Cookbook:Sugar
| Sugar | |
|---|---|
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| Category | Sweeteners |
Cookbook | Recipes | Ingredients | Equipment | Techniques | Cookbook Disambiguation Pages | Ingredients | Sweeteners
Sugar or table sugar is a type of sweetener, primarily composed of sucrose.[1][2][3][4] Scientifically, some other sweeteners (e.g. glucose, fructose, maltose, etc.) are also sugars;[5][6][7] in cooking, however, the term "sugar" used without any other modifiers usually does not include these, instead referring only to solid plant extracts containing mostly sucrose.[5][8][9]
Source
[edit | edit source]Not all plants contain sucrose in enough abundance for humans to harvest and process into sugar, but certain grasses, trees, and roots do. Sugarcane, for example, is a tropical grass that contains about 12–14% sucrose, making it extremely suitable for sugar production.[2][10][11] In temperate climates, sugar beets, which today contain about 17% sucrose,[2][7] are the other dominant crop for commercial sugar production.[6][7][11][12] Several tree varieties contain sucrose in their sap. In North America, sugar maples are tapped to produce maple sugar;[2] and, coconut palms, sago palms, palmyra/toddy palms, and date palms can all be tapped to make palm sugar.[1][10][13]
Production
[edit | edit source]Juice extraction
[edit | edit source]The first required step for sugar production is to extract the plant's dissolved sugar in sap (trees/palms) or juice (beets and cane). Trees are tapped to harvest the clear sap,[10] which is low in contaminants like fiber, fat, etc. Sugarcane must be shredded/crushed to extract the juice, sometimes coupled with hot water circulation.[1][6][7][10][14][15] In a similar process, sugar beets are sliced and soaked in hot water to extract the sugar into the liquid and yield a juice.[2][6][10][14]
Clarification
[edit | edit source]Because sugar beet and cane juices contain significantly more contaminants (e.g. protein, gums, tannins, fats) than sap from trees, the juice must be clarified.[1][2] Historically, heating the juice with blood or egg whites caused protein coagulation that would trap impurities and could be skimmed off.[1][10] This is no longer common; the typical modern process involves heating the juice with alkaline lime and sometimes carbon dioxide, causing impurities to be trapped in the calcium carbonate and separate out for removal.[1][2][6][7][10][11][12]
Concentration and crystallization
[edit | edit source]Once sufficiently clarified, the water content of the sap or juice must be reduced to concentrate and crystallize the sugar.[1][11] The simplest way to do so is by boiling the clarified juice down until most of the water has evaporated. Modern productions will use vacuum evaporation systems, which results in the evaporation of water at lower temperatures to save energy and lessen the sugar's chemical degradation from heat.[1][2][6][10][15] After enough water is removed, the sugar is concentrated enough to form crystals, which can be done by stirring or seeding with already-crystallized sugar.[1][6][10][12][15] The resulting product is a thick mixture of sugar crystals and brown syrup (molasses).[10]
Separation
[edit | edit source]After crystallization, the syrupy molasses is separated from the solid sugar crystals. Simply letting the mixture rest and drain will ultimately allow the molasses to run off, though this can take days to weeks and is therefore inefficient.[1] To speed the process, industrial producers transfer the mixture to a centrifuge with a perforated drum;[2][11] as it spins, the molasses largely separates from the solids, leaving behind sugar crystals that are coated with a film of brown and flavorful molasses.[1][6][7] This is true raw sugar.[11][16] Since the molasses often still contains some dissolved sugar, it can be sent back to the crystallization stage, after which the separation is repeated with the new batch of crystals.[6] After each successive recrystallization, the molasses becomes darker, stronger, with less sugar content;[3][7] as a result, it is limited to two or three recrystallizations.[3][7][15] Molasses from sugarcane is edible and used as an ingredient in its own right.[6] Sugar beets, however, produce unpalatable molasses that is not consumed by humans.[6][12]
Refining
