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Infobox/Parapsychology
Parapsychology/Print version
Social Sciences
Psychology
Parapsychology
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This book is intended for intermediate readers.

Parapsychology is the academic study of certain types of reported phenomena which cannot be explained by current scientific understanding. These paranormal phenomena are often popularly referred to as psychic, but parapsychology also includes phenomena such as reincarnation, which do not fall under this umbrella. Parapsychology as an academic discipline began in 1882 with the founding of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) in London, England.

The term paranormal describes reported phenomena which cannot be explained by current scientific understanding. Parapsychologists do not study all types of paranormal phenomena, and many parapsychologists specialize in a particular area. Parapsychology does not encompass all paranormal phenomena- examples of excluded ideas include UFOs and cryptozoology. This book seeks to encompass both parapsychological and other paranormal ideologies.

This book uses the word phenomenon for the purposes of objectivity. Proponents and skeptics may use other terms that more closely fit their point of view.

This book is divided into two main sections:

Parapsychology Development stage: 25% (as of 24 January, 2008)(24 January, 2008)

This is the study of unexplained activity centered around people. This includes extra-sensory perception, street light interference, telekinesis, poltergeists etc.

Paranormal Activity Development stage: 25% (as of 21 January, 2008)(21 January, 2008)

This section addresses the paranormal- unexplained events which do not seem to revolve around a particular person. It includes apparitions, hauntings, reincarnation, near-death experiences, etc., and the methods of testing environmental changes surrounding these events.


Parapsychology


Parapsychology is the study of unexplained activity centered around people.

Section Contents

Introduction

Psi is a blanket term referring to all parapsychological phenomenon. It is divided into two types:

  • Psi-Gamma: This refers to cognition, e.g., extrasensory perception and remote viewing.
  • Psi-Kappa: This refers to action, e.g., telekinesis and street light interference.

Parapsychology is considered to be on the fringe of standard science, due to its difficulty in testing and measurement. Demonstrations of parapsychological phenomenon can, however, be observed.

History

The field was created by Joseph Banks "J.B." Rhine, a graduate of both Wooster College and Ohio Northern University in Ohio. He attended graduate school at the University of Chicago in the early 1920s, earning a Master's and Ph.D. in botany. He then attended Harvard University to study psychology with psychologist William McDougall. McDougall left for Duke University in 1927, and Rhine went with him. While at Duke, Rhine attended a lecture by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, and was amazed. He began experimenting with extrasensory perception through psychological tests, and would later test psychokinesis. He continued his studies at Duke for many years, founding the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man in the early 1960s. It was Rhine and McDougall coined the term parapsychology. Today, the FRNM is the Rhine Research Center Institute for Parapsychology, and continues research in parapsychology.

Other terms

Anomalous operation is a term used to describe the use of psi to explain paranormal activity.

Paraphysics is a term of debated definition. It dates back to the late 19th century; however, many varied definitions have been used, and as a term, it is not widely used. A more modern definition differentiates paraphysics and parapsychology by saying the focus is on physics and psychology respectively. However, such a small part of parapsychology extends into physics that it is not studied as a science. bla

Sources

Extrasensory Perception

Extrasensory perception, or ESP, is the ability to acquire information without observing it with one of the five basic senses. There are multiple ways in which it manifests:

  • Clairvoyance or Remote Viewing: The subject experiences a vision an event that they are not a part of, possibly from a far location.
  • Precognition or Retrocognition: The subject not only sees an event that they are not a part of, but one that takes place in a different time. In the event of retrocognition, they experience something from that past that they did not experience when it occurred (which could be before the subject's birth). In precognition, the subject sees into the future, later realizing that they had foreseen the event.
  • Psychometry: The subject obtains information about an individual from an object belonging to that individual.
  • Telepathy: The sending of decipherable messages without the use of the five senses.
  • Out of Body (OOB) Experience or Astral Projection: The subject mentally leaves their body and experiences event occurring at the current time. This often occurs during sleep or lucid dreaming.
  • Mediumship: The ability to communicate with dead spirits.
  • Psychokenisis: The ability to move objects without touch.


Criticisms

All of these facets of ESP are extremely difficult to prove scientifically. For example, should someone claim that they experienced precognition, they could be accused of making it up on the spot. Obviously, the general public does not write every image that enters their mind, and would have no record of their earlier thoughts. Additionally, some claim that precognition is simply the sudden remembering of formerly repressed memories. Mediumship and psychometry are often attributed to cold reading. In addition, there is no way to conclusively prove that communications through a medium are real- should a supposed medium invent information, it could not be known by others.


