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Mirad Grammar/Verbs

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The Verb Stem[edit | edit source]

Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms), such as yexer....to work. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is the infinitive minus the -wer ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions.
This shows how to determine the stem of a verb listed in the dictionary:


Verb Stems
SIMPLE INFINITIVE STEM+INFINITIVE ENDING
yexer....to work yex+er
poser....to (come to a) stop pos+er
xer....to do x+er
xwer....to happen, be done (PASSIVE) x+wer

Verb Formants[edit | edit source]

The active stem of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants:
Verb Formats
Verb Formant Function Examples
-xer action or causation xer....to do, saxer....to create, agaxer....to magnify, yixer....to use
-xler forceful action yixler....to employ
-xrer more forceful action yixrer....to wear out
-ber gesture ber....to put, aber....to apply, yujber....to close
-bler forceful gesture yujbler....to lock
-brer more foreful gesture yobrer....to knock down
-ser state or becoming ser....to be, eser....to exist, aser....to become, zyaser....to widen, become wider
-per motion or going per....to go, yaper....to ascend, paper....to fly
-ier action toward subject bier....to take, nier....to consume, ifier.'..to enjoy, dier....to ask
-uer action toward object buer....to give, nuer....to supply, ifuer....to please, duer....to suggest
-ner various verbs uxner....to motivate, axner....to behave
-der communication der....to say, vader....to affirm, yevder....to judge
-drer writing drer....to write, teedrer....to report, taxdrer....to record
-ter knowing ter....to know, tester....to understand, teater....to see
-fer volition fer....to want, ifer....to love, ufer....to hate
-ver some modal verbs yiver....to have a right to, yuver....to have a duty to
-ker various verbs aker....to win, oker....to lose, eker....to play
-jer opening/closing ijer....to begin, ujer....to end, tajer....to be born, tojer....to die, yijer....to open
-ler various verbs baler....to press, boler....to support, beler....to carry, daler....to speak
-[aiu]rer tool use ukarer....to shovel, purer....to drive, myekirer....to mill
-zer perform an art dazer....to dance, dezer....to act, deuzer...to sing

Verb Categories[edit | edit source]

Verbs have morphological categories, which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as live, lives, lived, living). They also have lexical categories', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (enjoy, enjoyable, enjoyment)

Morphological Categories[edit | edit source]

Verbs are inflected with the following morphological categories:
  • 2 STATES: finite, non-finite
  • 4 TENSES: present, past, future, atemporal1
  • 5 ASPECTS: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential
  • 2 VOICES: active, passive
  • 2 MOODS: indicative, hypothetical

Note 1: The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, Pu! is the imperative of the verb per....to go. It means Go! and is atemporal. The -u ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.

In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I am, you are, he is, we are, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form se for all persons and numbers:


Verb ser (to be) Unchanged for person/number
PERSON NUMBER ENGLISH MIRAD
1st Singular I am at se
2nd you are et se
3rd he/she/it is it se
1st Plural we are yat se
2nd you are yet se
3rd they are yit se
This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses.

Lexical Categories[edit | edit source]

In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing lexical categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation.


Verb Lexical Categories
STATIVE DYNAMIC
ser....to be xer....to do
INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE
agaser....to grow large agaxer....to magnify
SUBJECT-DIRECTED PATIENT-DIRECTED
bier....to take buer....to give
REFLEXIVE NON-REFLEXIVE
utvyixer....to wash up (wash oneself) vyixer....to wash
INCHOATIVE CAUSATIVE
tujper....fall asleep tujber....put to sleep
AUTONOMOUS DYNAMIC
yijer....to open (by itself) yijber....to (make it) open
RECIPROCAL NON-RECIPROCAL
hyuittujber....to kill one another tujber....to kill
GESTURAL LOCOMOTIVE
baser....to stir, budge paser....to move
SUBJECT-ORIENTED OBJECT-ORIENTED
teetyiker....to be hard of hearing teetyikwer....to be hard to hear

Non-finite Forms[edit | edit source]

Non-finite verb forms are
  • not conjugated for person or number
  • cannot form a predicate
  • and do not have a subject.
There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad:
  • infinitives: the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in -er
  • gerunds: verbal nouns, ending in -en
  • participles: verbal adjectives, ending in -a

Infinitives[edit | edit source]

Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the active voice simple aspect infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus the -er or -wer is the verb stem.


Infinitive Stems
INFINITIVE STEM ENDING
agser....to grow ags- -er
igxer....to quicken igx- -er
per....to go p- -er
xwer....to happen, be done x- -wer
The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined:


Active and Passive Infinitive Stems
ASPECT ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Simple igxer....to quicken igxwer....to be quickened
Perfect igxayer....to have quickened igxawer....to have been quickened
In the above chart,
  • the verb stem is igx- and
  • the infinitive marker is -er;
  • the simple aspect active voice marker is zero;
  • the simple aspect passive voice marker is w;
  • the perfect aspect active voice marker is -ay-;
  • the past aspect passive voice marker is -aw-.

Intransitive verbs like per to go do not have a passive voice. Also, the passive voice form of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as xwer to happen. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary.

Gerunds[edit | edit source]

The gerund is a verbal noun like English playing in playing ball.
The gerund has two possible aspects (simple and perfect) and two possible voices (active and passive):
Gerund Formation
ASPECT VOICE ENDING EXAMPLE
Simple Active -en agaxen....magnifiying, magnification
Simple Passive -wen agaxwen....being magnified
Perfect Active -ayen byekayen....having cured
Perfect Passive -awen byekawen....having been cured
Note: Intransitive verbs like per to go do not have a passive gerund form.
Lexicalized gerunds, such as sanxen formation, forming generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice.
Some examples of gerund usage:
  • (sanxer....to form)    Ha sanxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.....The forming (or: formation) of this star took millions of years.
  • (deuzer....to sing)    Iyta deuzen sa gla via.....Her singing was very beautiful.
  • (poper....to travel)    Popen se yika yex.....Traveling is hard work.
  • (teeter....to hear)    Teetwen fiay se glatesa av dezuti.....Being heard well is important for actors.
  • (teater....to see)    Teaten se vyatexen......Seeing is believing.
  • (uper....to come)    His se ha jeb bi Upen.....This is the season of Advent (coming).
  • (tadier....to get married)    Ata tadiayen ewa jodi bixa tepzex.....My having married twice drew attention.
  • (aker....to win)    At voy ta ita akawen hua nuz.....I did not know about his having won that prize.
Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects:
  • At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.....I am pleased by your having given me that money.
  • Tojben eut voy se kebiyaf.....Killing yourself is not an option.
The special gerundive ending -eyn gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings -ment or -tion. Here are a few examples showing the difference between -en and -eyn.
  • yanlaxen....combining  ≠<  yanlaxeyn....combination
  • xen....doing  ≠<  xeyn....action, deed
  • zayben....advancing  ≠<  zaybeyn....advancement
Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is -un, which expresses the result of an action, eg.:
  • zyegxer....to puncture  ≠<  zyegxun....a puncture
  • zyeuber....to transmit  ≠<  zyeubun....a broadcast
  • deuzer....to sing  ≠<  deuzun....a song

Participles[edit | edit source]

Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a. Participles are marked by aspect (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and voice (active, passive).
The aspect markers per voice are:
Aspect Markers
ASPECT VOICE FORM EXAMPLE
Progressive Active -ea- tejea....living
Passive wea xwea....happening
Perfect Active -ya pya....gone (< pyaa)1
Passive -wa xwa....done (< xwaa)2
Imminent Active -oa tojoa....about to die
Passive -woa dodelwoa....about to be announced
Potential Active -ua tojbua....lethal
Passive -wua opoxwua....unstoppable


1: The double aa in the perfect endings is reduced to a.
2: The wa ending is changed to awa after stems ending in a double consonant, the second being l or r. Example: dr- (to write) becomes drawa (written).
Note 1: The perfect active particple is used only for intransitive verbs.
Note 2: The potential aspect, represented by the vowel u is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, tojbu means would kill and the participle tojbua means lethal (referring to something that would/has the potential to kill). More about this in a later section.
Note 3: There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase The animals bothering our bird feeder..., the participle bothering would be oboxea in Mirad. By inserting the letter y between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in bothersome (oboxyea). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in -ive as in repulsive or -ly as in wiggly or -ous as in circuitous. Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in -yea.
Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples:
  • Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay.....She entered the room singing.
  • Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia.....The speech having been finished, he left.
Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing n. Examples:
  • tiluwa....drinkable tiluwan....potability
  • tojbua....lethal tojbuan....lethality
  • mansea....shining he mansean bi iyta deuzen....the brilliance of her singing
  • aakaxyea....inventive aakaxyean....inventiveness
Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized:
  • xwa....known xwas....what is known, a fact
  • xwa....known xwasi....facts, information
  • oxwa....unknown oxwas....what is not known, a mystery
  • osexea....destroying osexeas....a destroyer
  • tojbua....lethal tojbuas....something lethal, a lethal thing
  • tojboa....moribund tojboati....people about to die, fatal cases
  • tejea....living tejeat....a living person
  • tejea....living tejeasi....living things
There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer, Xant, Xist), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in -ut.
  • sexut....builder
  • nuut....supplier
  • tojbut....killer
  • ifut....lover
  • akuti....winners
Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat....the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut....the winner.
Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, inanimate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in -us.
  • yuxus....aid (a thing that helps)
  • byuxwus....button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)
  • paxus....motive (a thing that moves one)
  • jaupus....precedent (a thing that comes before)
The above -us ending contrasts with the endings -ar (instrument), -ir (machine), -ur (motor, engine), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root.