[edit | edit source]Raw sugar may undergo further refining steps to reduce impurities and molasses, and full refinement yields extremely high purity sucrose (i.e. white sugar). For less-refined sugar, the raw product may be steam cleaned to remove some of the impurities but still leave enough residual molasses for complex color and flavor.[12][16] For greater refining, the sugar crystals may proceed to affination, where it is mixed with sugar syrup to loosen the molasses coating, and this mixture is then recentrifuged to separate the syrup from the crystals.[2][15] The centrifuged crystals may then be redissolved into a fresh syrup,[2] at which point it can be variously treated to remove further color, flavor, and impurities[15] with clarification, carbon/resin filters, and/or carbon from bone char.[1][6][10][15][17] The final stage is controlled recrystallization and separation from any residual syrup by centrifugation.[1][2][10][15] Each stage of dissolving, crystallization, and centrifugation/washing produces purer sugar;[11] with advanced refinement, white sugar with purities of up to to 99–99.8% can be achieved.[1][8][10][17] A byproduct of sugar refinement is refiner's syrup, which is lighter and milder than molasses.[7]
In some regions, such as the United States, true raw sugar is not permitted for human consumption due to the residual presence of contaminants.[7][12][17] Additionally, beet sugar is never eaten in its raw form due to its unpalable molasses—it has to be completely refined into white sugar,[11] at which point it is so similar to white cane sugar that it is difficult to perceive a difference.[2][16]
Characteristics
[edit | edit source]Color and flavor
[edit | edit source]As described, sugar can be sold in varying degrees of refinement, with less-refined sugar containing more molasses mixed into the sucrose and fully refined sugar containing no molasses.[12] The greater the molasses content, the browner the sugar and the stronger its flavor.[11][12][18] These less-refined sugars have distinctive flavors, varying with the plant source and the growth environment. Fully refined sugar, on the other hand, is pure white, with very little flavor aside from a sweet taste.[10]
Crystallization
[edit | edit source]Sucrose's ability to form crystals (geometrically ordered solids)[7][13][19] is critical to the purification and refinement process, and this crystallization is very relevant in the kitchen as well.[15] When you purchase granulated sugar, it is in small crystals,[13] and these crystals break apart when the sugar is dissolved into water. Because the sugar molecules are separated from each other by the water molecules, it is harder for them to come back together and recrystallize.[14] If you increase the likelihood of the sugar molecules coming together, they are more likely to form crystals;[14] this is why concentrating the sugar solution or agitating it excessively can trigger the formation of crystals.[14][19] It is also why purer solutions of sugar will crystallize more readily.[15] Additionally, once crystals form, these in turn make it more likely for the remaining sugar in the solution to crystallize.[14] This is why adding sugar "seed" crystals to the solution will encourage crystallization.[14]
The formation of crystals in sugar solution can be controlled to a large extent, which is important for achieving desired effects when cooking.[7][13][19] As mentioned, a more concentrated solution of sugar will crystallize more easily.[19] Conversely, adding an invert sugar like glucose or fructose will separate the sucrose molecules from each other, inhibiting crystallization.[19] Heating the sugar solution with some acid will cause some of the sucrose itself to invert into glucose and fructose, achieving the same effect.[19] Agitating the solution while hotter results in larger crystals, and stirring after cooling results in smaller crystals.[19]
If melted sugar cools and solidifies without crystallizing, it forms an amorphous "glass".[13]
Varieties
[edit | edit source]Sugar is available in a huge number of varieties,[20] depending on the source, the degree of processing and refinement, and the physical size and shape.[8][10][21]
Less-refined
[edit | edit source]As the name implies, less-refined sugars come from various stages in the refining process before pure white sugar is reached. Some refer to them as "raw" sugars, though not all less-refined sugars are considered truly raw.[2] Closer to actual raw sugars are whole or noncentrifugal sugars, which are not spun to remove molasses or further refined.[1][7] So-called first crystallization sugars receive partial refinement and no decolorization, leaving them with a small proportion of refiner's syrup and a light golden color.[7] In addition to un- and less-refined sugars that are brown in color, the product brown sugar is made by adding molasses to fully refined white sugar.[8][12][22] The table below lists some varieties of minimally refined sugar.