Sources

Clairvoyance/Remote Viewing

Clairvoyance and remote viewing refer to the same phenomenon- the ability for one person to see something, occurring at that exact moment, through means other than the five senses. Along with telepathy, it is one of the two major forms of Anomalous Cognition (gaining information without the five senses). The existence of this phenomenon has never been scientifically proven.

The term clairvoyance is often differentiated by the fact that it does not occur in a controlled environment. This leads to even more difficulty in ascertaining its existence.


Experimentation

In the early 1970s, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and later the U.S. Air Force, began funding experiments to test the existence of remote viewing. It lasted until the mid 1990s. At that point, the data was analyzed. Some test subjects had scored above simple chance, however, it was not by a great deal- 10 to 15%. Additionally, the methods of testing were called into question. Ultimately, no consensus could be reached as to whether remote viewing existed, and it remains unproven.


Sources

Precognition/Retrocognition

Precognition is the ability to receive information about events before they occur. Retrocognition (or postcognition) is the ability to receive information about a past event that they did not experience. This is often used in crime solving. Both are considered forms of Clairvoyance.

The existence of these is often disputed, as it is attributed to selection bias. Famous examples of precognition do exist, however. Two weeks before his assassination, Abraham Lincoln had a dream in which he saw himself in a casket.[1] Mark Twain is said to have witnessed his brother's death in a dream weeks before.

Since it describes future events, precognition may occur without anyone recognizing it for years. Such was the case in Morgan Robertson's 1898 novella Futility. This story described the sinking of a massive "unsinkable" ship, the Titan, with great loss of life due to insufficient life boats. This echoed almost exactly the sinking of the R.M.S. Titanic, which occurred in 1912. While the details of the sinking were different, the other circumstances were nearly identical. Both occurred in the same month (April); both occurred in the Atlantic Ocean. The Titan was described as 800 feet long; the Titanic was 882. The Titan was traveling at 25 knots, the Titanic, at 23.

Despite these occurrences, many debunk precognition as observer bias- we may remember events that seem to indicate precognition better than others, or believe to have foreseen something, when our "vision" did not actually occur as close to the event as we remember. Psychics often claim precognitive abilities; however, many are proven false after the event occurs. Notable among these is psychic Sylvia Browne, who has made multiple incorrect predictions, including the outcomes of the 1992, 2000, and 2004 United Stated presidential elections.

Retrocognition is often cited by psychics, many of whom also claim clairvoyance. While this may be true for some, many instances can be attributed to cold reading. Many well known psychics, including James Van Praagh, have mad predictions about the locations of a murder, only to have the area reveal no evidence.

Sources

  1. ↑ http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln46.html

Psychometry

Parapsychology/Parapsychology/ESP/Psychometry

Telepathy

Parapsychology/Parapsychology/ESP/Telepathy

Out-of-Body

Parapsychology/Parapsychology/ESP/OOB

Mediumship/Psychics

Parapsychology/Parapsychology/ESP/Mediumship

Psychokenisis

Parapsychology/Parapsychology/ESP/Kinesis

Street Light Interference

Street light interference, or SLI, is a phenomenon where people inadvertantly trip the daylight sensors on daylight-sensing light fixtures. People who experience this phenomenon notice it occurring on certain lights- for example, in a parking lot with over a dozen light fixtures, there may be one that will turn on and off when the subject is close to it. This particular light fixture will act strangley, while every other one in the parking lot will remain on.

This phenomenon is similar to psychokenisis, however, one major tenent of it is that the subject cannot control it. Many SLIders (as the subjects are called) do report that the phenomenon occurs more frequently when they are in a heightened emotional state.

Much of the research in this area can be attributed to Hilary Evans, who authored a book, The SLI Effect. The causes of this phenomenon have yet to be determined; however, surveying has created a statistical analysis of what the phenomenon encompasses.

Critics usually attribute the phenomenon to two things. First, the lights are simply shutting off for explainable reasons- for example, sodium vapor type lamps will blink on and off when they start to fail, as they have experience voltage spikes. Second, due to observer bias, the SLIder notices the light turning off (or on), while they pay no attention to lights that are operating normally. SLIders have attempted to rebuke these through demonstration; however, as yet, no one has been able to cause interference during a demonstration.

Near Death Experiences

Parapsychology/Parapsychology/NDE

True-Believer Syndrome

True-believer syndrome is a common occurrence in parapsychology. It is, broadly, a belief without logical foundations. Frequently, this translates to someone believing so strongly in the truth of something, that they refuse to accept when it is proven wrong, even if this proof is irrefutable. Just as skeptics are often too quick to dismiss, supporters often take the other route, and refuse to dismiss in light of evidence.

