen categorization

syangoxwa categorized

syanoga categorical

asyan series

asyana serial

asyanxer serialize

asyanxen serialization

asyanxwa serialized

yasyan collection

yasyanxer collect

yasyanxen collection

yasyanxut collector

nyanut union, syndicate

nyanuta syndical

nyanutan syndicalism, unionism

nyanutut unionist

ebnyanuta intersyndical, interunionist

nyanutyan federation

nyanutyana federal

nyanutyanan federalism

yanyanutyan confederation

yanyanutyana confederal

yanyanutyanan confederalism

yonxer separate

yonxen separation

yonxuwa separable

oyonxuwa inseparable

oyonxuwan inseparability

yonzyaber disperse

yonzyaben dispersal

yonzyabwa dispersed

yonkuber sideline, set aside

yonkuben sidelining, setting aside

yonkubwa sidelined, set aside, benched

yanifer sew, stitch

yanifen stitching

yanifwa stitched, sewn

oyanifer take out the stitches, unstitch

nyaf knot, tangle

yanyafer knot, tangle

yanyafwa knotted, tangled

yanyafen kotting, tangling

oyanyafer untangle

oyanyafen untangling, denouement

yonofer tear, tip

yonof tear, rip

yonofen tearing, ripping

yonofun tear, tip

yonofwa torn, ripped

yonofar ripping device, scissors

yaniler glue

yanilun glueing

yanilwa glued

oyaniler unglue

oyanilwa unglued

yaner tie, link

yanen liason, tie

yoner untie, unlink

yonen untying, unlinking

yanler attach

yanlen attachment

yanlwa attached

yonler detach

yonlen detachment

yonlwa detached

yonrer cut

yonren cutting

yonrwa cut

yonrar knife, cutter

yonrares blade

yanxer join

yanxen joining

yanxwa joined

yonxer unjoin, partition, separate

yonxen unjoining, partitioning, separation

yonxwa disjoined, unjoined, partitioned, separated

yonxun partition, separation, gap

yontader divorce

yontaden divorce

yontadwa divorced

yonaxer separate

yonaxen separation

yonaxwa separated

yona apart, separate

yonay apart, separately

yonan apartness, separateness

yonim apartment

yonimyan apartment complex

yon apart

yonay apart, sunder

yonan apartness

yonser come apart, separate

yonsen coming apart, separation

yan together

yanay together

yanan togetherness

yanuper meet

yanup meeting

yanupem meeting venue

yanat mate, partner, fellow

yanatan mateship, partnership, fellowship

yanan togetherness

tamyan housing complex, block of houses

tomyan building complex, block of building

sumtimyan dormitory

patyan flock of birds

maryan constellation

saryan instrumentation, equipment

yandal colloquy, discussion

yandaler discuss

yandalut discutant, interlocutor

yanber compose, put together

yanben composition

yanbena compositional

yanbut composer

yanbwa composed

yonber take apart, decompose

yonbem decomposition

yonbwa decomposed

yontim apartment, flat

yontimyan apartment complex

yonyem separate space, compartment

yonyemxer compartmentalize

yonyemxen compartmentalization

yonyemxwa compartmentalized

tomyan block of building, block, complex

tamyan block of houses, housing complex

sumtimyan dormitory

maryan constellation

suryan equipment

siryan machinery

ajtedyan ancestry

amulyan molecule

apelatyan swarm of bees

atulyan breakfast

saryan toolset

sayryan instrumentation

somyan furniture

sunyan reality

suzyan art collection

syagyan account

dafyan deck of cards

debyan leadership

defyan stationary

detyan club

dityan citizenship

dlunyan phraseology

dopsuryan ordnance

doutyan bourgeoisie

dresinyan alphabet

drenyan scripture

dreunyan documentation, dossier

drevyan grammar

drezyan poety

dyedutyan readership

dyendyunyan bibliography

dyenyan book collection, library

dunyan glossary, lexicon

dyuvyan ream of paper

etulyan lunch

bapeltyan swarm of ants

faybyan shrubbery, thicket

fayebyan foliage

itulyan dinner

jogatyan youth

jubdryenyan the press

kobiunyan loot

masyan masonry

mepyan network

naafyan drapery

nasyan capital

nesyan savings

neunyan reserves

nibyan array, grid, matrix, web

nisyan earnings

nifyan wiring

nozyan jewelry

nofyan textiles

nusbiutyan clientele

nunamyan shopping center

patayebyan plumage

patyan poultry

peltyan swarm

pityan school of fish

potyan animalia

tadetyan fraternity

tadyan husband and wife

taibyan skeleton

taydetyan sorority

teesiutyan audience

telaryan cutlery

teipibyan denture

tiutyan student body

tolaryan dishes

totyan pantheon

tulyuxutyan wait staff

tulyan meal

tutamyan university

tuutyan academe

tyadetyan grandchildren

tyadyan grandparents

tyunyan ideology

vazasunyan greenery

vidrenyan literature

vosyan bouquet

vulobyan thorn patch

ebdrenyan mail

yexyan handiwork

yipetobyan litter

av for

ava in favor, pro

avan advocacy

o zero

oun null, nil

osun nothing

osunxer anihilate

osunxwa anihilated

osunxen anihilation

osunan nothingness

owa no, not any, not a

owas not a thing, nothing

owat nobody, no one, not a single person

o- non-, un-, dis-

otwa unknown

ol- non-, un-, dis-

olafwa disallowed

olo- non-, un-, dis-

ov against

ovaxer counteract

ova against, opposite

ovader contradict

yo- non-, un-, dis-, the opposite of

tat angel

yotat devil

The tob (Man) Family

The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant t, designating human, and end in b, meaning organism or organ. The words have to do with the human being and the human body.

tob man, human

toyb woman

toyban womanhood

toban humanity, manhood

tobyan humanity, humankind, mankind

tobaxer humanize

tobaxen humanization

tobaxwa humanized

tobin humanism

tobina humanist

tobinat humanist

toybin feminism

toybina feminist

tobinat feminist

toob male

tooba male

tooyb female

tooyba female, feminine

tobtun anthropology

tobtuna anthropological

tobtut anthropologist

tobyena manly

tobyenan manliness

toybyena womanly

toybyenan womanliness

tobava humanitarian

tobavin humanitarianism

tobavina humanitarian

tobavat humanitarian

tobot child, baby, infant

tobota infantile

tobotan childhood, infancy

tobotsim highchair

tobotyena childlike, babyish, infantile

tobotyenan infantility

tobottojben infanticide

tobottojbena infanticidal

tobottojbut baby-killer

tobog midget

tobyog urchin

tobet boy

tobetan boyhood

tobetyena boyish

tobetyenan boyishness

toybet girl

toybetan girlhood

toybetyena girlish

toybetyenan girlishness

joga tob young man

joga toyb young woman

jaga tob old man

jaga toyb old woman:::