| Name(s) | Source | Degree of refinement | Description | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sucanat | Sugarcane | Whole/noncentrifugal | Minimal processing; dry, irregular granules that don't readily dissolve; tan to brown in color; can be ground to achieve a uniform consistency.[7][23] | |
| Jaggery, gur | Palm or sugarcane | Whole/noncentrifugal | Boiled in open pans; high moisture content and usually shaped in blocks but sometimes spreadable; brown color with strong complex flavor; common in South and Southeast Asia; can be ground into shakkar or semi-refined into khandsari. [2][5][6][7][9][11][12][18][22] | |
| Panela, piloncillo | Sugarcane | Whole/noncentrifugal | Sold in loaves or cones; medium to dark brown[7][9][10][18][22] | |
| Gula jawa, gula melaka | Coconut palm | Dark brown in color, with crumbly texture; Common in Indonesia and Malaysia.[10][13][18] | ||
| Muscovado, Barbados | Sugarcane | Very minimal refinement | Dark in color with strong flavor and high moisture due to molasses content; can be found in dark and light formulations; small grains.[1][2][6][7][9][12][14][22] | |
| Demerara | Sugarcane | Very minimal refinement | Light brown, with large, coarse, dry crystals; originates with the first crystallization of cane juice.[1][2][4][7][9][10][20] | |
| Turbinado, sugar in the raw | Partially refined through steam cleaning and centrifugation | Coarse and dry grains, light brown to golden color, mild molasses flavor[1][2][7][8][9][12][18][19] |
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Block of jaggery -
Gula jawa -
Piloncillo -
Demerara sugar -
Turbinado sugar -
Brown sugar
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Highly refined (white)
[edit | edit source]Once highly refined into white sugar, the difference between formulations is largely in size, shape, and texture.[3][4] These are detailed below.
| Name(s) | Description |
|---|---|
| Rock | Very hard and opaque, with a rough and rock-like appearance; produced by cooking royal icing in hot sugar syrup; used primarily as decoration.[2][9] |
| Pearl, nib | Compacted granules into shards or rounded chunks; opaque and white; used primarily for decoration and texture.[4][7][14][16][19] |
| Decorating, crystal, sanding | Generally large crystals and for decorating, as the name implies; available in various crystal sizes and various colors of the rainbow; the coarsest of these is crystal sugar; sanding is slightly finer.[2][9][12][16][19] |
| Granulated, regular, table sugar | Dissolves well but retains some crunch; uniform crystalline texture; very common and all-purpose grade; often what is called for if a recipe just lists "sugar" with no other qualifiers.[2][4][5][6][9][14][16][19] |
| Cube, lump | Granulated sugar pressed into cube shapes.[2][10][16] |
| Superfine, ultrafine, caster | Even finer than granulated sugar; good for even aeration, and quick to dissolve even in colder liquids; makes particularly easy-to-handle doughs.[5][6][7][11][12][14][19] |
| Confectioner', icing, powdered | Finest grade of sugar, ground to a powder; ranges from 4X up to 12X, with the latter being the finest grind; often blended with a small percentage of starch to help prevent caking; absorbs moisture very quickly; used for decoration [2][4][5][7][10][14][16][24] |
Selection and storage
[edit | edit source]Select the sugar most appropriate for your application. It is stable at room temperature, though it is ideally stored in an airtight container to prevent it from either drying out or attracting too much moisture.[2][4][5]
Use
[edit | edit source]Evidently, sugar's foremost role is to sweeten dishes,[12][20] which is often a key element of seasoning.[25][26] Brown sugars, however, also contribute a more complex flavor profile, in addition to color, moisture, and some acidity.[4][12] Because a high proportion of sugar reduces water availability to microbes, a sufficiently high sugar content acts as a preservative, though at low levels it can feed beneficial microbes like yeast in baking and brewing.[4][6][12] Texturally, sugar helps keep foods moist by hanging onto water, it interferes with gluten network and water crystal formation, and it helps with aeration when creaming.[12][14][19][21] When cooked sufficiently, sugar caramelizes, changing in flavor and color.[5] It also bulks, stabilizes, alters consistency, decorates, and more.[2][5][9]
Substitution
[edit | edit source]Certain sugars are reasonably interchangeable with each other, though it depends largely on what sugar you're starting out with and the role it plays in your recipe.[5] The more similar the sugars, the simpler the substitution is, with few modifications needed. Demerara and turbinado sugars, for example, are so similar that they can often be swapped one-for-one with minimal to no noticeable effects. However, using a coarse sugar instead of a fine sugar in a delicate dough, for example, will not work well—the coarse sugar will not dissolve properly and will yield an entirely different texture. Swapping white and brown sugars will result in significant flavor and color differences,[4][24] and sometimes textural differences due to varying moisture and acidity.[5] This being said, there is no one right sugar to use—it depends entirely on what you are trying to achieve.[7]
Index
[edit | edit source]Recipes
[edit | edit source]References
[edit | edit source]- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r McGee, Harold (2007-03-20). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-5637-4.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Friberg, Bo (2016-09-13). The Professional Pastry Chef: Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-46629-2.