This occurs frequently in paranormal phenomenon with the staging of events. Someone may become so convinced that an encounter with a UFO, apparition, or cryptozoological figure is real, that they tend not to believe it to be a hoax, even if the original author of the evidence makes the statement.

This concept also occurs completely outside of parapsychology. For example, when a fraud is committed, many victims continue to profess the good faith of the scammer. The term is, however, rarely used outside of parapsychology.

The term was coined by M. Lamar Keane in 1976, in Keane's The Psychic Mafia. Keane attributed the success of many mediums to this. Ironically, people apparently suffering from true-believer syndrome were Keane's downfall. He had originally been a psychic, and in The Psychic Mafia, stated that his practice was fake. The book caused such a firestorm that Keane left the psychic business. However, death threats continued to follow, culminating in a drive-by shooting. Keane subsequently changed his name and relocated, and his whereabouts are unknown.

Sources

Paranormal Activity


Paranormal addresses the supernatural- the unexplainable that does not revolve around a particular person. It includes apparitions, hauntings (or the perception thereof), poltergeists, etc., and the methods of testing environmental changes surrounding these events.

Section Contents

Introduction

Paranormal activity describes unexplained activity in nature. Often, this includes the unexplained movement of objects, or unexplainable sensations. People experiencing (or claiming to experience) paranormal activity may see, smell, feel, or hear things that can't be explained by another source, and may be consistent with other aspects of their lives (e.g., someone who had recently lost a relative who was a smoker, may smell smoke reminiscent of that relative).

Critics of the study of the paranormal often cite this correlation as evidence that these occurrences are mentally created. Investigators (often known as "ghost hunters") have made definite observations, however, such as electromagnetic fluctuations, audio recordings, and images on still photos. As these events can be caused by other means, their value as evidence is debatable.

Sources

wikipedia:paranormal

The Argument: Genuine or Negative Proof?

All aspects of parapsychology are challenged based upon the difficulty of scientific testing. Paranormal activity is often considered to be pseudo-science; that is, not tested through scientific means.

Part of this belief comes from various "successful" tests, that later turned out to be fraudulent. One group of experiments, known as the Soal-Goldney Experiments, were taken as proof that extra-sensory perception existed; it was later revealed that the raw data was manipulated.

Specifically to paranormal activity, scientists cite selection bias, that is, the fact that evidence given always points to a positive existence of the phenomenon, without any testing that may provide a negative. In a general sense, supernatural events cannot be tested, and therefore can neither be proven nor disproven.

There are, however, collectors of physical evidence that deal with paranormal activity, commonly know as ghost hunters. These hunters use a variety of equipment to record abnormalities, see Recording Paranormal Observations. Many of these can be explained by other means (e.g. orbs in still photos can be caused by light reflection), as such, critics consider these not to be conclusive evidence.

Sources

Common Characteristics of Hauntings

Parapsychology/Paranormal/Haunt

Measurable Environmental Differences

Several measurable changes in the local environment will often accompany less measurable signs of paranormal activity. When these are recorded, they are taken as hard evidence of paranormal activity. Often, fluctuations will occur around a place of interest- for example, a haunt believe to be a dead relative may cause readings near their favorite chair, or a portrait of them.

  • Temperature: Areas where a ghost or apparition appears to be may show a significant temperature difference than the surround room, and are known as "hot spots" or "cold spots" accordingly. While these may be felt, a more measurable reading can come from thermometer recordings. Heat-sensitive video recordings can show a shape to these areas; usually they appear as a blob, though the SciFi channel show Ghost Hunters once recorded a thermal image with a human form†.
  • Radiation: Similar to the spots of temperature differences, electromagnetic radiation detectors may show fluctuations in magnetic fields. Similarly, small amounts of radioactivity may appear. Setting these aside from typical environmental fluctuations is the tendency to occur in one place (especially a place of special meaning), where there is no apparent outside cause. EM radiation is particularly susceptible to false positives from electrical wiring.
  • Electronic interference: Radios, television sets, or other wireless equipment may behave strangely, appearing to be caused by stray signals. Remote control televisions may change channels, or have a change in volume. Video cameras left to record may turn off or experience audio or video static.

Notes

†Ghost Hunters episode #213 at the Crescent Hotel; original broadcast date 19 October, 2005.


Sources

Recording Paranormal Observations

Various tools are used to obtain hard evidence of paranormal activity. These include:

  • Still photography, which may capture odd lines, circles, or marks.
  • Video cameras, which may capture odd movement, often in a human form.
  • Audio recordings, which capture odd sounds or voices (see Electronic Voice Phenomenon, below). The audio track of video recordings may also record abnormal activity.
  • Electromagnetic sensors: areas believed to contain paranormal activity often have electromagnetic fluctuations.
  • Temperature measurements, especially infrared video cameras, may show pockets of extreme temperature differences. In the case of a video camera, spots of different temperatures may appear to be human-shaped.