tobtujben homocide, killing

tobtujbena homocidal

tobtujbut killer

tobsana anthropomorphic

tobsanan anthropomorphism

tobifina philanthropic

tobifin philanthropy

tobifinat philanthropist

tobufina misanthropic

tobufin misanthropism

tobufinat misanthrope

tab body

taba bodily, corporal

taban corporality

tojtab corpse

tojtabnyem coffin

tabnyem coffin

tabnyef body bag

tabkyojun remains

tabaga corpulent

tabagan corpulence

tabog corpuscle

taboga corpuscular

taob flesh

taoba carnal

taaban carnality

taobaya fleshy, carnal

taobser become flesh, incarnate

taab lymph

taaba lymphatic

tabil humor

tabila humoral

taeb muscle

taeba muscular

taebyan musculature

taebaya muscle-bound

taib bone

taiba osseous, bony

taibyena bony

taibyenan boniness

taibser ossify

taibsen ossification

taibsa ossified

taibnyan skeleton

taibnyana skeletal

taibyan frame, framework, bone structure

tekib vertebra

tekiba vertebral

tekibnyan spine, spinal column

tekibnyana spinal

taub cartilege

tauba cartilaginous

tayob skin, hide

tayobil sweat, perspiration

tayobiler sweat, perspire

tayobilaya sweaty

tayoba cutaneous, dermal

tayobtun dermatology

tayobtuna dermatological

tayobtut dermatologist

tayobober skin, strip, flay

tayoboben skinning, flaying

tayobobwa skinned, flayed

tayobdril tattoo

tayobdriler tattoo

tayobbok skin disease, dermatitis

tayab fat

tayaba fatty

tayeb hair

tayeba capillary

tayebaya hairy

tayebayan hairiness

oytayeba bald, hairless, smooth

oytayeban baldness, hairlessness, smoothness

tayeyb fuzz

tayeybyena fuzzy

tayeybyenan fuzziness

omoltayeb wig, hairpiece

tayib nerve

tayiba nervous

tayiban nervousness

tayibxer enerve, get on one's nerves, annoy

tayibxea enerving, annoying

tayibxen annoyance

tayiser grow nervous, get excited

tayisen excitement

teb head

tebnyem cranium, skull

tebnyema cranial

tebos brain

tebosa cerebral

teboses cerebellum

zateb forehead

zateba frontal

tebzan face, countenance

tebzana facial

obteb neck

obteba cervical

zoobteb nape

zaobteb throat

yobteb chin

tep mind

tepa mental

tepyen mentality, attitude

tijtep consciousness

tujtep subconscious

tepaza intelligent

tepoza stupid

teob cheek

teoba jugal

zeteob cheekbone

teobyeb beard

teobyebaya bearded

teab eye

teaba ocular, optic

teabigyijer blink

zeteab pupil

teabyeb eyelash

fateab eyelid

fateaxer blink

fateabyeb eyebrow

teabar eyeglasses, glasses

teabil tear

teabiles teardrop

teabiler tear up

teapiler cry, weep

teapileya weepy

teabtun ophthalmology

teabtuna ophthalmological

teabtut ophthalmologist

teater see

teat vision, sight

teatyofa blind

teatyofat blind person

teatyofan blindness

teatyofxer blind

teatyofxeya blinding

teatyofxwa blinded

teatyaf ability to see, sight

teatyafa sightful, able to see

yeatyafat seeing person

oteatwa unseen

oteatwas something unseen

jateater foresee

teatuwa visible

teatuwan visibility

oteatuwa invisibile

oteatuwan invisibility

teatuer show

teatuen demonstration

teatueya demonstrative, showy

teatier catch sight of, perceive

teatien perception

teatiwa perceived

teaxer look

igteaxer glance

yagteaxer glare

kyoteaxer stare

yokteaxer peek

zyoteaxer peer

zyateaxer scan

yabteaxer look up

yobteaxer look down

yebteaxer look in

oyebteaxer look out

yubteaxer examine

abteaxer supervise

ugteaxer gaze::::

teaser seem, look, appear

teas appearance

teaseay apparently, seemingly

fiteasa good-looking

futeasa ugly

teaper visit

teap visit

teaput visitor

teabizer aim

anteaba one-eyed, monocular

teeb ear

teeba aural, auricular

fozteeb earlobe

teeter hear

teet hearing

teetyaf ability to hear

teeta auditory

teeten hearing, audition

teetyofa deaf

teetyofan deafness

teetyofat deaf person

teetyofxer deafen

teetyofxeya deafening

teetyaf ability to hear

teetyafa able to hear, hearing

teetuwa audible

teetuwan audibility

oteetuwa inaudible

oteetuwan inaudibility

oteetwa unheard of

oteetwas something unheard of

teetar hearing aid

teetyuxar hearing aid

teexer listen

teexut listener

teexutyan audience

teexar earphone, headphone, earpiece

teeser sound, sound like

tees sound, audio

teesag noise

teesa acoustic, audio

teesyen acoustics

teesaga noisy, loud

fiteesea nice-sounding, sweet-sounding, melodious

futeesea bad-sounding, cacophonous

teeper attend

teeput attendee

teeputyan attendance, audience

teib nose

teiba nasal, rhino-

teibyes nostril

teibil snot, mucus

teibila mucal

teiv handkerchief

teibilober blow one's nose

teibukxer sneeze

teiter smell

teit odor, smell, scent, whiff

teita olfactory

teitier sniff, smell, take a whiff of

teiz perfume

teizam perfumery

teizaber perfume

teizabwa perfumed

teituer smell up, give off an odor

teityofa unable to smell

teiser smell, smell like

fiteisea fragrant, sweet-smelling

fiteis fragrance

futeisea stinky, bad-smelling, foul, odorous

futeis stink, foul smell, odor

teis scent, smell, odor

teisaya smelly, odorous

oyteisa odorless

teixer smell, sniff

teixen olfaction

teixa olfactory

teixeuser snore

teixeusen snoring

teub mouth

teuba oral, buccal

teubil saliva, spit

teubiler salivate

teubiluer spit

teubilier swallow

teubyijer yawn

teuder shout, scream, yell, cry, call out

teud shout, scream, yell, cry

teuden shouting, screaming, yelling, crying

uvteuder cry, moan, sigh

azuvteuder wail

ivteuder laugh

azivteuder laugh out loud, laugh uproariously

ozivteuder chuckle, snicker

yokteuder exclaim

yokteuden exclamation

yokteudena exclamatory

ivteuxer smile

ivteux smile

ivteuxea smiling

ivteuxaya smiley

uvteuxer frown, grimace

uvteux frown, grimace

teuter taste

teuxer taste, try

teuser taste

fiteusea delicious, good-tasting

fiteus good taste

futeusea bad-tasting

futeus bad taste

oyteusa tasteless, insipid

oyteusan tastlessness, insipidness

teubob lip

teuboba labial

enteuboba bilabial

teubozer smile

teuboxer kiss

teusozer laugh

teubobier suck

teubab tongue

teubaba lingual

teubaber lick

teubeb gum

teubeba gingival

teubebbok gingivitis

teubib jaw

teubixer chew

teumib palate

teumiba palatal

teupib tooth

teupiba dental

teupibyan denture

teupibut dentist

teupibbek dentistry, dental hygiene

teupibbekut dental hygienist

teupixer bite

teupixun bite

yebteupixer crunch

yebteupixeya crunchy

yebteupixeyan crunchiness

teupixoger nibble

ateupib central incisor

eteupib lateral incisor

iteupib canine

uteupib premolar

yoteupib molar

tez crown

abteupimul enamel

ebteupimul dentine

megil cement

fyob root

fyob ebmip root canal

teuz voice

teuza vocal

teuznyem voice box, larynx

teuznyema larygeal

zoyteuz echo

zoyteuzer echo

zoyteuzim echo chamber

teuzun vowel

teuzibar telephone, phone

teuzibarer telephone, phone

teuzibara telephonic

teus phone, sound

teuson phoneme, elemental sound

teusa phonetic::::

teustun phonology

teustuna phonological

teustut phonologist

teusontun phonemics

teusontuna phonemic

teusontut phonemicist

teustin phonetics

teustina phonetic

teustinay phonetically

teustinut phonetician

deser pronounce, articulate

desen pronunciation, articulation

desun consonant

deuz song

uvdeuz dirge

yogdeuz ditty

yagdeuz chant

ogdeuz tune, air

detdeuz anthem

fadeuz hymn, canticle, psalm

ivdeuz carol

ajdeuz ballad

yandeuz chorus, harmony

yandeuzer harmonize

yandeuza harmonic

egdeuz refrain

videuz melody

videuza melodic

deuzer sing, vocalize

yagdeuzer chant

endeuz duet

deuzut singer

deuzutyan chorale, chorus, choir

deuzuyt songstress, female singer

deuzen singing

deuzduni lyrics

dudeuz antiphon

dudeuza antiphonal

deuzes verse

duz music

duza musical

duzan musicality

duzut musician

duzutan musicianship

duzutyan band, orchestra

duzun concert

duzunam concert hall

duzunyan concerto, symphony

yanduz harmony:::