Finite Forms[edit | edit source]

In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories:
  • TENSES
  1. present
  2. past
  3. future
  4. atemporal
  • MOODS
  1. indicative
  2. hypothetical
  • ASPECTS
  1. simple
  2. progressive
  3. perfect
  4. imminent
  5. potential
  • VOICES
  1. active
  2. passive
  3. reflexive
  4. reciprocal
Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se. Thus, at se....I am, et se....you are, it se....he/she/it is, etc.

Moods[edit | edit source]

There are two moods in Mirad:
  • indicative
  • hypothetical.
Indicative Mood[edit | edit source]
The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go.
The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, future, indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively.
Hypothetical Mood[edit | edit source]
Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel u.
  • a command , i.e. the IMPERATIVE (Go!)
  • a wish or suggestion, i.e. the HORTATIVE or JUSSIVE (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!)
  • an unrealized situation, i.e. the SUBJUNCTIVE (It is important that you be early.)
  • an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the CONDITIONAL (If I were rich, I would be happy.)

Aspects[edit | edit source]

There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system.
  • the SIMPLE aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional.
  • the PROGRESSIVE aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using ey
  • the PERFECT aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using ay
  • the IMMINENT aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using oy
  • the POTENTIAL aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using uy
The Simple Aspect[edit | edit source]
Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect:
  • Present with e
  • Past with a
  • Future with o.
An atemporal, verb from ending in u in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence:
  • a conditional like I would go (if...)
  • an imperative like Go!
  • a hortative like Let's go!
  • a subjunctive like (It is important that) we go.
Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb per (to go) with the endings underlined:
Simple Active Conjugation of Per
MOOD TENSE ASPECT VOICE INSTANTIATION VERB per
Indicative Present Simple Active At pe....I go
Indicative Past Simple Active At pa....I went
Indicative Future Simple Active At po....I will go
Hypothetical Atemporal Simple Active Conditional At pu....I would go
Hortative/Optative/Jussive Van yat pu!....Let's go!
Imperative Pu tam!....Go home!
Subjunctive Se efwa van et pu.....It is necessary that you go.
Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative.

The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense[edit | edit source]

The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later.
Examples:
  • At yexe be tam. ....I work at home.
  • Hia tom se nam. ....This building is a store.

The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense[edit | edit source]

The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (I was doing something) or the present perfect (I have done something), or past potential (I would have done something). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time.
Examples:
  • Iyt iba ha nyuf zojub. ....She received the package yesterday.
  • At ujba ha dyes ji iwa jwobi. ....I finished the book three hours ago.
  • His kyesa exag hijub.....This happened twice today.

The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense[edit | edit source]

The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future.
Examples:
  • Yit tadso zajab.....They are going to get married next year.
  • Hua kaxon ujako. ....That solution will work.

The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense[edit | edit source]

A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, conditional, or subjunctive.
Examples:
  • Upu him!....Come here! (IMPERATIVE)
  • Von upu! ....Don't come! (NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE)
  • Ha edeb fu teater et. ....The king would like to see you. (CONDITIONAL)
  • Ven at su et, at dolu. ....If I were you, I would be quiet. (CONDITIONAL)
  • Van yeyt ujaku be yeytia yexnadi. ....May all you (women) succeed in your careers. (HORTATIVE)
  • Van yat ijbu bay fyadil. ....Let's begin with a prayer. (JUSSIVE)
  • Se kyitesa van et puu jwa. ....It's important that you arrive early. (SUBJUNCTIVE)
  • Se kyitesa von et puu jwo.....It's important that you not arrive late. (NEGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE)
Hypothetical verb forms ending in -u can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence:
  • Generally, if a verb form ending in -u begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!.
  • If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers van, ven, or von, then it is probably a CONDITIONAL predicate like At fu per.....I would like to go..
  • If the subject of the verb is preceded by ven....if, then it is a CONDITIONAL clause as in Ven at su nasikat.......If I were a rich man..
  • If the subject is preceded by Van....that/let/may or von....don't, then it is a HORTATIVE wish like Van et yagteju.....May you live long. or a JUSSIVE suggestion like Van yat fyadilu.....Let us pray. or a prohibition like Von tiliu his!....Don't drink this!.

Voices[edit | edit source]

Mirad has four voices:
  • Active
  • Passive
  • Reflexive
  • Reciprocal.

Active Voice[edit | edit source]

The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action.
  • At teata ha kyes.....I saw the event.

Passive Voice[edit | edit source]

A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just before the last vowel of the verb form. The past passive particle ending -waa is usually abbreviated to -wa (done is xwa). However, if the verb stem ends in a consonant plus l or r, then -wa is changed to -awa for ease of pronunciation, eg. drawa....written.
The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs:


Contrasting Active and Passive Voice
VERB FORM ACTIVE ACTIVE
EXAMPLE
PASSIVE PASSIVE
EXAMPLE
Infinitive xer
to do
At fe xer fi.
I want to do well.
xwer
to be done
Ese hyos xwer.
There is nothing to be done.
Present Participle sexea
constructing
Ha yansyem sexea hia tom...
The firm constructing this building...
sexewa
being constructed
His se sexewa.
This is under construction.
Present xe
do/does
At xe fi be tistam.
I do well in school.
xwe
is done
Huyenasi hoj xwe.
Such things are never done.
Past Participle xaa
having done
Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...
She, having done all her work,...
xwa
done
Hyas se xwa.
Everything is done.
Past tojba
killed
Duhat tojba hwut?
Who killed that guy?
tojbwa
was killed
Duhaj it tojbwa?
When was he killed?
Hypothetical bakxu
heal
Bakxu at!
Heal me!
bakxwu
be healed
Van it bakxwu.
May he be healed.
Many intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer....to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb tajber....to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tudet tajbwa zajub.....The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tudet taja zajub.....The child was born yesterday.) Notice the following verb:
  • Ha mes uja.....The door opened. (medio-passive)
  • Ha mes ujpa.....The door came open. (dynamic medio-passive)
  • Ujbu ha mes.....Open the door. (transitive active)
  • Ha mes ujbwa.....The door opened. (passive)

Reflexive Voice[edit | edit source]

A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example:
  • tojber....to kill uttojber....to kill oneself
  • vyilxer....to wash utvyilxer....to wash up
  • teater....to see utteater....to see oneself
  • yalber....to lift utyalber....to lift oneselfUtyalbu!....Lift yourself up!
  • trer....to know uttrer....to know oneselfUttru!....Know thyself!

Reciprocal Voice[edit | edit source]

A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun hyuit....one another, for example:
  • tojber....to kill hyuittojber....to kill one another
  • vyilxer....to wash hyuitvyilxer....to wash one another
  • teater....to see hyuitteater....to see one another
Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form yut is used if the subject is plural, for example:
  • Yit vyilxa yut.....They (f.) washed up. (= washed selves).
  • Ha twobeti dizeuda hyuit.....The boys laughed at one another.
The word hyuit is a hybrid of hyit....the same one combined with hyut....the other one.

Aspects Revisited[edit | edit source]

Mirad verbs have the following aspects:
  • SIMPLE -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. NON-PROGRESSIVE, NON-PERFECT, NON-IMMINENT, and NON-POTENTIAL.
  • PROGRESSIVE -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time.
  • PERFECT -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state.
  • IMMINENT -- this describes an action or state about to happen.
  • POTENTIAL -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible.