Sometimes, psychics are employed to communicate with spirits; however, this is not considered to be evidence, as their statements cannot be confirmed. The evidence must be all-inclusive to show that there wasn't alteration of it, for example, an audio recording alone might be done via whispering into a microphone. If, however, the audio taping was also on video, it could be confirmed that it was an open microphone.

Electronic Voice Phenomenon

One method that is widely used, and an easy and cheap means of communication, is by searching for voices via an audio recording. This is known as Electronic Voice Phenomenon, or EVP. Ghost hunters often allow a recorder to record while they ask a perceived ghost questions, hoping to find an answer on the tape. Voices may be quiet, muffled, or otherwise difficult to understand, though numerous recordings of high quality have been made, semi-validating this practice.

EVP is observed through recording some type of background noise- it is believed that voices modulate from this noise. Often, low quality equipment is used, as this equipment introduces background noise. Other methods include using a running electrical appliance (e.g. fans) or a radio or television not tuned to a station. Using a non-tuned television or radio is not a reliable means, as a weak signal on this device could be picked up. There has been an instance, however, of a tuned radio picking up an EVP- a radio was tuned to a French station, and the words modulated to English.[1]

Opponents take several issues with EVP. First, many produced recordings can't be proven to be authentic. Often, to show that there was no tampering, a video recording will be made showing the audio recording/playback taking place, though more intricate forgeries could circumvent this. Also, there is the potential for the sound to be background noise, white noise, or others' voices caught on the recording (supporters often argue that the EVP answers a question asked, therefore, it is too great of a coincidence for an unrelated voice to match). Additionally, many skeptics argue that there is no voice response at all- that the brain is misinterpreting mere noise to be something greater, a phenomenon known as Auditory pareidolia.

Sources

  1. ↑ http://aaevp.com/examples/examples_voice6.htm

Cryptozoology as paranormal phenomenon

Parapsychology/Paranormal/Crypto

U.F.O.s as paranormal phenomenon

Parapsychology/Paranormal/UFO

Urban Legends and Paranormal Activity

Urban legends often circulate around very popular areas of paranormal activity. Many communities have one or more local haunted areas, of which stories abound. Often a legend follows these, which claims to explain the cause for the haunting. For example, there are perhaps thousands of "Crybaby Bridges" across the country, and these are almost always an accompanying tale about a young mother drowning a baby, throwing her baby off of the bridge, etc. Many areas have ghost hitchhikers; there is almost always an explanation involving a car accident death.

One must approach these legends with critical thinking, and in almost every case, a major question is immediately raised: If the story is true, how would anyone know? Here is a prime example: In Cleveland's Erie Cemetery (across the street from the Indians' Progressive Field) lies chief Joc-O-Sot. According to legend, Joc-O-Sot was part of a Vaudeville troupe that traveled to England. While there, Joc-O-Sot took ill (varying stories list his cause of illness as a previous gunshot wound that became aggravated, or tuberculosis). He wished to return to his native home in Minnesota, but died while passing through Cleveland, and was buried there. He is claimed to haunt the cemetery and the baseball stadium, and it is said that he shattered his headstone out of anger (the headstone is indeed shattered).[1][2]

One should immediately realize that, without the ability to speak to the dead, it would not be possible to know what happened to the headstone. Unless there is historical evidence that Joc-O-Sot was angry prior to his death, knowing that he wouldn't make it to Minnesota, this part of the legend also cannot be proven. What is known is that there was indeed a chief Joc-O-Sot, who is buried at the cemetery. Historical research could determine whether or not he was a chief, how he died, and whether or not he was part of a Vaudeville troupe. Scientific testing could find evidence of paranormal activity in the area, and possibly point to Joc-O-Sot, should his image appear in photos, through EVP recordings, or unusual measurements in the exact location of his grave. These would not, however, confirm the urban legend.

Sources

wikipedia:Urban legend

  1. ↑ http://www.deadohio.com/eriestreet.htm
  2. ↑ http://ftp.rootsweb.com/pub/usgenweb/oh/newspapers/tidbits/tbs91.txt
Appendix


Contributors to this book

The following WikiBooks editors have contributed significantly to the creating of this book:


Cover Photo

The cover photo is of the "Easton Maudit church yard", and was taken by R.N. Marshman (m:User:Brookie).

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You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements."

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title.

9. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

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