duzer play music

duzar musical instrument

duzaryan orchestra, band

duzaryana orchestral

duzarer play an instrument

duzaryt instrumentalist, player

duznod musical note, note

duznodyan chord

duzmuys musical scale, scale

duzdyuf music sheet, sheet of music, score

duzes piece of music

duztun musicology

duztuna musicological

duztut musicologist

duzam music venue, music hall, concert hall

duznog pitch

duznogyan range

duzijnog key

duznap musical arrangement

duznagun measure

duzbyex beat

duzbyexyan rhythm

duzbyexyana rhythmical

jaduz prelude

ebduz interlude

egduz refrain

duzyen music genre

duzigan tempo

seux sound

seuxa sonic, acoustic

seuxer make a sound

seuser sound, sound like

viseux melody

viseuxa melodic

viseuxaya melodious

seuxes tone

seuxesa tonal

seuxesan tonality

vyiseuxes pure tone

anseuxesa monotonous

anseuxesan monotony

seuxtun acoustics

seuxtuna acoustic

seuxtut acoustics expert

seuxpaan sound wave, acoustic wave

seuxpaandren sonograph

seuxpaandrar oscilloscope

seuxibar radio, radio receiver

seuxibun radio reception

seuxubun radio transmission, radio broadcast

seuxubar radio transmitter:::

seuxdrar recorder

seuxdren recording, record, phonograph

seuxdrer record

seuxaya sonorous

seuxoya silent

seuxoyan silence:

xeus noise

xeusaya noisy

xeusayan noisiness

xeusoz faint noise

xeusaz loud noise

xeusaza loud

xeusazan loudness

xeusoya noise-free, silent

xeusoyan silence

xeusar noise-maker

xeusag boom, loud noise, bang:

xeuspyex boom, crack, bang, thunder::

tib trunk

zetib waist

zetif belt

zotib back

zotiba dorsal

zotibnyef backpack, rucksack

tibuzer bow, bend over

tiab chest

tilab breast

tilabil breast milk

bil milk

bilier milk, suck

biluer give milk

biliar milking machine

tilaf brassiere, bras

tieb lung

tieba pulmonary

tiexer breathe

tiexen respiration, breathing

tiexun breath

tiebmal breath

yebtiexer breathe in

tiebier breathe in

tiebien breathing in

tiebuer breathe out, expire

tiebuen expiration

oyebtiexer breathe out, expire

oyebtiexen expiration

tiebukxer cough

tebukxen cough, coughing

tiib heart

tiiba cardiac

tiibil blood

tiibiler bleed

tiibilea bleeding

tiibilaya bloody

tiibilayan bloodiness

tiibilika blood-filled

oytiibila bloodless

omtiibila cold-blooded

tiibiluer bloody

tiibilier suck blood

tiibiliut vampire

tiibuf artery

tiibufa arterial

tiibufog arteriole

zoytiibuf vein

zoytiibufa venous

zoytiibufog venule, veinlet

tiibpos cardiac arrest

tiiba igef heart attack, cardiac emergency

tiub belly

tiuba ventral

tiuyb abdomen

tiuyba abdomenal

zetiub belly button

zotiub buttock, butt

tiyob kidney

tiyoba renal

tiyobil urine, pee, piss

tiyobiler urinate, pee, piss

tiyobilim urinal, pissoir

tiyab penis, phallus

tiyaba penile, phallic

tiyayb vagina

tiyayba vaginal

ebtiyaba sexual

ebtiyaxer have sex, copulate

ebtiyaxen copulation, sex

ebtiyaxena copulatory

tikob esophagus

tikoba esophageal

tikab stomach

tikaba gastric

tikabil chyme

tikabukxer vomit, throw up

tikabukxun vomit

tikeb liver

tikeba hepatic

tikub intestine

tikuba intestinal

tikubil chyle, feces, shit

tikubila fecal

tikubiler defecate, shit

tikubilen defecation

tikubilena defecatory

tikubuj anus, asshole::

tikubuja anal

tikubuja teubabien analingus

tub arm, limb

tuba brachial

tubyuzer embrace

tuab shoulder

tuapyener bump

tueb upper arm

tuib elbow

tuiber elbow

tuub forearm

tuyob wrist

tuyoxer wave

tuyab hand

tuyaba manual

tuyaber handle

tuyabar handle

tuyapyener slap

tuyabirer grab hold of

tuyabyanxer shake hands

tuyabyanx handshake:::

tuyeb fist

tuyepyener box, hit, sock, punch

tuyib palm

tuyipyener slap

tuyibaner pat

tuyub finger

tuyuba digital

atuyub thumb

etuyub index finger

etuyubizer point

ituyub middle finger

utuyub ring finger

yotuyub pinkie

uatuyub left hand thumb

uetuyub left hand index finger

uituyub left hand middle finger

uutuyub left hand ring finger

uyotuyub left hand pinkie

iatuyub right hand thumb

ietuyub right hand index finger

iituyub right hand middle finger

iutuyub right hand ring finger

iyotuyub right hand pinkie

tuyuxer touch, feel, finger

tulob fingernail, nail

tuloxer scratch

tyob leg

tyoab hip

tyoeb thigh

tyoub leg

tyouv stocking

tyoyob knee

tyoyoper genuflect

tyoyab foot

tyoyaf shoe

tyoyafxut shoemaker, cobbler

tyoyav sock

tyoyaper walk

tyoyapen walking, walk

tyoyapea ambulatory, walking

tyoyapar walker

tyoyap step

igtyoyaper run

igtyoyaput runner

igtyoyapem running track, course

tyoyapem sidewalk

tyoyaput pedestrian, walker

tyoyapyener kick

tyoyabarer stomp:::