The Simple Aspect[edit | edit source]

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.).
Simple Aspect
ASPECT TENSE MOOD ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Simple Present Indicative At xe....I do Has xwe....It is done
Simple Past Indicative At xa....I did Has xwa....It was done
Simple Future Indicative At xo....I will do Has xwo....It will be done
Simple Atemporal Hypothetical At xu....I would do Has xwu....It would be done

Note: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = CONDITIONAL

The Progressive Aspect[edit | edit source]

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.
Progressive Aspect
ASPECT TENSE MOOD ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Progressive Present Indicative at xeye....I am doing Has xewe....it is being done
Progressive Past Indicative at xeya....I was doing Has xewa....it was being done
Progressive Future Indicative at xeyo....I am going to be doing Has xewo....it will be happening
Progressive Atemporal Hypothetical at xeyu....I would be doing Has xewu....it would be happening

The Perfect Aspect[edit | edit source]

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.
Perfect Aspect
ASPECT TENSE MOOD ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Perfect Present Indicative At xaye....I have done Has xawe....It has been done
Perfect Past Indicative At xaya....I had done Has xawa....It had been done
Perfect Future Indicative At xayo....I will have done Has xawo....It will have been done
Perfect Atemporal Hypothetical At xayu....I would have done Has xawu....It would have been done

The Imminent Aspect[edit | edit source]

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used.
Imminent Aspect
ASPECT TENSE MOOD ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Imminent Present Indicative At xoye....I am about to do Has xowe....It is about to be done
Imminent Past Indicative At xoya....I was about to do Has xowa....It was about to be done

The Potential Aspect[edit | edit source]

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used.
Potential Aspect
ASPECT TENSE MOOD ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Potential Present Indicative At xuye....I am to do Has xuwe....It is to be done, it is doable
Potential Past Indicative At xuya....I was to do Has xuwa....It was to be done, it was doable

Verb Conjugation Chart[edit | edit source]

The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb xer....to do and its passive xwer....to be done, happen. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms.
Verb Conjugation Chart
STATE MOOD ASPECT TENSE VOICE
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Finite Indicative Simple Present xe
does
xwe
is done, happens
Past xa
did
xwa
was done, happened
Future xo
will do
xwo
will be done, will happen
Hypothetical xu
would do, do!
xwu
would be done, would happen, be done!
Indicative Progressive Present xeye
is doing
xewe
is being done, is happening
Past xeya
was doing
xewa
was doing, was happening
Future xeyo
will be doing
xewo
will be happening
Hypothetical xeyu
would be doing
be doing!
xewu
would be happening
Indicative Perfect Present xaye
has done
xawe
has been done, has happened
Past xaya
had done
xawa
had been done, had happened
Future xayo
will have done
xawo
will have been done, will have happened
Hypothetical xayu
would have done
xawu
would have been done, would have happened
Indicative Imminent Present xoye
is about to do
xowe
is about to be done, is about to happen
Past xoya
was to be done
xowa
was to be done, was to happen
Potential Present xuye
is supposed to do
xuwe
is supposed to happen
Past xuya
was supposed to do
xuwa
was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen
Infinitive Simple xer
to do
xwer
to be done, to happen
Perfect xayer
to have done
xawer
to have been done, to have happend
Participle Progressive xea
doing
xewa
being done, happening
Perfect x(a)ya2
having done
x(a)wa1
done, happened
Imminent xoa
about to do
xowa
about to happen
Potential xua
bound to do
xuwa
doable
Gerund Simple xen
doing
xwen
being done, happening, event
Perfect xayen
having done
xawen
having happened
Note 1: The perfective passive participle usually ends in -wa, but occasionally the longer form -awa is used, especially if the verb stem ends in a consonant followed by l or r that make the shorter form harder to pronounce, eg. pyuxrwa becomes pyuxrawa (shocked).
Note 2: Intransitive verbs such as per to go have no passive forms. An expression such as They are gone. would be translated as Yit se pya.

Negative Forms[edit | edit source]

All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by preceding the negative adverb voy. Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in -u use the negative subordinate conjunction von.
  • Voy mamilo.....It will not rain. (indicative)
  • Von mamilu.....Let it not rain. (subjunctive)
  • Von yat fuyaku.....Let us not despair. (jussive)
  • At voy te.....I don't know.
  • Von pu!....Don't go. (imperative)
  • At voy xu hus.....I would not do that.

How to Express Certain English Tenses[edit | edit source]

English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema:
  • The English tense I have been studying French for four years. is translated in Mirad by At tixeye Ferad ji uwa jabi.....I am studying French since four years. (Mirad present progressive tense).
  • The English tense I had been studying is translated in Mirad by At tixeya. (Mirad past progressive tense).
  • The English tense I am going to be starring in that role. is translated in Mirad by At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon. (Mirad future progressive).
  • The modern Black English tense Don't you be doing that. is handled in Mirad by Von et xeyu hus. (Mirad imperative progressive).

Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs[edit | edit source]

Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity.
Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go). Here are some examples:
Transitive vs. Intransitive
TRANSITIVE INTRANSITIVE
xer....do ser....be
agxer....grow (something) agser....grow (up)
amxer....heat, make hot amser....become hot, heat up
puxer....throw puser....jump
per....go ber....put
aber....put on aper....get on
yaber....raise yaper....rise
poxer....stop (something) poser....(come to a) stop
yuber....bring yuper....approach
yeber....insert yeper....enter
  • At agxe vobi.....I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants.
  • Ha vobi agseye ig.....The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast.
  • Poxu ha pur!....Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car!
  • Ha pur posa.....The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE].
  • At yaba ha mis.....I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window.
  • Ha maar yapaye.....The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE].


Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity[edit | edit source]

Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer....to sleep vs. tujper....to fall asleep. The transitive forms can be either active or passive.
Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity
INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE
STATIC DYNAMIC ACTIVE PASSIVE
Ha mes yija
The door opened.
Ha nasyef yijpa
The purse came open.
At yijba ha mes.
I opened the door.
Ha mes yijbwa bey yelput.
The door was opened by an intruder
Ha mes yuja.
The door closed.
Ha yanup yujpa.
The meeting adjourned.
At yujba ha mes.
I closed the door.
Ha mes yeyfe yujbwer ja sumjob.
The door should be closed by bedtime.
Ha dezun ijaye.
The play has started.
Ha par ijpa boy poys.
The car started up immediately.
At ijba ata tyal.
I started my meal.
Ha tyal ijbwa jwa.
The meal was started early.
Ha dezun ujaye.
The play has ended.
Ata yex ujpaye.
My work has come to an end.
A ujba ha dyes.
I finished the book.
Ha dyes hyoj ujbwa.
The book never got finished.
Ha tob toja zomoj.
The man died yesterday evening.
Ha tob tojpa.
The man dropped dead.
Hot tojba ha twob?
Who killed the man?
Ha twob tojbwa bey ita tayd.
The man was killed by his wife.
Teju.
Live!.
Tejpu!.
Come alive!.
Yat efe tejber ha twob.
We need to revive the man.
Ha twob yofwa tejbwer.
The man could not be revived.
Ha tobot taja zojub.
The baby was born yesterday.
Hoj ha tobot tajpo?
When will the baby pop out?
Iyt tajba awa twobot zojub.
She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.
Ha twobot tajbwa jo eymoj.
The baby boy was birthed after midnight.
At tija jwe.
I woke up on time.
It voy tijpa.
He did not come to..
At tijbo et jwa.
I will wake (you) up early.
At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa.
I don't want to be woken too early.
At tujeya.
I was sleeping.
At tujpeya.
I was falling sleep.
At tujbo it.
I will put (him) to sleep..
Ha tobot tujbwo glojo.
The baby will be put to sleep soon.

Reflexive Verbs[edit | edit source]

Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.:
  • At tujboye aut.....I am going to kill myself.
  • Tru eut!....Know thyself!
  • It gobla iut bey goblar.....He cut himself with a knife.
  • Ot yefe yuxer out.....One must help oneself.
Sometimes, verbs incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix:
  • uttujber....commit suicide (= self-kill)
  • utboler....support oneself (= self-support)
  • utdider....wonder (= self ask)
Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.:
  • Et efe vyilxer eut.....You need to wash up [= wash yourself]. (or)
  • Et efe utvyilxer.....You need to wash up [= self-wash].

Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs[edit | edit source]

Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object.
Inherent Propositions
PREPOSITION-INCORPORATING VERB EXAMPLE
per....go (to) Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home.
It pa Paris.....He went to Paris.
der....say (to), tell Du at eta dyun.....Tell me your name.
Du at has.....Tell it to me.
peser....wait (for) Pesu at.....Wait for me.
buer....give (to) Buu at hua dyes.....Give me that book.
As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu at hus.....Give me that. or Buu hus bu at.....Give that to me. See more about this in the chapter on Syntax.

Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs[edit | edit source]

Derived from Adjectives[edit | edit source]

Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, while an inchoative verb means to become or take on the quality of something. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize.
To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix xer....to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer.
-axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs
ADJECTIVE CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE
-xer LITERAL IDIOMATIC
aga
big
agaxer
to magnify
agxer
to grow
ana
one
anaxer
to unify
anxer
to unite
yona
apart
yonaxer
to separate
yonxer
to cut
yaga
long
yagaxer
to lengthen
yagxer
to stretch
yuga
slow
yugaxer
to retard
yugxer
to brake
sana
formal
sanaxer
to formalize
sanxer
to form
gea
equal
geaxer
to equalize
gexer
to copy, equate
jaa
prior
jaaxer
to prioritize
jaxer
to prepare
To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser....to be to either the stem or the whole adjective.
Creating Inchoative Verbs
ADJECTIVE INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE
-ser LITERAL IDIOMATIC
aga
big
agaser
to get bigger
agser
to grow
ana
one
anaser
to unify
anser
to unite, become united
yona
apart
yonaser
to become separate
yonser
to break


Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.:
  • Ansu ey yet golxwo.....Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE]
  • At yontadsa hoj at sa eta jag.....I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE]
  • Hisi agaxo hos et teate.....These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE]
  • Hia tud agseye ig.....This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE]
  • Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom.....My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE]

Derived from Nouns[edit | edit source]

Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X.
Verbs Derived from Nouns
NOUN TRANSITIVE/CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE INTRANSITIVE/INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE
mog....ash mogxer
to incinerate
mogser
to become ashes
yan....collection yanxer
to collect
yanser
to get together
tad....spouse tadxer
to marry
tadser
to get married
yom....ice yomxer
to freeze/make ice
yomser
to freeze/become ice
mag....fire magxer
to burn, set fire to
magser
to burn, get burned
uk....void ukxer
to empty
ukser
become empty, empty out

Intermediary Causative Verbs[edit | edit source]

Intermediary verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix -ux- (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.:
  • At gorbuxo ata tayeb zamaj.....I will get my hair cut tomorrow.
  • Et voy yafe puxer at.....You cannot make me go.
  • It tojbuxa yit.....He had them killed.
  • At efe vyilxuxer ata par.....I need to have my car washed.
  • Et upuxwa him hesav.....You were made to come here for some reason.
  • At bakambuxo et.....I will have you hospitalized.
  • Et voy yafe deuzuxer at.....You cannot make me sing.
  • At hihiduxwa.....I was tickled (= made to laugh).
  • Eta deuz hihiduxa yat.....Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)
  • Van het ivasuxu weti.....May someone get you guys to be happy.
  • Hua enzyukpur uzpuxa ha pur.....That motorcycle caused the car to veer.

Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs[edit | edit source]

The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix -i- for an action or motion toward the speaker and -u- for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.:
Directional Verbs
SUBJECT-DIRECTED PATIENT-DIRECTED
bier....to take buer....to give
nier....to consume nuer....to supply
nyier....to order nyuer....to deliver
nunier....to buy nunuer....to sell
nazunier....win a prize nazunuer....award a prize
noysier....pay off noysuer....charge
ojbier....borrow ojbuer....lend
tadier....get married taduer....marry off
papier....take flight papuer....send off flying
pipier....set sail pipuer....dock
simbier....take a seat simbuer....offer a seat
tampier....leave home tampuer....arrive home
tamier....settle in tamuer....shelter
nuxbier....to buy nixbuer....to sell
telier....to eat teluer....to feed
gonbier....to participate gonbuer....to share
tilier....to drink tiluer....to ply with drink
teubier....to swallow teubuer....to spit out
teatier....to observe, watch teatuer....to show
taxier....to memorize taxuer....to remind
alier....to breathe in aluer....to breathe out, expire
ilier....to absorb iluer....to pour
ifier....to enjoy ifuer....to please
dier....to ask duer....to suggest
tier....to learn tuer....to inform
pier....to depart puer....to arrive
kebier....to choose kebuer....to distribute
byier....to originate byuer....to target
mempier....to take off mempuer....to land
sinier....visualize sinuer....display
xier....to result xuer....to cause
yifier....to get up the courage yifuer....to encourage, challenge
yafonier....to gain power yafonuer....to empower
trier....to become acquainted with truer....to acquaint with, introduce to
tepizier....to pay attention to tepizuer....to draw attention to
In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix -ui- (a hybrid form) is used, eg.:
  • nunier ....to purchase (subject-directed)
  • nunuer....to sell (patient-directed)
  • nunuier....to trade (subject & patient-directed)
  • tier....to learn, realize (subject-directed)
  • tuer....to inform, tip off (patient-directed)
  • tuier....to communicate (subject & patient-directed)
  • alier....to breathe in, inhale (subject-directed)
  • aluer....to breathe out, exhale (patient-directed)
  • aluier....to breathe, respire (subject & patient-directed)
  • bier ....to take (subject-directed)
  • buer....to give (patient-directed)
  • buier....to give and take, exchange (subject & patient-directed)

Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes[edit | edit source]

Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate to p before the verb per....to go and a preposition ending in b will lose the b before a verb beginning with b. Here are some examples:
Verb Prepositional Prefixes
PREPOSITION/ADVERB TRANSITIVE VERB INTRANSITIVE VERB
ab....on aber....apply aper....get on, mount
ob....off ober....remove oper....get of, dismount
eb....between eber....block eper....intervene
yab....up yaber....raise yaper....rise
yob....down yober....take down yoper....descend
yub....near yuber....bring near yuper....approach
yib....far yiber....take away yiper....go far away
yeb....in yeber....insert yeper....enter
yeb....in yepuxer....throw in yepuser....jump in
oyeb....out oyeber....expose oyeper....exit
oyeb....out oyepuxer....eject oyepuser....jump out
zyu....round zyuber....rotate zyuper....revolve
zya....throughout zyaber....spread zyaper....tour
av....for avdaler....plead avper....pursue
ov....against ovber....oppose ovper....countervene
yan....together yanber....compose yanper....meet
yon....apart yonber....separate yonper....separate
iz....direct izber....lead izper....head
uz....curved uzber....divert uzper....diverge
yuz....around yuzbexer....surround yuzper....circulate
yiz....beyond yizber....transfer yizper....surpass
zoy....back, re- zoyber....return zoyper....go back

Verbs with Other Semantics-altering Prefixes[edit | edit source]

As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics:

Expressing re- with zoy- or gaw-[edit | edit source]

The prefix zoy-....back or gaw-1....again are used like the English prefix re-, eg.:
  • ember....to positionzoyember....to reposition, replace
  • buer....to givezoybuer....to return (an object), give back
  • sanxer....to shape, formzoysanxer....to reshape, reform, transform
  • zyauber....to broadcastgawzyauber....to re-broadcast
  • taja....borngawtaja....reborn
  • aber....to applygawaber....to reapply
  • uper....to comezoyuper....to return (come back)
  • teaper....to visitgawteaper....to revisit
  • uper....to comezoyuper....to return, come back
  • buxer....to pushzoybuxer....to repel, push back
  • puxer....to throwzoypuxer....to reject, throw back, jettison
Note 1: The prefix gaw- before a consonant is pronounced like the gaw in the English word gawk. It is short for ga awa jod or gawa meaning one more time, again. If the "re-" word means to do something again, then gaw- is used, eg. To reconvene ( = meet again)....gawyanuper If the sense of back is intended, than the prefix zoy- is used, eg. To return ( = come back)....zoyuper. Both prefixes are used in the expression Come back again!....Gawzoyupu!.

Until we meet again. is expressed by Ju van yat gawyanupo.

Expressing de-, dis-, un- with lo-[edit | edit source]

The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.:
  • saxer....to build, constructlosaxer....to destroy, deconstruct
  • anxer....to uniteloanxer....to disunite
  • xer....to doloxer....to undo
Note the difference between o- and lo-.
  • odoparuwa....unarmed (= not armed)
  • lodoparuwa....disarmed (= from the verb lodoparuer....to disarm)

Expressing co- with yan-[edit | edit source]

The prefix yan-....together is used as the English co-, eg.:
  • exer....to operateyanexer....to cooperate
  • tamer....to dwellyantamer....to cohabit
  • napber....to put in orderyannapber....to coordinate

Making Verbs Completive with ik-[edit | edit source]

Verbs can be made completive by prefixing them with ik- (fully). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with up and other prepositions as in to eat up. Here are some examples in Mirad:
  • tojber....to killiktojber....to kill off, exterminate
  • telier....to eatiktelier....to eat up
  • ujber....to finishikujber....to finish off/up
  • gofler....to ripikgofler....to rip up
  • drer....to writeikdrer....to write down
  • byexer....to beatikbyexer....to beat up

Making Verbs Continuative with je-[edit | edit source]

Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix je-:
  • daler....to talkjedalar....to go on talking, to blabber
  • tejer....to livejetejer....to go on living, to survive
  • yexer....to workjeyexer....to go on working, to keep working
  • teaxer....to lookjeteaxer....to watch
  • teexer....to listenjeteexer....to keep listening, to pay attention
  • duler....to insistjeduler....to nag

Making Verbs Inchoative with ij-[edit | edit source]

Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix ij-:
  • texer....to thinkijtexer....to start to think
  • ifier....to enjoyijifier....to start liking
  • tyer....to knowijtyer....to get to know

Making Verbs Terminative with uj-[edit | edit source]

Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix uj-:
  • telier....to eatujtelier....to finish eating
  • dyeer....to readujdyeer....to finish reading
  • ufteuder....to complainujufteuder....to quit carping

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with if-[edit | edit source]

  • tyoper....to walkiftyoper....to stroll
  • tuyuxer....to fingeriftuyuxer....to tickle
  • teaxer....to lookifteaxer....to ogle (voyeuristically)
  • piper....to sailifpiper....to go cruising
  • teuder....to shoutifteuder....to laugh

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with uf-[edit | edit source]

  • tosier....to feeluftosier....to get angry
  • eker....to playufeker....to fight
  • der....to sayufder....to express displeasure
  • aluer....to exhaleufaluer....to huff
  • daler....to talkufdaler....to rant

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with of-[edit | edit source]

  • bier....to takeofbier....to steal
  • deler....to declareofdeler....to ban
  • yeper....to enterofyeper....to intrude, break in
  • zeyper....to crossofzeyper....to transgress, poach
  • gelxer....to copyofgelxer....to pirate, plagiarize
  • bekuluer....to administer medicineofbekuluer....to dope
  • nuxuer....to payofnuxuer....to bribe, pay off, suborn

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with fya-[edit | edit source]