- ↑ a b c d Research Chefs Association (2016-02-29). Culinology: The Intersection of Culinary Art and Food Science. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-48134-9.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Gisslen, Wayne (2016-09-21). Professional Baking. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-14844-9.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k "The Serious Eats Guide to Sugar". Serious Eats. Retrieved 2025-09-17.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Larousse; Robuchon, Joël (2001). Larousse Gastronomique: The World's Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia. Clarkson Potter. ISBN 978-0-609-60971-2.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Figoni, Paula (2010-11-09). How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-39267-6.
- ↑ a b c d e Greweling, Peter P.; America (CIA), The Culinary Institute of (2012-11-06). Chocolates and Confections: Formula, Theory, and Technique for the Artisan Confectioner. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-42441-4.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Rinsky, Glenn; Rinsky, Laura Halpin (2008-02-28). The Pastry Chef's Companion: A Comprehensive Resource Guide for the Baking and Pastry Professional. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-00955-0.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Davidson, Alan (2014-01-01). Jaine, Tom (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199677337.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Wolke, Robert L.; Parrish, Marlene (2002). What Einstein Told His Cook: Kitchen Science Explained. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-01183-8.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Amendola, Joseph; Rees, Nicole (2003-01-03). Understanding Baking: The Art and Science of Baking. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-44418-3.
- ↑ a b c d e f Vega, Cesar; Ubbink, Job; Linden, Erik van der (2013-08-13). The Kitchen as Laboratory: Reflections on the Science of Food and Cooking. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15345-4.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m The Chefs of Le Cordon Bleu (2011-12-02). Le Cordon Bleu Patisserie and Baking Foundations. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-4390-5713-1.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j deMan, John M.; Finley, John W.; Hurst, W. Jeffrey; Lee, Chang Yong (2018-02-09). Principles of Food Chemistry. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-63607-8.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Labensky, Sarah; Martel, Priscilla; Damme, Eddy Van (2015-01-06). On Baking: A Textbook of Baking and Pastry Fundamentals, Updated Edition. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-388675-7.
- ↑ a b c "4.2: Sugar Refining". Chemistry LibreTexts. 2017-10-01. Retrieved 2025-09-09.
- ↑ a b c d e "How to Use Raw Sugar: Jaggery, Gula Melaka, Panela, and More". Serious Eats. Retrieved 2025-09-17.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m The Culinary Institute of America (CIA) (2015-02-25). Baking and Pastry: Mastering the Art and Craft. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-92865-3.
- ↑ a b c Cauvain, Stanley P. (2017-02-18). Baking Problems Solved. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-08-100768-6.
- ↑ a b Stamm, Mitch (2011-07-01). The Pastry Chef's Apprentice: An Insider's Guide to Creating and Baking Sweet Confections and Pastries, Taught by the Masters. Quarry Books. ISBN 978-1-61058-027-4.
- ↑ a b c d The Culinary Institute of America (CIA) (2011-09-13). The Professional Chef. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-42135-2.
- ↑ Kitchen, America's Test. "What is Sucanat? Facts, Uses & Substitutions | America's Test Kitchen". www.americastestkitchen.com. Retrieved 2025-10-01.
- ↑ a b Provost, Joseph J.; Colabroy, Keri L.; Kelly, Brenda S.; Wallert, Mark A. (2016-05-02). The Science of Cooking: Understanding the Biology and Chemistry Behind Food and Cooking. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-67420-8.
- ↑ Van Wyk, Ben-Erik (2014-09-26). Culinary Herbs and Spices of the World. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-09183-9.
- ↑ Ruhlman, Michael (2008). The Elements of Cooking: Translating the Chef's Craft for Every Kitchen. Black Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-86395-143-2.