tyoyeb ankle

tyoyib sole

tyoyub toe

tyolob toenail

Bodily Fluids and Functions

tob human being tab body -il liquid til drink -el food tel food -yel oil, gel -al gas, air tabil humor tilier drink tiluer give to drink, water telier eat teluer feed ilier absorb iluer pour alier breathe in aluer aerate, blow taib bone taibil marrow taibober de-bone taibser ossify tayob skin tayobil sweat tayobiler perspire, sweat tayobober flay, skin tayoboser itch tayib nerve tayixer excite, irritate tayiser get excited teb head tep mind tes feeling tespan emotion ter know texer think vyatexer reason vyetexer wonder vatexer believe vetexer suppose votexer doubt ivtexer be thankful uvtexer regret teser feel fiteser feel good futeser feel bad ivteser feel happy uvteser feel sad tespaner emote tebaxer nod vatebaxer nod yes votebaxer nod no vetebaxer shrug tebsin face tebsiner face zaytebsiner face forward ovtebsiner confront ibtebsiner face away vutebsiner grimace, sneer vitebsiner grin teab eye teabil tear teabiler weep teater see teaxer look igteaxer glance kyoteaxer stare yagteaxer glare ugteaxer gaze zyoteaxer peer eyteaxer squint yubteaxer examine zyateaxer survey, peruse koteaxer peek izteaxer focus jateaxer preview, foresee teatuer show teatier perceive, catch sight teaser seem teaper visit teatyofuer blind teatyofser disappear teatyofier go blind teatyofxer make disappear teatyofer be blind teabigyujer wink teabyeb eyelid teabyebyujer blink teeb ear teebyel ear wax teeter hear teexer listen teetuer inform teetuwer be rumored teetier get wind of teeser sound (like) teetyofuer deafen teetyofier go deaf teetyofser become inaudible teeyofxer make inaudible yuvteexer obey koteeter overhear koteexer snoop ekteexer audition, audit yekteexer try, hear (a case) teib nose teibil snot teibukxer blow one's nose teixeuser snore teiter smell teixer sniff teiser smell (like) futeiser stink ebteiber nose in, meddle teibaber nuzzle teub mouth teubil saliva, spit teubiler salivate teubier swallow teubiluer spit teubiloker slabber, drivel teubyijer yawn teuder shout teuser taste (like) teuxer taste (try) ivteuber smile, grin uvteuber frown, grimace uvteuder moan, groan ivteuder laugh ozivteuder chuckle, giggle ozuvteuder whimper, sigh ufteuder scowl ifteuder coo teubob lip teuboxer kiss teubozer smile, grin teusozer laugh teubobier suck teubab tongue teubaber lick teabaxer wag teubib jaw teubixer chew, masticate teupib tooth teupibyel pulp teupixer bite yagteupixer gnaw teupixeger much ogteupixer nibble tib trunk uztibser bow, bend over iztibser stand erect zyatibser stretch yobtibser crouch yuftibser cringe tiib heart tiibil blood tiibiler bleed tiibiloker lose blood tiibiluer get blood on tiibilglalser coagulate, clot tilab breast tilabil milk bil milk biluer breastfeed bilier milk (a cow) bilyigser curdle tieb lung tiebal oxygen tiexer breathe tiebalier breathe in tiebaluer expire, breathe out tieboker cough tiebyujer suffocate, choke tiebaloker burp, belch tiyob kidney tiyobil urine tiyobiler urinate, piss tiyab phallus, penis tiyayb vagina tiyabil pre-cum tiyaybil vag. fluid ebtiyaxer have sex, copulate tiyaybiler menstruate tiyabier fellate, suck tiyagiber fuck tiyabraxer masturbate tiyabober castrate, geld tiyagorber circumcise, cut tiyeb testicles tiyebil semen tiyebiloker ejaculate, cum tiyebiluer inseminate tikab stomach, gut tikabil chyme tikabel guts tikabeloker vomit, throw up tikeb liver tikebil bile tikub intestine tikubil chyle tikubober disembowel tikubuj anus tikubujil feces tikubujal wind tikubujiler defecate tikubujaler fart, break wind tub arm tubaxer flail, swing tubyuzyuber fold one's arms tubyuzer embrace, hug patubaxer flap tuib elbow tuiber elbow, nudge tuyab hand tuyabuer hand, deliver tuyabier grab yantuyabier shake hands tuyapyexer slap tuyabaxer wave tuyabexer handle,manipulate futuyabexer mishandle kyituyaber maul tuyapixer clasp pyotuyaber paw tuyasiuner sign tuyeb fist tuyepyexer sock, deck tuyebyujer clench one's fist tuyedeker fist-fight tuyebarer pound tuyebraxer shake one's fist tuyib palm tuyibaber palm tuyibaxer pat, caress yantuyipyexer clap, applaud tuyibraxer wave tuyub finger tuyuxer palpate, feel, touch iftuyuxer tickle tuyugiber poke tuyubifeker fiddle tuyupyexer tap, rap tuyubizeaxer point, indicate tuyubizder point out, indicate tulob fingernail tuloxer scratch pyotuloxer claw, maul tyoib knee tyoiber genuflect tyoiper crawl tyoyab foot tyoyaper walk igtyoyaper run, jog, rush yogigtyoyaper sprint, dash igektyoyaper race iftyoyaper stroll, jaunt tyoyapyexer kick tyoyabarer trample,tread tyoyakyeper hobble ugtyoyaper saunter, amble apetyoyaper gallop doptyoyaper march zyatyoyaper perambulate ivtyoyaper prance fyatyoyaper strut, sashay yagtyoyaper stride vyotyoyaper stumble, trip yantyoyaper walk alongside kutyoyaper step aside zaytyoyaper step forward nogtyoyaper pace, march iztyoyaper walk straight yibtyoyaper hike mebtyoyaper hike daztyoyaper promenade kyetyoyaper meander

The bak (Health) Family

Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine:

Summary:

bak health
bek treatment	byek cure
bok illness book fatigue	byok pain byork torture
bik care
buk injury bruk mutilation

bak health

baka healthy, sound

bakay healthily, soundly

bakan healthiness, soundness, well-being

bakat well person, healthy person

obaka unwell, ill, unsound

obakan illness

Bak! Gesundheit!

bakam health clinic

bakamut health clinician

bakxer heal, make well

bakxen healing

bakxut healer, doctor

bakxwa healed

bakser get well, heal

baksea healing

bakxwat patient

bakser get well, heal

egbakser recover

egbaksen recovery

egbaksea recovering, in recovery

egbaksa recovered

egbakim recovery room

baktun health science, medecine, hygiene

baktuna health science-related, medicinal, hygienic

baktut health scientist, medical scientist, hygienist

bakxetyen practice of medecine, medecine, health practice

bakxetyenut health practioner

baktyentun health technology

fibak well-being

fibaka well, salubrious, in good health

fibakan wellness, salubriety

fibakxer make well, heal, bring back to health

fibakxen healing

fibakxwa recovered, healed

fibakser heal, get well

Fibaksu ig! Get well soon!, Have a speedy recovery!

Fibak bu et! To your health!

fibakden salutation, greeting

fibakder salute, greet, say hello

fubak ill health, sickness

fubaka ill, sick, in poor health, unwell

fubakan illness, sickness, poor health

fubakxer make ill, make sick, sicken

fubakxea sickening

fubakxwa sickened

fubakser get ill, get sick

baktel health food

baktea health conscious

bakdub health ministry, health department, health administration

tepbak mental health

fitepbaka sane, in good mental health

fitepbak sanity, mental health

futepbak insanity, mental illness

futepbaka insane, mentally ill

futepbakat insane person, mentally ill person

futepbakser go insane

futepbakam insane asylum

tapbak physical health

topbak spiritual health, salvation

teabaktun opthamology

teabbaktuna opthamological

teabbaktut opthamologist

teubak oral hygiene

teubaktun oral hygienics

teubaktuna oral hygienic

teubaktut oral hygienist

baak sanitation

baaka sanitary

baakxer sanitize

baakxwa sanitized

baakxen sanitization

baakxil sanitizer

baakan sanitariness

obaaka unsanitary

obaakan unsanitariness

bek treatment, therapy, remedy

beker treat, nurse, remedy

beken treatment, nursing

bekun remedy

bekam sanatorium

bekwa treated, nursed

beka therapeutic, clinical, remedial

bekut nurse

bekuyt female nurse

bektun medecine, medical science

bektuna medical

bektut doctor, physician, medical scientist

abektun surgery

abektuna surgical

abektut surgeon

bekam clinic, hospice, treatment center

bekwat patient

bekil medicine, remedy, drug

bekila medicinal, pharmaceutical

bekiluer medicate, drug

bekiluen medication, drugging

bekilnam pharmacy, drugstore

bekilnamut pharmacist, druggist

bekiltun pharmacology

bekiltuna pharmacological

bekiltut pharmacologist

bekildren prescription, drug prescription

fubeker mistreat

fubeken mistreatment

fubekwa mistreated

fibeker treat well, pamper

fibeken good treatment, pampering

fibekwa well-treated, pampered

bekuwa treatable, remediable, curable

bekuwan treatability, remediability, curability

obekuwa untreatable, unremediable, uncurable

obekuwan untreatability, unremediability, uncurability

tepbek psychiatry, psychiatric care

tepbekut psychiatrist

tepbeka psychiatric

tepbekwat psychiatric patient

tuyabek manicure

tyoyabek pedicure

byek cure

byeka therapeutic

byeker cure

byekwa cured

byekeya curative

byekuwa curable

obyekuwa uncurable

byekam sanatorium

bik care, custody, vigilence, caution

biker care, care for, watch over, monitor

bikam clinic

bikames dispensary

yanbikam polyclinic

bikuer provide care, care for, give care

bikuut caregiver

bikier take care, watch out, be cautious

Bikiu! Watch out!, Take care!