  • bexler....to keepfyabexler....to enshrine
  • buer....to givefyabuer....to sacrifice
  • der....to sayfyader....to bless
  • daler....to speakfyadaler....to preach, sermonize
  • diler....to requestfyadiler....to pray
  • deuzer....to singfyadeuzer....to chant
  • ifrer....to love dearlyfyaifrer....to worship, adore
  • jader....to predictfyajader....to prophesy
  • miluer....to sprinklefyamiluer....to sprinkle with holy water
  • ojvader....to promisefyaojvader....to swear
  • xeler....to practicefyaxeler....to celebrate
  • koser....to hidefyakoser....to go on a retreat, go into hermitage
  • teazer....perform a showfyateazer....to perform a miracle

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with fyo-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to sayfyoder....to curse
  • diler....to requestfyodiler....to conjure
  • tyezer....to perform magicfyotezer....to engage in black magic
  • xer....to dofyoxer....to sin

Expressing Good Actions with fi-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to sayfider....to praise
  • fer....to wantfifer....to mean well
  • xer....to dofixer....to do well
  • yaker....to expectfiyaker....to hope
  • yuxer....to helpfiyuxer....to benefit

Expressing Bad Actions with fu-[edit | edit source]

  • yevder....to judgefuyevder....to critique negatively
  • fer....to wantfufer....to will ill
  • der....to sayfuder....to badmouth
  • napxer....to arrangefunapxer....to mess up
  • yuxer....to helpfuyuxer....to abuse

Expressing More Intense Actions with az-[edit | edit source]

  • yujber....to closeazyujber....to lock
  • der....to sayazder....to emphasize
  • duer....to suggestazduer....to urge
  • dizeuder....to laughazdizeuder....to guffaw

Expressing Less Intense Actions with oz-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to utterozder....to whisper
  • duer....to suggestozduer....to hint
  • dizeuder....to laughozdizeuder....to chuckle
  • uvteuder....to moanozuvteuder....to whimper
  • tyoper....to walkoztyoper....to limp

Expressing pre-, fore- with ja-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to telljader....to foretell, predict
  • teater....to seejateater....to foresee, preview
  • ter....to knowjater....to presage, have foreknowledge of
  • yever....to judgejayever....to prejudge
  • juder....to datejajuder....to antedate

Expressing post-, after- with jo-[edit | edit source]

  • juder....to datejojuder....to postdate
  • texer....to thinkjotexer....to reflect on, review
  • uvder....to express sadnessjouvder....to mourn, regret
  • ibler....to obtainjoibler....to inherit

Expressing excessively with gra-[edit | edit source]

  • telier....to eatgratelier....to overeat
  • fer....to wantgrafer....to covet
  • der....to saygrader....to exaggerate
  • daler....to talkgradaler....to yammer

Expressing inadequately with gro-[edit | edit source]

  • fyinder....to valuegrofyinder....to underestimate
  • mageler....to cookgromageler....to undercook
  • xaer....to performgroxaer....to underperform

Expressing counter-, contra- with ov- or oyv-[edit | edit source]

  • axler....to actovaxler....to counteract
  • apyexer....to attackovapyexer....to counterattack
  • daler....to speakovdaler....to oppose
  • der....to sayoyvder....to contradict
  • ber....to putoyvber....to reverse, overturn
  • texer....to thinkoyvtexer....to contest, disagree
  • per....to gooyvper....to contravene

Expressing on behalf, for with av-[edit | edit source]

  • axler....to actavaxler....to act on behalf of
  • daler....to speakavdaler....to advocate, speak on behalf of

Making Verbs Reflexive with ut- (self-, auto-)[edit | edit source]

  • tojber....to killuttojber....to commit suicide
  • vyovider....to flatterutvyovider....to flatter oneself
  • zaypuxwer....to be propelledutzaypuxwer....to be self-propelled
  • fider....to praiseutfider....to brag
  • gober....to decrementutgober....to autodecrement

Making Verbs Reciprocal with hyuit- (one another)[edit | edit source]

  • tojber....to killhyuittojber....to kill one another
  • ifer....to lovehyuitifer....to love one another

Expressing inter-, intra- with eb- (between)[edit | edit source]

  • tadier....to marryebtadier....to intermarry
  • zyaber....to spreadebzyaber....to intersperse
  • vyexer....to relateebvyexer....to interrelate

Expressing the Opposite of an Action with o- (un-)[edit | edit source]

  • bexler....to keepobexler....to release, let go of
  • aynser....to integrateoaynser....to disintegrate, to decay
  • beler....to carryobeler....to drop
  • bier....to takeobier....to leave, relinquish
  • boser....to be quietoboser....to be upset
  • drer....to writeodrer....to erase
Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix o-, then the prefix is changed to ol-, eg. obexler....to releaseolobexwa....to unreleased

Expressing a Public or Official Action with do-[edit | edit source]

Do- is a stub for dot (society).
  • afder....to allowdoafder....to authorize
  • bier....to takedobier....to conquer, take over, take control of
  • tojber....to killdotojber....to execute
  • buer....to givedobuer....to dedicate
  • daler....to speakdodaler....to orate, speak in public
  • deler....to declaredodeler....to announce
  • drer....to writedodrer....to publicize, report

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with vya-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to sayvyader....to avow, be frank
  • ber....to set, putvyaber....to control
  • napxer...to arrange, ordervyanapxer....to adjust
  • kexer....to seekvyakexer....to investiage
  • tuer....to informvyatuer....to advise

Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with vyo-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to sayvyoder....to lie, to misstate
  • tester....to understandvyotester....to misunderstand
  • tuer....to informvyotuer....to misinform, to deceive
  • xer....to dovyoxer....to do wrong, fail, misdo
  • yuxler....to servevyoyuxler....to betray, to serve unfaithfully

Making Verbs Positive with va-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to sayvader....to affirm
  • texer....to thinkvatexer....to believe
  • yeker....to expectvayeker....to presume
  • bier.....to takevabier....to accept

Making Verbs Negative with vo-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to sayvoder....to deny
  • texer....to thinkvotexer....to doubt
  • yeker....to expectvoyeker....to rule out
  • bier.....to takevobier....to reject

Making Verbs Suppositional with ve-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to sayveder....to conjecture
  • texer....to thinkvetexer....to suppose, hypothesize
  • yovder....to blameveyovder....to indict, accuse

Speeding up Verbs with ig-[edit | edit source]

  • pier....to leaveigpier....to flee
  • pyoser....to dropigpyoser....to plummet
  • tyoper....to walkigtyoper....to run
  • yeper....to enterigyeper....to rush in

Slowing up Verbs with ug-[edit | edit source]

  • paser....to moveugpaser....to amble
  • teaxer....to lookugteaxer....to gaze
  • ilper....to flowugilper....to trickle
  • tilier....to drinkugtilier....to sip

Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with yok-[edit | edit source]

  • baxer....to stiryokbaxer....to startle
  • hihider....to laughyokhihider....to burst out laughing
  • teaser....to appearyokteaser....to suddenly appear
  • yoktojer....to dieyoktojer....to drop dead

Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with kyo-[edit | edit source]

  • byaser....to standkyobyaser....to stand still
  • kexer....to seekkyokexer....to hound, stalk
  • teaxer....to lookkyoteaxer....to stare, glare
  • texer....to thinkkyotexer....to obsess with, fixate on

Expression the Notion of Randomness with kye-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to saykyeder....to guess, divine
  • per....to perkyeper....to fluctuate
  • poper....to travelkyepoper....to wander
  • napxer....to orderkyenapxer....to scramble
  • bier....to takekyebier....to select

Expressing the Notion of Change with kya-[edit | edit source]

  • baser....to make a movekyabaser....to shift
  • sanxer....to formkyasanxer....to transform
  • xer....to do/makekyaxer....to change
  • napxer....to orderkyanapxer....to shuffle
  • dyanxer....to phrasekyadyanxer....to paraphrase

Expressing Covert Actions with ko-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putkober....to hide
  • beler....to carrykobeler....to smuggle
  • bier....to takekobier....to steal
  • ebkyaxer....to exchangekoebkyaxer....to traffic
  • exer....to operatekoexer....to spy, operate under cover
  • fler....to wish forkofler....to covet, be jealous of
  • apyexer....to attackkoapyexer....to ambush, to sneak-attack
  • loexer....to destroykoloexer....to sabotage

Expressing Actions with Intentionality with ke-[edit | edit source]

  • teaxer....to lookketeaxer....to scan
  • vyaxer....to provekevyaxer....to experiment
  • tier....to learnketier....to be interested in

Expressing Lateral Actions with ku-[edit | edit source]

  • buxer....to pushkubuxer....to rebuff, shun
  • der....to saykuder....to comment, remark
  • tyoper....to stepkutyoper....to step aside

Expressing Near Actions with yub-[edit | edit source]

  • der....to sayyubder....to intimate, hint
  • gexer....to equateyubgexer....to approximate
  • bixer....to pullyu(b)bixer....to attract, draw near
  • teaxer....to lookyubteaxer....to scrutinize, examine

Expressing Distance Actions with yib- (far, tele-)[edit | edit source]

  • drer....to writeyibdrer....to wire, telegraph
  • bixer....to pullyi(b)bixer....to distract
  • tuier....to communicateyibtuier....to telecommunicate
  • nyuxer....to deliveryibnyuxer....to mail, post