biken custody, caretaking

bikut custodian, caretaker, nurse

bikam care facility

bikeya careful, watchful, vigilent, cautious

bikeyan carefulness, watchfulness, vigilence

bikeyay carefully

obikeya unvigilent, unwatchful, careless

bikoya careless, uncautious

bikoyan carelessness, uncautiousness

bikoyay carelessly

bikwa cared for

bikwat patient under care

obik danger, threat, peril

obikaya dangerous, perilous

obikuer endanger, threaten, emperil

obikueya dangerous, perilous

azla bik intensive care

azla bikim intensive care unit, ICU

azla bikimut ICU nurse

bok illness, sickness, bad health

boka ill, sick, infirm

bokam hospital, infirmery

bokamber hospitalize

bokamben hospitalization

bokambwa hospitalized

bokxer make ill, sicken

bokxeya sickening

bokxwa sickened

bokser get sick, get ill, grow ill, grow infirm

bokat sick person, ill person, patient

bokatam hospital, infirmery

boktun pathology

boktuna pathological

boktut pathologist

boktunay pathologically

tayobbok skin disease

tepbok mental illness, insanity

tepbokat mentally ill person

bokil poison, venin

bokila poisonous, venimous

bokiluer poison

bokiluen poisoning

bokiluwa poisoned

bokilier take poison, poison oneself, ingest poison

ovbokil antidote

ambok inflammation

amboka inflammatory

amatan fever

amata feverish

amatser come down with a fever

vyusbok infection

vyusbokxer infect

vyusbokxen infection

vyusbokxwa infected

vyusbokser get infected

tiebok pneumonia

tiebokier catch pneumonia

tieboyk cold

tieboykier catch a cold

ombok flu

ombokier catch the flu:

tiyobok kidney disease, renitis

tikebok liver disease, hepatitis

tiibok heart disease

tikabok gastritis

tayobok dermatitis

teibok rhinitis

tikubok enteritis

booka tired, fatigued, worn out

book fatigue

bookan tireness

bookxer tire, fatigue, wear out

bookxwa tired, fatigued, worn out

bookser get tired, grow fatigued

byok pain

byoker hurt, ache

byokea aching, painful, hurting

byokaya painful

byokoya painless, pain-free

byokoyan painlessness, analgesia

byokoyxer relieve pain, analgesize

byokoyxil analgesic, pain reliever

byokuer punish, hurt, inflict pain, induce pain

byokueya punishing, pain-inducing

byokuen punishment, penalty, pain-inducement

tikabyok stomach ache

tebyok headache

teebyok ear ache

byook suffering, misery

byooker suffer

byookea suffering, miserable

byookut sufferer

byookuer make suffer, inflict

byork torture, agony

byorker writhe in torture, agonize

byorkuer torture, antagonize

byorkueya tortuous, agonizing

byorkuut torturer

byorkuwat torture victim

byorkuwa tortured:

buk injury, harm, trauma, wound

buker injure, harm, wound, traumatize

bukwa injured, harmed, wounded

bukwat injured person, casualty, wounded

buken injury, harming, wounding

bukeya injurious, harmful, traumatic, traumatizing

bukuwa vulnerable

bukuwan vulnerability

obukuwa invulnerable

obukuwan invulnerability

obuk safety

bukun injury, wound, trauma

kyebuk danger, risk, peril, threat, potential harm

kyebukaya dangerous, risky, perilous, theatening

kyebukuer endanger, put at risk, imperil, threaten

kyebukuen endangerment

kyebukuwa endangered

bukes scratch, minor injury

bukesuer scratch

bukesuwa scratched up

bukesier get a scratch

buyk sore

sumbuyk bedsore

tayobuyk skinsore

jobuk scar

jobukxer scar

jobukxen scarring

jobukxwa scarred

jobukser get scarred, scar

bruker mutilate, mangle

bruken mutilation, mangling

brukwa mutilated, mangled

tiibtun cardiology

tiibtuna cardiological

tiibtut cardiologist

tiebtun pneumology

tiebtuna pneumonology

tiebtut pneumonologist

tiyobtun renology

tiyobtuna renological

tiyobtut renologist

tikebtun hepatology

tikebtuna hepatological

tikebtut hepatologist

taptun physiology

taptuna physiological

taptut physiologist

The tod (Family) Family

Stems in this family begin with t for human and end in d for society and have to do with families and family relationships.

Summary:

tod = family
tad husband	tayd wife	tadet brother	taydet sister
jatad fiance	jatayd fiancee	taodet brother-in-law	taydet sister-in-law
ted father	teyd mother	tedet son	teydet daughter
tid uncle	tiyd aunt	tidet cousin	tiydet female cousin
tud brother-in-law	tuydet sister-in-law	tudet nephew	tuydet niece
tyod father-in-law	tyoyd mother-in-law	tyodet son-in-law	tyoydet daughter-in-law
tyad grandfather	tyayd grandmother	tyadet grandson	tyaydet granddaughter
tyed relative	tyeyd female relative
tyid godfather	tyiyd godmother	tyidet godson	tyiydet goddaughter
tyud tutor	tyuyd nanny	tyudet pupil	tyuydet female pupil

tod family

toda familial

toyd home

todama domestic, household

todamuyt housewife

todana familiar

tad spouse, husband

tayd wife

tada marital, spousal

tadser get married, wed

tadsen marriage, wedding

tadsa married, wedded

otadsa unmarried, unwed

tadsenxel wedding

tadxer marry

otadsat unmarried person, bachelor

otadsayt spinster

tadokat widower

tadokayt widow

tadokatan widowhood

tadoker be widowed

tadet brother

tadeta fraternal

tadetan brotherhood, fraternity

taydet sister

taydeta sisterly

taydetan sorority, sisterhood

taodet brother-in-law

tayodet sister-in-law

ted father

teyd mother

teda paternal, parental

teyda maternal

tedan paternity, parentage

teydan maternity

tedif papa

teydif mama

tedet son

teydet daughter

tedeta filial

teodet son-in-law

teyodet daughter-in-law

tid uncle

tida avuncular

tiyd aunt

tidet cousin

tiydet cousin

tud brother-in-law

tuyd sister-in-law

tudet nephew

tuydet niece

tyod father-in-law

tyoyd mother-in-law

tudet son-in-law

tuydet daughter-in-law

tyad grandfather

tyayd grandmother, grandchild

tyadyena grandfatherly

tyaydyena grandmotherly

tyadet grandson

tyaydet granddaughter

tyadyan grandparents

tyedetyan grandchildren

tyed relative

tyeyd female relative

tyedyan kin, kindred, kinfolk, kith

tyeda related, kindred, kin

tyedan relateness, kinship

tyedser become related

tud godfather

tuyd godmother

tudet godson, godchild

tuydet goddaughter

tuder serve as godfather

tuyder serve as godmother

tyud tutor

tyuyd female tutor

tyudet pupil

tyuydet female pupil

aytyuder adopt

oyted orphan

oyteyd female orphan

oytedser become orphaned

oytedsa orphaned

oytedam orphanage

oytad widower

oytayd widow

oytadser become widowed

oytadsa widowed

oytadsen becoming widowed

otad celibate person, bachelor

otayd unmarried female

otadan celibacy

yontad divorce'

yontayd divorcee

yontader divorce

yontadsen get divorced

yontadxer divorce

yontadsa divorced

yontadxen divorce

jatad fiance

jatayd fiancee

jatadser become engaged, become entrothed

jatadsa engaged, betrothed

jatadsen engagement, betrothal

ajted ancester

ajteda ancestral

ajtedan ancestry

ajtedyan ancesters

jaut ascendant

jautan ascendance

jout descendant

joutan descendence

tobot child, boy

toybot female child, girl

tobotan childhood, boyhood

toybotan girlhood

tajat baby, baby boy, infant, infant boy

tayjat baby girl, infant girl

tajatan infancy, babyhood

tajatyena infantile, babyish

tobog young man, little fellow

toybog young woman, little lady

joga young

jogat young person, young man, youth, boy, juvenile

jogatan youth, boyhood, juvenility

joygat young lady, girl, female juvenile

joygatan young ladyhood, girlhood

grojoga minor

grojogat minor

grojoygat female minor

jaga old, aged, elderly

jagat old person, old man, elder, senior

jagatan old age, elderliness, seniority

jaygat old woman, female elder, old lady

lojaga teenage, teenaged

lojagat teenager, teenaged boy, teen

lojaygat teenaged girl

lojag teens, teenhood

gyejaga old enough, mature, adult

gyejagaser reach adulthood, become an adult

gyejagat adult

gyejagatan adulthood

zejaga middle-aged

zejagat middle-aged person::

jagser grow

jagsen growth

jagsa grown

jagsat grown-up

jagaser grow old, get old, age

jagasen aging, getting old

jagasea getting old, aging

grajaga too old, over-aged

grajagan advanced age

The dot (Society) Family

The stems of the words in this family begin with d for society and end in t for human.

Summary:

dot society

dat friend

det comrade, mate

dit citizen

dut gentleman, sir

dout bourgeois

auta personal

yauta public

Societal Vocabulary

dot society

dota social, societal, public

dotser socialize

dotxer socialize

dotxen socialization

dotxwa socialized

dotay socially

doteya sociable

doteyan sociability

dotyena social, civil

odotyena unsocial, uncivil

odotyen uncivility

dotsyen civilization

dotsyenser civilize

dotsyenxer civilize

dotsyenxwa civilized

odotsyenxwa uncivilized

yodota savage, wild, barbarous

yodatan savagery, wildness, barbarity

yodotat savage, barbarian

dotin socialism

dotina socialistic

dotinat socialist

doyt association, club

doyta associational, associate

doytaser associate

doytaxer associate

doytaxen association

dotyux public service

dotyuxut public servant

dotyuxutyan bureaucracy

dotvalan social security

dat friend, ally

data friendly, allied

datan friendship, alliance

datyena friendly, amicable

datyenan friendliness

dayt female friend, girlfriend

daat buddy

daatan buddyship

daayt girl buddy, girlfriend

odata unfriendly

odatan unfriendliness

datser befriend

yodat enemy

yodata inimical

yondatan enmity

ovdata hostile

ovdatan hostility

det comrade, mate, fellow

detan comradeship, fellowship

aydet companion, mate, fellow

aydetan companionship, company

popdet travel mate, traveling companion, fellow traveler

pepdet fellow passenger

teldet dining companion

titamdet school mate

timdet roommate

sumdet bedmate

memdet fellow countryman

tildet drinking companion

jobdet contemporary

tejdet life mate

tapdet sex mate

tapdetser copulate, have sex, share sex, mate:

dit citizen

ditan citizenship

dityan citizenry

dita civilian, civil

dita yux civil service

dita yuxut civil servant

dityena civil

dityenan civility

dityenaxer civilize

dityenaxwa civilized

odityenaxwa uncivilized

ditbyen civility

doita civic

doitan civicism

ditser become a citizen

ditsen becoming a citizen

mirdit world citizen, cosmopolitan

mirdita cosmopolitan

dut sir, mister, master, senor

abdut master

abduter master

abduten mastery

duyt madam, ma'am, lady

duytyan mesdames, ladies

duut sire, lord, don, gentleman, milord

abduut overlord, don

abduuter lord over, dominate

abduuten domination

dutyan sirs, messieurs, ladies and gentlemen

duyut lady, dame, mylady, gentle lady

duyutyan ladies, mesdames

duyuytet young lady, demoiselle, damsel

duyuytetyan mesdemoiselles

dutet young man, squire, esquire

dout bourgeois, member of the middle class, burgess

douyt bourgeoise

doutan bourgeoisie

doutyan bourgeoisie

ibdat host

ibdayt hostess

ibdata hospitable

ibdatan hospitality

datiber host, welcome, greet, receive a guest

datibut host

datibam hostel, inn, hotel, guesthouse

datuper visit, be a guest

Datupu! Welcome!

aut person

auta personal

autay personally

autyan public

autyana public

anuta particular, individual

anutay particularly

anutan individuality

yanuta public, communal

yanutan communality, community

yanutyan public, community, commune

yanutaxer publicize

yanutaxen publication

yanutaxwa published, publicized

yanutaxut publisher

yanutaxam publishing firm

yonuta private

yonutay privately

yonutan privacy

yonut private person, individual

agaut personnage, vip

utyan group

utyanser group

utyanxer group

utyanxen grouping

utyanxwa grouped

grautyan crowd

grautyanxer crowd

grautyanser get crowded

grautyanxwa crowded::

utnyan people, population

utnyana popular

utnyanan popularity

utnyanaxer popularize

utnyanaxen popularization

utnyanber populate

utnyanben population

outnyanbwa unpopulated

utnyanika populous

utnyanuka unpopulous, deserted

yauta common, collective

yautan commonality, collectivity

yautana communitarian

yautxer collectivize

yautxen collectivization

yautin communism

yautina communist, communistic

yautinat communist

utbyen personal manner, behavior

utbyenyan mores

ajutbyen tradition

ajutbyena traditional

oajutbyena untraditional

utyanbyen custom

utyanbyena customary

utyanbyenay customarily

utyanbyenxer customize

utyanbyenxen customization

utyanbyenxwa customized

jubyen habit

jubyena habitual, usual

jubyenay habitually, usually

jubyenser habituate, get used to, accustomize oneself

jubyenxer habituate, accustomize, train

jubyenxwa habituated, accustomed, used to

ojubyenxwa unaccustomed

The tof (Clothes) Family

The stems in this family of words begin with t for human and end in f or v, which are reminiscent of nof cloth and nov lingerie. The words have to do with clothing.

Summary:

BODY PART	CLOTHING ITEM
tob man	tof clothing
tab body	taf suit, tayf dress
teb head	tef hat
teyob neck	teyof necktie
tuab shoulder	tuaf shawl
tib trunk	tif vest
zetib waist	zetif belt
tiab chest	tiav shirt, tiayv blouse
tilab breast	tilav bra
tuyab hand	tuyaf glove
tyob leg	tyof pants, tyoyf skirt

tof clothing, apparel, garment, item of clothing

tofyan clothes, clothing, gear

tofer wear

otofer go naked, go nude

otofen going naked, going nude

otofea naked, nude, going naked, going nude

otofin nudism

otofina nudist

otofinat nudist

tofut wearer

tofsam clothes closet

oytofa nude, naked

oytofan nudity, nakedness

oytofat nude, nude person, naked person

oytofayt female nude

tofaber put on, don, clothe, dress

tofabim dressing room

tofabwa dressed

egtofaber put clothes back on, redress

egtofabwa redressed

tofober undress, disrobe, take off, strip

tofobwa undressed, disrobed, naked, nude, stripped

tofoben undressing, disrobing, getting naked, stripping

abtof outerwear

obtof underwear, undergear

tofvyixar laundry machine, clothes washer

tofvyixen laundry

tofvyixer launder, do the laundry, wash clothese

tofvyixim laundry room

tofvyixam laundromat

tofnyeb laundry basket, clothes hamper

tofsam cubbord, armoire

tofimes clothes closet

taf suit, outfit

tayf dress, robe, outfit

abtaf coat

abtaaf overcoat

abtaayf cardigan

pontav pijamas

abtayv work blouse

abtaves overalls, apron, smock

tafut tailor

tayfut dressmaker

tayfuyt couturiere

ozyemilaf raincoat:::