Expressing up-, super- with yab-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putya(b)ber....to raise, to put up
  • bixler....to dragya(b)bixler....to dredge up
  • uper....to comeyabuper....to come up
  • nogyanxer....to scaleyabnogyanxer....to scale up, escalate

Expressing down-, sub- with yob-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putyo(b)ber....to lower, put down
  • kyaber....to shiftyobkyaxer....to downshift
  • musper....to climbyobmusper....to climb down
  • nogyanxer....to scaleyobnogyanxer....to downscale

Expressing in- with yeb-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putye(b)ber....to insert, put in
  • beler....to carryye(b)beler....to import
  • uzber....to bendyebuzber....to inflect
  • yujber....to closeyebyujber....to enclose, include

Expressing out-, ex-, extra- with oyeb-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putoye(b)ber....to put out, expose
  • beler....to carryoye(b)beler....to export
  • uber....to sendoyebuber....to emit, send out
  • yujber....to closeoyebyujber....to exclude

Expressing pro-, forward with zay-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putzayber....to advance, put forward
  • kexer....to seekzaykexer....to scout out
  • puxer....to throwzaypuxer....to propel, thrust
  • tyoper....to walkzaytyoper....to progress, to walk forward

Expressing back-, retro-, re- with zoy-[edit | edit source]

  • uber....to sendzoyber....to send back
  • kixer....to bendzoykixer....to reflect
  • puxer....to throwzoypuxer....to repel
  • neadper....to trackzoyneadper....to backtrack

Expressing across, trans-, over-, cross- with zey-[edit | edit source]

  • per....to gozeyper....to cross, transit
  • beler....to carryzeybeler....to transport, convey
  • drer....to writezeydrer....to transcribe
  • kyober....to fixzeykyober....to transfix, transplant
  • vyayeker....to checkzeyvyayeker....to crosscheck

Expressing through, per- with zye-[edit | edit source]

  • per....to gozyeper....to permeate, get through
  • kexer....to seekzyekexer....to rummage, sift through
  • drer....to writezyedrer....to cross out, draw a line through
  • iluer....to pourzyeiluer....to soak
  • koper....to sneakzyekoper....to sneak through

Expressing all over, widely, all about with zya-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putzyaber....to spread
  • buer....to givezyabuer....to distribute
  • ijber....to openzyaijber....to open wide
  • nuxer....to payzyanuxer....to disburse
  • puxer....to throwzyapuxer....to scatter, cast about

Expressing mid-, center with ze-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putzeber....to balance
  • byaser....to standzebyaser....to straddle
  • der....to sayzeder....to interject
  • pyoser....to fallzepyoser....to sag
  • poxer....to stopzepoxer....to interrupt

Expressing futurity with oj-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putojber....to put off, postpone
  • bier....to takeojbier....to borrow
  • fer....to wantojfer....to wish, aspire
  • texer....to thinkojtexer....to plan
  • teater....to seeojteater....to envision
  • vader....to affirmojvader....to promise

Expressing past with aj-[edit | edit source]

  • ber....to putajber....to pass, relegate to the past
  • der....to sayajder....to evoke, hearken, recount
  • embier....to occupyajembier....to haunt
  • texer....to thinkajtexer....to reminisce, to reflect
  • uvtosder....to express sadnessajuvtosder....to apologize
  • nexer....to storeajnexer....to archive

Expressing present with ej-[edit | edit source]

  • buer....to giveejbuer....to present
  • eser....to existejeser....to attend, to be present
  • nuxer....to payejnuxer....to pay cash
  • tuer....to informejtuer....to update
  • uvtosder....to express sadnessejuvtosder....to apologize

Expressing a stretched out action with yag- (long)[edit | edit source]

  • beser....to stayyagbeser....to linger
  • bexer....to holdyagbexer....to conserve, preserve
  • daler....to talkyagdaler....to ramble
  • dodaler....to orateyagdodaler....to harangue
  • fer....to wantyagfer....to yearn, pine
  • teaxer....to lookyagteaxer....to stare
  • fer....to wantyagfer....to yearn, pine

Expressing a brief action with yog- (short)[edit | edit source]

  • drer....to writeyogdrer....to abbreviate
  • teaxer....to lookyogteaxer....to glance at
  • tujer....to sleepyogtujer....to snooze, nap
  • gobler....to cutyoggobler....to cut short, truncate

Some Hybrid Prefixes[edit | edit source]

The prefix kui- is a hybrid of ku- (lateral) and ki- (diagonal)

  • per....to gokuiper....to wobble
  • tyoper....to walkkuityoper....to limp

The prefix zao- is a truncated hybrid of zay- (forward) and zoy- (backwards), eg:

  • baser....to movezaobaser....to rock
  • per....to gozaoper....to alternate
  • beler....to carrykuibeler....to shuttle, ferry
  • pyoser....to fallkuipyoser....to pendulate

The prefix yaob- is a hybrid of yab- (up) and yob- (down). The final b- is assimilated or dropped before a b or p.

  • baser....to moveyaobaser....to bob
  • per....to goyaoper....to heave
  • beler....to carryyaobeler....to shuttle, ferry
  • peper....to rideyaopeper....to jounce
  • puser....to jumpyaopuser....to hop, bounce

The prefix bui- is a hybrid of bu- (to) and bi- (from), eg:

  • drer....to writebuidrer....to correspond
  • -er....to xbuier....to trade
  • beler....to carrybuibeler....to shuttle, ferry
  • xer....to dobuixer....to push and pull, spring
  • poper....to travelbuipoper....to travel to and fro, travel round trip

The prefix uiz- is a hybrid of uz- (crooked) and iz- (straight), eg:

  • drer....to writeuizdrer....to squiggle
  • der....to sayuizder....to equivocate
  • baser....to moveuizbaser....to wiggle, to squirm
  • per....to gouizper....to careen, reel
  • paser....to moveuizpaser....to swerve, yaw

The prefix zui- is a hybrid of zu- (left) and zi- (right), eg:

  • drer....to writeuizdrer....to squiggle
  • buxer....to pushzuibuxer....to push around
  • baser....to movezuibaser....to sway, totter
  • per....to gozuiper....to zigzag
  • pasler....to shakezuipasler....to wobble

The prefix aoyeb- is a hybrid of (a)yeb- (in) and oyeb- (out), eg:

  • ber....to putaoyeber....to insert and extract
  • tiexer....to breatheaoyetiexer....to breath in and out
  • paper....to flyaoyepaper....to fly in and out

The prefix aob- is a hybrid of ab- (on) and ob- (off), eg:

  • ber....to putaober....to put on and off
  • per....to goaoper....to get on and off, embark and disembark

The prefix vao- is a hybrid of va- (yes) and vo- (no), eg:

  • der....to sayvaoder....to decide
  • daler....to talkvaodaler....to waffle
  • duder....to answervaoduder....to answer yes or no
  • kyaxer....to changevaokyaxer....to redact
  • texer....to thinkvaotexer....to deliberate, vacillate

The prefix uij is a hybrid of uj- (end) and ij- (begin)

  • ber....to putuijber....to switch off and on
  • daler....to talkuijdaler....to stutter

The prefix yuij is a hybrid of yuj- (close) and yij- (open)

  • ber....to putyuijber....to open and close, blink

The prefix huim is a hybrid of hum (there) and him (there)

  • paper....to flyhuimpaper....to fly here and yon
  • per....to gohuimper....to wander
  • kexer....to seekhuimkexer....to search high and low

Different Nuances of teaxer with Prefixes[edit | edit source]

  • teaxer....to look, behold, regard
  • aybteaxer....to supervise, look over
  • ajteaxer....to look back on (retrospect)
  • eynteaxer....to squint
  • fizteaxer....to respect
  • fuzteaxer....to disrespect
  • gawteaxer....to review, re-look
  • hyuitteaxer....to look at one another
  • ibteaxer....to ignore
  • igteaxer....to glance, glimpse
  • ifteaxer....to marvel at
  • izteaxer....to view directly, confront, aim
  • jateaxer....to preview
  • jeteaxer....to watch, observe
  • joteaxer....to review
  • kateaxer....to look for
  • keteaxer....to scan
  • kiteaxer....to look askance
  • koteaxer....to peek, spy
  • kozyeteaxer....to peep
  • kozyoteaxer....to peer
  • kuteaxer....to observe
  • kyeteaxer....to browse
  • kyoteaxer....to stare, glare
  • oteaxer....to ignore, overlook
  • ufteaxer....to glare, leer
  • ugteaxer....to gaze
  • yagteaxer....to gape, gawk
  • yebteaxer....to inspect
  • yibteaxer....to view from afar
  • yogteaxer....to glance at
  • yokteaxer....to get a glimpse of
  • yubteaxer....to examine
  • yuibteaxer....to look near and far
  • yuzteaxer....to look around, circumspect
  • yanteaxer....to view together
  • yizteaxer....to look beyond, overlook
  • vyateaxer....to investigate, check out
  • vyoteaxer....to view wrongly
  • zateaxer....to face, confront
  • zayteaxer....to look ahead, expect
  • zoyteaxer....to look back
  • zeyteaxer....to look across
  • ziteaxer....to look to the right
  • zuteaxer....to look to the left
  • zuiteaxer....to look right and left
  • zyateaxer....to look all over, survey
  • zyeteaxer....to look through, peruse
  • zyoteaxer....to squint
  • yobteaxer....to look down
  • yaobteaxer....to look up and down
  • zaoteaxer....to look back and forth
  • yabteaxer....to look up
  • yubketeaxer....to pry
  • uzteaxer....to look indirectly at
  • oyebteaxer....to look out
  • ojteaxer....to peer into the future
  • marteaxer....to star-gaze
  • tabteaxer....to autopsy

Modal Verbs[edit | edit source]

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc.

Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs[edit | edit source]

Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples:
  • I want to go.
  • You must wait.
  • You may stay.
  • I dare say.
Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad:
Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs
TYPE POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Permission afer....may
ayfer....might
ofer....may not
oyfer....might not
Ability yafer....can yofer....cannot
Need efer....need to
Obligation yefer....must
yeyfer....should
oyefer....must not
oyeyfer....should not
Desire fer....want to
Enjoyment ifer....love to, enjoy
iyfer....like to
ufer....hate to
uyfer....dislike to
Courage yifer....dare to yufer....be afraid to, fear
Liberty yiver....have a right to, be free to yuver....be bound to, be supposed to
Expectation yaker....expect to yoker....be surprised to
Conation yeker....try to
These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples:
  • At fe ter.....I want to know.
  • Wit yifa yeper.....He dared to enter.
  • Yat yafe teater yet.....We can see you.
  • Duven et yaka aker?....Did you expect to win?
  • Diwe yeku xer ga fi.....Please try to do better.
If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples:
  • At fe per.....I want to go.
  • At fu per.....I would like to go.
  • Et yafe aker.....You can win.
  • Et yafu aker.....You could win.
  • Yet yefe iper.....You must leave.
  • Yet yefu iper.....You ought to leave.
Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example:
  • At ife et. ....I love you.
  • At iyfe et. ....I like you.
  • Et yefe iper.....You must leave.
  • Et yeyfe iper.....You should leave.
  • Iyt yafe aker.....She can win.
  • Iyt yayfe aker.....She might win.
  • At ufa uda tuz.....I hated that art.
  • At uyfa uda tuz.....I disliked that art.
The use of l and r intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg:
  • Et yuve puer jwe.....You are supposed to arrive on time.
  • Et yuvle tepzexer.....You have to pay attention.
  • Et yuvre buer nas.....You absolutely must give money.
  • At yeka ser yeva.....I tried to be fair.
  • At yekla ujber jwa.....I strove to finish early.
  • At yekra nixer ga nas.....I struggled (= worked hard)) to earn more money.
  • Iyt ife eker zyun.....She loves to play ball.
  • Iyt ifla teater et.....She was delighted to see you.
  • Iyt ifre teaper him.....She adores visiting here.
Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries:
  • Et afe oyeper ay ifeker.....You may go out and play.
  • Yat efa tujer.....We needed to sleep.
  • Ot ofe mavier him.....One is prohibited to smoke here.
  • Mavier him ofwe.....Smoking here is prohibited.
  • At ife dyeer.....I love to read.
  • Duven et fe yeper?....Do you want to come in?
  • At fu teaper et edjub.....I would like to visit you some day.
  • It ufaye hyaj teaxwer.....He has always hated being looked at.
  • Duven et iyfe per tilami?....Do you like going to bars?
  • At uyfe tijer gra jwa.....I dislike waking up too early.
  • Et yafe xer hyehos et fu.....You can do whatever you like.
  • Et yefer xer ad vyaas.....You must do the right thing.
  • Et yeyfe voy daler huuyen azay.....You should not talk so loud.
  • At yeyfa ter ga fi.....I should have known better.
  • At voy yifu der hyea fuas.....I would not dare say anything bad.
  • Von yufu der hos et tesde.....Don't be afraid to say what you mean.
  • Et yive dier yevanavdut.....You have a right to ask for a lawyer.
  • Yat voy yuvle kyoejer.....We are not bound to stick around.

Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms[edit | edit source]

All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective yafa....able is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective yafwa....possible is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown:
Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms
MODAL TYPE SUBJECT-ORIENTED SUBJECT-ORIENTED PATIENT-ORIENTED PATIENT-ORIENTED
VERB ADJECTIVE VERB ADJECTIVE
Permission afer
may
afa
allowed
afwer
be permitted
afwa
permissable
Necessity efer
need
efa
needful
efwer
be necessary
efwa
necessary, required
Prohibition ofer
be unallowed
ofa
prohibited
ofwer
be prohibited
ofwa
banned
Possibility yafer
be able
yafa
able
yafwer
be possible
yafwa
possible
Obligation yefer
must
yefa
obliged
yefwer
be obligatory
yefwa
obligatory
Duty yeyfer
should
yeyfa
supposed, duty-bound
yeyfwer
be supposed
yeyfwa
due
Impossibility yofer
be unable
yofa
unable
yofwer
be impossible
yofwa
impossible
Volition fer
want
fa
desirous
fwer
be desirable
fwa
desirable, wanted
Love ifer
love
iyfer
like
ifa
enamored
iyfa
fond
ifwer
be loved
iyfwer
be liked
ifwa
lovable
iyfwa
likeable
Hate ufer
hate
uyfer
dislike
ufa
averse
uyfa
displeased
ufwer
be hated
uyfwer
be disliked
ufwa
odious
unliked
Courage yifer
dare
yifa
daring, brave
yifwer
be safe
yifwa
safe
Fear yufer
be afraid
yufa
afraid
yufwer
be a danger
yufwa
frightening
Joy iver
enjoy
iva
glad
ivwer
be a joy
ivwa
enjoyable
Sorrow uver
be sorry
uva
sorry, sad
uvwer
be a shame
uvwa
regrettable
Examples of subject-oriented forms:
  • At se yafa xer hes.....I am capable of doing anything.
  • Et ofe teater hia dyezun.....You are not allowed/are prohibited to see this film.
  • Duven at afe per hum?....Am I allowed to go there?
  • Yat fu ter eta dyun.....We would like to know your name.
  • Piti ufe beser be mel.....Fish hate to remain on dry land.
  • At ajay ifa dazer.....I once loved to dance.
  • Et se iva, at yife der.....You are beautiful, I dare say.
  • At yeyfa xer has ga ig.....I should have done it sooner.
  • Von yufu; At yupeye.....Fear not; I am coming.
  • Et yefe puer ja eymaj.....You must arrive before noon.
  • Yet yofe daler je ha dezun.....You people must not talk during the performance.
  • Yat yeyfe (= se yeyfa) aker.....We should (= are bound/supposed/due) to win.
  • At ive teater et bakser.....I'm glad to see you get better.
  • Su iva.....Be happy.
  • At uvu (= su uva) teater et iper.....I would be sad to see you leave.
Examples of patient-oriented forms:
  • Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him.....It is permissible to smoke here.
  • Ofwe (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.....It is prohibited to throw litter here.
  • Fwe (= se fwa) van yet dolu.....It is desired that you stop talking.
  • Voy yafwe beser him gajob.....It is not possible to remain here any longer.
  • Yofwa av at ivteuder.....It was not possible for me to laugh.
  • Yefwe van et piu ig.....It is essential that you leave quickly.
  • He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi?....Is it obligatory to remove my shoes?
  • Ga yux efwo.....More help will be needed.
  • Yuxren se ufwa xetyen.....Slavery is an odious practice.
  • Uvwe van wit oka.....It's a shame that he lost.
*lofwa is used for unwanted for disambiguation purposes.

Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems[edit | edit source]

Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below:
Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems
SUBJECT-ORIENTED PATIENT-ORIENTED
afxer....allow (someone to do sthg.) afwaxer....permit (something to be done)
efxer....require efwaxer....necessitate
ofxer....prohibit ofwaxer....prohibit
yafxer....enable yafwaxer....make possible
yefxer....oblige yefwaxer....make obligatory
yofxer....cripple yofwaxer....disable
yifxer....embolden yifwaxer....make safe
yufxer....intimidate yufwaxer....make frightening
ifxer....please ifwaxer....make pleasant

Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes[edit | edit source]

Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things.
Modal Suffixes
Subject-oriented Patient-oriented
-yafa....able to X, -able -yafwa....possible to X
-yofa....unable to X -yofwa....impossible to X
-ifa....fond of Xing, Xophile -ifwa....enjoyable to X
-ufa....averse to Xing, Xophobic -ufwa....unenjoyable to X
-yika....hard of Xing -yikwa....hard to X
-yuka....comfortable/easy Xing -yukwa....easy to X
-yaka....expecting to X yakwa....expected/likely to X
-efa....in need of Xing -efwa....necessary to X
-yefa....obliged to X -yefwa....obligatory/due to X
-yufa....afraid of Xing -yufwa....frightening to X
This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems:
Modals and Orientation
ORIENTATION POSITIVE ADJECTIVE POSITIVE VERB NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE NEGATIVE VERB
Subject teatyafa
able to see, sighted
teatyafer
be able to see
teatyofa
blind
teatyofer
be blind
Patient teatyafwa
visible
teatyafwer
be visible
teatyofwa
invisible
teatyofwer
be invisible
Subject teetyafa
able to hear, hearing
teetyafer
be able to hear
teetyofa
deaf
teatyofer
be deaf
Patient teetyafwa
audible
teetyafwer
be audible
teeyofwa
inaudible
teeyofwer
be inaudiable
Subject dalyafa
able to speak
dalyafer
be able to speak
dalyofa
mute, dumb
dalyofer
be mute, dumb
Subject doabifa
patriotic
doabifer
be patriotic
doabufa
rebellious
doabufer
rebel
Subject tosyafa
sensitive
tosyafer
be able to feel
tosyofa
insensitive
tosyofer
be numbed
Patient tayotyafwa
palpable
tayotyafwer
be palpable
tayotyofwa
numb
tayotyofwer
be impalbable, numb
Patient testyukwa
easy to understand
testyukwaxer
make easily understood
testyikwa
hard to understand
testyikwaxer
make hard to understand
Subject tudyaka
pregnant, expecting
tudyaker
be expecting
Patient mamilyakwa
likely to rain
mamilyakwer
to be expected to rain
mamilyokwa
unlikely to rain
mamilyokwer
to be unlikely to rain
Subject tilefa
thirsty
tilefer
be thirsty
Subject telefa
hungry
telefer
be hungry
Patient tejefwa
vital
tejefwer
be vital
Subject tujefa
sleepy
tujefer
be sleepy
Subject nasefa
poor, needy
nasefer
be needy
Subject dudyefa
accountable, responsible
dudyefer
be responsible
Patient texiyefwa
noteworthy
texiyefwer
be noteworthy

Sensing Verbs[edit | edit source]

Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows:
Sensing Verbs
TYPE teab....eye
teata....visual
teeb....ear
teeta....audial
teib....nose
teita....olfactory
teub....mouth
teuta....gustatory
tayob....skin
tayota....tactile
Receptive
Active
teater
see
teeter
hear
teiter
smell
teuter
taste
tayoter
feel
Receptive
Passive
teatwer
be seen
teetwer
be heard
teitwer
be smelled
teutwer
be tasted
tayotwer
be felt
Stative teaser
seem
teeser
sound
teiser
smell
teuser
taste
tayoser
feel
Dynamic
Active
teaxer
look at
teexer
listen
teixer
sniff
teuxer
taste
tayoxer
touch
Dynamic
Passive
teaxwer
be looked at
teexwer
be listened to
teixwer
be sniffed
teuxwer
be tasted
tayoxwer
be touched
Causative
Active
teatuer
show
teetuer
make hear
teixuer
make smell
teuxuer
offer a taste
tayoxuer
make feel
Causative
Passive
teatuwer
be shown
teetuwer
be made to hear
teituwer
be made to smell
teutuwer
be given a taste
tayotuwer
be made to feel
Inchoative
Active
teatier
perceive,
catch sight of
teetier
catch the
sound of
teitier
get a whiff of
teutuer
get a taste of
tayotier
get the sensation of
Inchoative
Passive
teatiwer
be perceived
teetiwer
be heard
teitiwer
be whiffed
teutiwer
be tasted
tayotiwer
be felt
Negative-Modal
Patient-oriented
Stative
teatyofer
be blind
teetyofer
be deaf
teityofer
be unable to smell
teityofer
be unable to taste
tayotyofer
be insensitive
Negative-Modal
Patient-oriented
Stative
teatyofwer
be invisible
teetyofwer
be inaudible
teityofwer
be undetectable
odorwise
teityofwer
be insipid
tayotyofwer
be undetectable
by touch
Negative-Modal
Patient-oriented
Causative
teatyofxer
blind
teetyofxer
deafen
teityofxer
desensitize
to smell
teutyofxer
desensitize to
taste
tayotyofxer
desensitize
Negative-Modal
Patient-oriented
Causative
teatyofwaxer
make invisible
teetyofwaxer
make inaudible
teityofwaxer
make odorless
teutyofwaxer
render tasteless
tayotyofwaxer
numb
Examples of usage:
  • At teatyofxwa bey ha mani.....I was blinded by the lights.
  • Ha xeus sa teetyofxyea.....The noise was deafening.
  • Hia tit se gla teatiyafa.....This pupil is very perceptive.
  • Hua bekil se teityofwa.....That medicine is odorless (impossible to smell).
  • Teatyofwaxu ha vyuni.....Make the spots invisible.
  • Ha magmeb yonprex tayotyafwa zya ha mir.....The volcano eruption could be felt throughout the world.

Frequentative Verbs[edit | edit source]

Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the infix -eg- placed between the verb stem and verb ending, eg.:
Frequentative Verbs
NORMAL FREQUENTATIVE
pyaser....jump pyaseger....bounce
paper....fly papeger....flitter
kobirer....steal kobireger....pilfer
braser....shake braseger....vibrate
brasea....shaking brasegea....vibrating

Hybridized Verbs[edit | edit source]

Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples:
Frequentative Verbs
FIRST DIRECTION SECOND DIRECTION HYBRIDIZED DIRECTION
pyaser....jump pyoser....fall pyaoser....bounce, undulate
buer....give bier....take buier....exchange
nuer....furnish nier....consume nuier....trade
tuer....inform tier....learn tuier....communicate
yaper....ascend yoper....descend yaoper....go up and down
zayper....go forward zoyper....go back zaoper....vacillate
vader....affirm voder....deny vaoder....decide
yijber....open yujber....close uijber....valve
baser....stir boser....be still baoser....vibrate

Expressing Habitual Actions and States[edit | edit source]

Mirad uses the term gel jubyen (as a habit) to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg:
  • At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.....I used to wake up at 9 o'clock. (Lit. I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.).
The term hyujod....one another occasion (or be aj....in the past) is use to express once (upon a time), eg:
  • At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut. ....I once was a teacher.
The term vyabxelay (routinely) can also be used, eg:
  • Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.....We play music around town routinely.

Expressing an Immediate Past[edit | edit source]

To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence "We have just gotten married.", Mirad uses the adverb ejnay (newly) much like the word just in English:
  • Yat tadsaye ejnay.....We have just gotten married.
  • Ejnay tadxwa.....Just married.
  • Wit dokebiwa ejnay.....He was just elected.
  • At ujbaya yex ejnay hoj iyt yebupa.....I had just finished work when she came in.

Verb Predicate Types[edit | edit source]

Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows:
  • Voice
  • Active (The subject is the doer of the action)
  • Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action)
  • Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient)
  • Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.)
  • Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.)
  • Stativity
  • Stative (Does not involve action)
  • Dynamic (Action is involved)
  • Valency
  • Impersonal (There is no subject)
  • Transitive (There is an object)
  • Intransitive (There is no object)
  • Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent)
  • Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed)
  • Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed)
  • Copula (X is Y)
  • Other
  • Modal (can, must, should, wants to...)
  • Auxiliary (help to, hope to, prepare to + verb)
  • Motion (run, go, ride...)
  • Communication (say, answer, claim that...)
  • Gesture (put, shake, hit...)
  • State/Stative (be, become, live, be born...)
  • Action/Dynamic (do, act, make)
Verb Predicate Types
VOICE STATIVITY VALENCY EXAMPLE
active stative impersonal, -agent, -object Mamilo zajub.....It will rain tomorrow.
active stative impersonal, -agent, +complement Sa gla oma.....It was very cold.
active stative impersonal, +subject Ese het be ha mes.....There is someone at the door.
active stative copula, subject + noun/adjective complement Et se ata twud.....You are my son.
At aseye epyextipa.....I am becoming angry.
middle stative auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object Iyt toja.....She died
middle stative auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object Ha mes yija.....The door opened.
active stative intransitive, +subject -object Et bokso.....You will get sick.
active stative transitive, sense, +subject +object At teate et.....I see you.
active stative transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement At fe per.....I want to go.
active stative intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement Yofwe teater.....It is impossible to see.
passive stative patient-oriented modal, +subject Mamil yakwe.....Rain is expected.
middle dynamic anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object Ha mes yijpa.....The door came open.
active dynamic intransitive, +subject -object Ha fab pyosa.....The tree fell.
active dynamic transitive, +subject +-object Yit pyoxa ha fab.....They felled the tree.
passive dynamic intransitive, +subject, -object Ha fabi pyoxwa.....The trees were felled.
active dynamic transitive, +subject, +object Obu eta tef.....Take your hat off.
active dynamic ditransitive, +subject, +object +object Von et buu iyt ha nas.....Don't give her the money.
active dynamic transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin Yupu ha mees.....Approach the bench.
Pu tam!....Go home! (you implied)
active dynamic causative, +subject +object, +agent At tayegobluxo Jon.....I will get my hair cut by John.
passive dynamic causative, +subject +object, +agent At tayegobluxwo.....I will get my hair cut.
active dynamic auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object Yuxu at xer his.....Help me do this.
passive dynamic auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object At tuxwa eker duz.....I was taught to play music.
middle dynamic reflexive, +subject = patient, -object Iyt uttojba.....She killed herself.
active dynamic reciprocal, +subjects = patients Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.....They don't talk to one another anymore.

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