tef hat, headgear

atef cap, baseball cap

etef beret

itef bonnet

utef top hat

yotef derby hat

yatef shapka

zyakuntef wide-brimmed hat

yiktef hardhat, helmet

tebuz crown

eytebuz diadem

tebuzaber crown

tebuzaben coronation

tev scarf

teyov collar

aybtev scarf, headdress, veil

yabtev headband

teaf eye patch

teabkof blindfold

teef earmuffs

teebuz earring:

teif muffler

teibuz nose ring

teiv handkerchief

teyof tie, necktie

abteyof scarf

aybteyof head scarf

teyofes bowtie

teyobuz necklace

teyof belar tie rack

teyof nivar tie tack

tuaf shawl

eytuaf sash

aybtuaf shoulder strap, shoulder pad

eybtuabuz epaulette

tif jacket, suit coat, waist coat, blazer

tifes vest

fotif bulletproof jacket

zetif belt

zetif fyafar belt buckle (fyaf < fom+nyaf = metal fastener/clasp)

zetiv sash

tiav shirt, long-sleeved shirt

tiavog short-sleeved shirt

tiayv blouse, long-sleeved blouse

tiayvog short-sleeved blouse

nefiaf pullover, sweater

tiabuz broche

eytiav tank top

tilav brassiere, bra

tilabuz tit ring

tiuf corset, bodice

tiuv underwear, underpants

atiuv boxers

etiuv briefs

itiuv jockstrap

utiuv g-string

yotiuv longjohns

yatiuv loincloth

tiuyv panties, underwear, knickers

utiuv g-string

zetiubuz belly button ring

tuf sleeve

otufa sleeveless

tuyaf glove

eytuyaf mitten, mit

tuyafyem pocket

tuyafyember pocket

tapyentuyaf boxing glove

fotuyaf gauntlet

tuyafyag fireman's glove

tuyubuz ring

tuyof cuff

tuyobuz bracelet

tuyubuz ring

tyof pants, trousers

yovoztyof bluejeans

abtyof overalls, trousers

vityof slacks, dress slacks

tyofyog shorts, bermudas, cutoffs

tyofyag long pants

tyoyf skirt

tyoyfes petticoat

obtyoyf slip

tyofober depants

tyoif kneepad

tyoiv kneesock

tyouf puttee

tyoyaf shoe

tyoyayf high-heels

abtyoyaf boot

yebtyoyaf slipper

faotyoyaf wooden shoe

atyoyaf patent leather shoe

etyoyaf tennis shoe

ityoyaf sandal

utyoyaf:

tyoyav sock

tyoyayv stockings

tyoyafut shoemaker, cobbler

tyoyafaber shoe

apetyoyaf horse shoe

apetyoyafut blacksmith

apetyoyafam blacksmith shop

apetyoyafaber shoe a horse

tyoyafnyiv shoe lace::

tyoyafeyub shoe horn (teyub = horn):

tyoyafobwa barefoot

otyoyafa barefoot, shoeless

otyoyafan shoelessness, barefootedness

tyoyef talon, spur

tyoyev ankle sock

tyoyif sole, shoe sole

tyoyuf heel

yabtyoyuf highheel

tiyuf train, dragnet, tail, tassle

tiyabuz cock ring

The tom (Building) and em (Place) Family

The stems of words in this family begin with t for human and end in m for place. The words have to do with buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and places:

Summary:

WORD	ENDING
tom building	-m place
tam house	-am enclosed place
tem hall	-em location, place
tim room	-yem enclosure, box
tum cell	-yeb container
	-yef bag

tom building, habitation, habitat, residence, apartment building

toma habitational, residential

tomer inhabit, live, reside

tomut inhabitant, resident

toym residence, dwelling

toymer reside, dwell

toem domicile

tomof tent

toom lodging

toomer lodge

ogtom abode

toomes lodge

tomes apartment

tomtun architecture

tomtuna architectural

tomtut architect

tombuer rent out

tombier rent

tombiut renter

tombiwas rental unit

utomut owner, proprietor

utomutan owernship, proprietorship

tomnas rent

tombelut concierge

zyutom tower

tomxer build, construct

tomxut builder, construction engineer

tomxen building, construction

tomxwas edifice, construction

otomxer demolish, tear down, destroy

otomxen destruction, demolition

egtomxer rebuild

egtomxwa rebuilt, reconstructed

egtomxen rebuilding, reconstruction

tomxem construction site

tomsan structure

tomsana structural::

tyem residence

tyemut resident

tyemer reside

tyema residential

tam house

agtam mansion

ivagtam palace

ivagtama palatial

potam hotel

ogtam cottage

ogtames cabin:

taam home, household, domain, dominion

taama domestic, tame

taamaxer domesticate, tame

taamaxen domestication, taming

taamaxwa domesticated, tame

taym pavillion

tamper go home

tamuper come home

tamupen home-coming

tamber settle, set up home

tambut settler

tamben settling

tambun settlement

tameb head of household, master

tameber dominate

tamebeya dominant

tambeyan dominance

tameyb mistress

tamab dominion, domain

yebeytam courtyard, inner courtyard

zatam facade

param garage

tamzam front yard

tamzom back yard

tamkum side yard

tamyan block of houses

tamuer house, shelter

tamuen housing

tamier take up residence, move in, settle, settle in

tamien taking up residence, moving in, settlement

tamiut settler

tem hall

telem cafeteria, refectory, mess hall

tujem dormitory

abtem gallery

yuzyujem court, courtyard

obtem cave, cellar

yagtem gallery

dyedem lecture hall

dezyem performance hall

dazyem dance hall

duzyem music hall

kutem side hall

zatem lobby, foyer

zetem central hall, main hall

tim room, chamber

telim dining room

tujim bedroom

datim salon, living room, parlour

zyotim hallway, hall

zyotiym corridor

zatim antechamber, frontroom, lobby

zotim backroom

yextim bureau, office, den

yexim laboratory, lab

ifekim playroom

miltim bathroom

milim water closet

tofmilbim laundry room

telxim kitchen

abtim attic

obtim basement

yebtim inner room, inner chamber, chamber

tiym nook

kutim side room

tilim bar

tutim classroom

uzkumim bay

yebmilim bath, bathroom

yontim compartment, apartment

movim smoking den

mimpartim ship cabin

milabim shower room, shower

milpunsim shower room

fatim sacristry

bekim hospital room, treatment room

datuputim guestroom

dyedim lecture room

magelim kitchen

tapektim exercise room

fadiim chapel

teasibarim den, t.v. room

novim linen closet, closet

pestim waiting room

ebtim room in between:

tum cell, compartment

tuma cellular, compartmental

tumaxer compartmentalize

tumaxen compartmentalization

The mos (Floor) Family

The stems in this family begin with m, meaning place and end in s, meaning thing. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. masonry.

Summary:

MASONRY
mos floor
mas wall
mes door
mis window
mus stairs

mos floor

omos ground floor

amos first floor

emos second floor

abmos top floor, attic

obmos basement

ebmos mezzanine

ebmospar elevator, lift

mas wall

mays partition, bulkhead

abtammas roof

abmas roof

aybmas ceiling

obmas foundation

oybmas floor

oybmasaof parquet

agmas great wall

massin mural

uzabmas vault

abzamas balcony

abkumas ledge, cornice

obzamas porch, portico

masyan masonry

mastyen masonry

mastyena masonic

mastyenut mason

yebmas inner wall

yebmasber wall in

yebmasbwa walled-in

oyebmas outer wall

eybmasa intramural

domyuzmas city walls

zamas front wall

zomas back wall

ebmas partition

ebmasber partition

ebmasbwe partitioned

yonmasber wall off, partition

yonmasben walling off, partitioning

yonmasbwe walled off, partitioned

mes door, portal

meys gate

zames threshold, front door, entryway

zamesag porte-cochere

zomes back door

eymes half-door

mesmep doorway, entrance, gateway

mesnyuf door knob

mestuyar door handle

mesazyujar door lock

mesyuznad door frame

zyup mes revolving door

zoyzap mes swing door

mis window

mises ticket window

misag dormer window

abmis fanlight

misof curtain

eymis shutter, flap

vozzyefmis stained glass window

cinmis picture window

miszyef window pane

zamisabun awning

mus stairway, stairs, staircase

muys ladder, scale, step ladder

muysa scalar

muysaxer escalate

muysaxen escalation

omuysaxer de-escalate

musyaper go up the stairs, climb, scale

musyaput climber

musyapen climbing

musnog step, stair rung

pasmus escalator

musim stairwell

musmep stairway

magmus fire escape

igirpmus fire escape

musabnod climax

musabnoda climactic

The som (Furniture) Family

The stems in this family begin with s, meaning thing, and end in m, meaning place. The words all have to do with furniture.

Summary:

FURNITURE
som furniture
sam armoire, chest
sem table
sim chair
sum bed

som furniture, furnishing

somber furnish

somben furnishing

sombwa furnished

osombwa unfurnished

somyan real estate, furnishings, furniture

somxer make furniture

somxut carpenter

somxen carpentry

comiper move

milsom sink

sam armoire, chest

telarsam china cabinet

telsam cupboard

tofsam closet

dyensam library

masam cubboard

tovsam chest of drawers

sem table

semes board, chart, blackboard, tablet

semof table cloth

dresem desk

dalsem pulpit

cemnyem drawer

bemer sit down to the table

tilsem bar, counter

yagsem counter

agsem banquet table

yuzsem round table

yuzsem ebdal round table discussion

yopissem chart, blackboard, whiteboard, pull-down chart

jaber la sem set the table

sim chair

siym seat

agsim armchair

panetsim rocking chair

zaypzoypsim rocking chair

yagsim couch, divan, sofa

eysim stool

tilsem eysim bar stool

parsim car seat, coach seat

yagyuksim bench

siim bench

bimer sit, sit down

bimea seated, sitting

tobobsim high chair

zyupsim swivvel chair

debsim throne

mimkumsim beach chair

amulpsim electric chair

sum bed

suam cushion, bed cushion

suaym pillow

suem mattress

malsuem air mattress

yezsuem futon

suav pillow case, pillow slip

suev sheet

absuef bedspread, bed cover

suef blanket, cover

obsuev liner

suim box spring, spring

sumnyan bedding

bumer go to bed, recline, lie down

bumea in bed, reclining, lying down, recumbent

summuf bed post

jaber la sum make the bed

eonsum twin bed

eysum day bed

igsum day bed, temporary bed, cot

suym couch

iksum full-size bed, queen-size bed

agsum king-size bed

ogsum cot

nyanxwa sum bunk bed, stacked bad

kusum side bed, bunk, cot

milsum waterbed

pyowa sum hammock

tabsum sleeping bag

tomofsum sleeping bag

summanar bed lamp

The sar (Machine) and par (Vehicle) Family

Stems having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in s for thing and end in r for tool. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with p for mobile.

Summary:

MACHINES/TOOLS
sar instrument, tool, implement
sir machine
sur apparatus
syir motor, engine
syur device

Note that the part of the above words minus the initial s are used as endings for many tools, machines, and devices.

Vehicles

Vehicle words all end in par, where the initial p signifies going and the final ar indicates instrument.

VEHICLES
par vehicle, car
mampar airplane
mempar automobile
mimpar boat, ship
kyipar truck
elyanadpar train
yautpar bus
zyuspar bicycle

par vehicle, car

para vehicular

parizber drive, steer

parizbut driver

parizbar steering wheel

parposem parking lot, car park

parposember park

parposam garage, carport

pep ride

peper ride

pepier ride off

aypeper run over, ride over

zeypeper ride across

ifpep pleasure ride

peput rider, passenger

mempar automobile, car, land vehicle

autpar car, automobile, private vehicle

yautpar bus, public vehicle, omnibus

nusyixpar taxi, taxicab, cab

jobyixpar rental car

parog cart, carriage, buggy

apetparog horse and buggy

elyanad rail

elyanadpar train

elyanadpares train car

elyanadpar posem train station, railroad station, railway station

iga elyanadpar high-speed train

igmep elyanadpar express train

ema elyanadpar local train

elyamep iron road, railroad

obniufpar cable car

abniufpar tram

ebdompar intercity bus, coach

parilp traffic

parilp siunman traffic light. traffic signal

parilp yanbar traffic jam, traffic congestion

paper fly

papier fly away, take flight

papuer alight

aypaper fly over, overfly

oypaper fly under

zyepaper fly through

yepaper fly into

oyepaper fly out

mampar airplane, plane

mamparizber pilot a plane

mamparizut pilot

mampareb pilot

mamparem airport

mamparyem hangar

mampartam hangar

mempier take off

mempien takeoff

mempuer land

mempuen landing

mempuen mani landing lights

mempuem landing strip, runway

mampop flight, air travel

mamyuxut flight attendant

mamper fly

mampier fly away

mampiem departure zone

mampuem arrival zone

mimpar ship

mimpayr boat

mimparizber pilot a ship, navigate, sail

mimparibut ship's captain

mimpareb ship's captain

mimparyexut crew member, airline attendant

mimparyexutyan ship's crew

mimpop sea voyage, cruise

mimpoper cruise, sail

mimpier set sail

mimpuer dock

mimpuem dock, harbor

mimper sail, cruise, navigate

piper cruise, sail

piput sailer, seafarer

pip cruise, sea voyage

mimof sail

mimofpar sailing ship

mimofper sail

kyimimpar cargo ship

dropekpar warship

dopekpar battleship

mamparbelea mimpar aircraft carrier

anzyuspar unicycle

enzyuspar bicycle

inzyuspar tricycle

enzyuspur motorcycle

kyipar truck

kyipares wagon, cart

zyuskyipares wheelbarrow

nyemkyipar van

bixpar tractor

pop travel, trip, voyage

poper travel

zyapoper travel around, travel widely

poput traveler,, voyager

ifpop vacation travel, leisure trip

ifpoput tourist, vacationer

ifpopen tourism, pleasure-tripping, vacationing

popizbut travel guide

popyuxam travel agency, travel bureau

popyuxut travel agent

podet travel mate, traveling companion, fellow-traveler

potam hotel

potaym inn, hostel

parpotam motel

igpotam motel

potamdat hotel guest

potamdatibut hotel receptionist, hotel host

datibam hostel, guesthouse, inn

pomep itinerary

pomepdaf travel map

podaf travel map

podryen travel brochure

ponyem suitcase, luggage

Tools, machines, and devices

sar instument, tool, device, utility

sara instrumental

saryan instrumentation, toolset

sarser be instrumental, help, be a tool

sarxer utilize, make use of

sarnyem toolbox

sartim toolshed

-ar instrument

anteabar monocle

anzyuspar unicycle

yanifar stitching needle

yanivar needle

yanar link, joint, juncture, nexus, yoke

yonofar ripping device, scissors

yonrar knife, cutter

obmimpar submarine

igefpar ambulance

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