Becoming a Private Pilot
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Contents |
[edit] Getting Your Private Pilot License
[edit] About
This wiki is put together in order to aid all of those out there who may be interested in the aviation field. More will come, but at the moment I am more concerned with putting the very basics out there to get people interested in aviation. Sections about aerodynamics, flight maneuvers, and other resources will follow. The idea is to eventually create a free resource for training that may reduce the great burden that falls on the shoulders of every emerging student pilot.
[edit] What, Why?
The two greatest questions that may dissuade people from or entice people into flying are the questions "what?" and "why?".
[edit] What
A Private Pilot License (or, in the United States, a certificate) permits the holder to operate an aircraft under visual flight rules. In most countries, a private pilot possessing an instrument rating may also conduct flights under instrument flight rules. Passengers may be carried and flight in furtherance of a business is permitted; however, a private pilot may not be compensated in any way for services as a pilot and must pay at least the pro rata share of a flight's expenses. Neither passengers nor cargo may be carried for hire.
For more information see: w:Pilot certification in the United States#Private Pilot
[edit] Why?
People become pilots for many reasons. You may do it to have a goal to work at. You may do it because you need a way to commute to work faster. You may do it because it is your life long dream. Whatever the reason, aviation will become a way of life for you if you do. You will not regret a single penny of the money you spend, or a single second of the time you labor. It is one of the most satisfying feelings in the world to know you are a pilot. I recommend it to anyone.
[edit] Getting Started
It's not just as easy as jumping into the cockpit and fire-walling the throttle, there is some work for you to do first.
[edit] What You'll Need To Do
According to the FARs (Federal Aviation Regulations) there are some things you'll need to do to become a pilot.
1. First you will need to be at least 17 years old at the time of certification.
2. Have a current FAA third-class medical certificate.
3. Log at least 40 hours of flight. At least 20 hours of flight with an instructor. At least 10 hours of solo flight.
2. You must be able to read, speak, and write in English. This is so that pilots can communicate between each other and with the air traffic controllers.
3. Pass two knowledge tests. a) The FAA Private Pilot Airmen Knowledge written test (on which you must score at least 70%). b) An oral exam administered by an FAA Designated Flight Examiner during a portion of your checkride. There is no pass/fail score given, simply a session where the examiner ensures that you have the proper knowledge to safely conduct flight as a private pilot. There is no requirement as to what questions must be asked or how long it should take, it is up to the discretion of the examiner. Some have been rumored to do straight Question/Answer oral exams, while others conduct their oral exam more like a discussion.
PLEASE NOTE: There is a new FAA approved Sport Pilot category which now permits a class of aircraft to be operated by individuals with a Sport Pilot license. This license has less stringent requirements, e.g. a valid U.S. driver's license can be used as evidence of medical eligibility (provided the individual does not have an official denial or revocation of medical eligibility on file with FAA). For more info, see www.sportpilot.org
[edit] What to Start With
Before you even try to spend your money on flying, try to get an introductory lesson at a lower price, or a ride in an airplane from a neighbor. You want to know from the beginning if this is something you want to do. After that, get all the information in written form you can. The ASA FAR/AIM book is an excellent resource for all the regs, though Jeppesen's Private Pilot Manual is a more readable form. Buy both of these books, and read as much of them as you can. Go in to the whole situation with as much knowledge as you can, and use that knowledge to supplement the practical training you will receive as a student.
[edit] Choosing a Flight School
In aviation, there are two types of schools: the larger more corporate flight schools, known as a "Part 141" school (a reference to the section of Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) which dictates operation of said school), like Sporty's, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, etc, and the smaller "Part 61" flight schools, that typically are nothing much more than an instructor that calls his flight school his home business. The FAR Part that the flight school operates under has nothing to do with the quality of instructor you will find there. Either school will get you to where you wish to be. However, Part 141 schools are normally designed for "streamlined" training, that is, creating a lot of pilots in not a lot of time. These types of schools are typically more beneficial for those seeking to become professional pilots, due to slightly lower minimum requirements in terms of hours, and are usually structured as an "aviation immersion", where you walk, talk, eat and sleep aviation. A Part 141 school is overseen by the FAA very closely, ensuring that the pilots, instructors, aircraft, and owner/operators all meet the standards as outlined in 14CFR 141. Part 141 schools are generally much larger then a Part 61 operation, and are required to have an FAA approved curriculum. Part 61 operations can be owned by one or two instructors, and are typically small. Keep in mind, though there are schools that operate under part 61, it does NOT have to be an official "school" to teach you how to fly. Your neighbor the flight instructor could instruct you under part 61 regardless of a school affiliation. However, there are regulations that pertain to the aircraft used for flight instruction, which your instructor needs to be aware of if he is using a privately owned aircraft. Both are good, but again, you must keep your goals in mind. A Part 61 school will be fine for renting and learning to fly a Supercub[[1]], but it may not be the best choice on the road to becoming an ATP[[2]]. However, whether you conduct your training under Part 61 or 141, you can reach the same level, and attain the same certificate without limitations. Talk to graduates from your local schools, and see who they'd recommend. Remember, pilots want safe pilots flying with them, and if they don't think a certain instructor trains competent pilots, heed their warnings, you want to be the very safest pilot in the air.
[edit] Flight School For Dummies
[edit] Follow Through
Remember during your training this one thing: "I CAN DO IT." Regardless of how tough it may seem along the way, you will always regret it if you decide half-way through that you did not have what it takes. Your own drive is probably the greatest of your allies.
[edit] Cost
Flight school can cost a lot. The average flight training for a Private Pilot Certificate costs about $10,000 dollars. (2008) Most flight schools charge by the hour. Typical rates for a training airplane is $125-$150 per hour. Typical rates for an instructor is $35-$60 per hour. The current average student in the US will need between 50 and 70 hours to get the private pilot certificate. Again, the quality of the training, and your own commitment are going to play a role in this. If you cannot afford to fly every day for a month, your price is going to increase due to the extra time it will take you to get back in the habit every week when you do fly. The best and cheapest way to get your certificate is to do it all at once. That way, you can feel your progress, and have a more intuitive grasp on how the plane flies. This is crucial to the training of a successful pilot. There are organizations that offer scholarships to people wishing to become pilots. As well, there are companies that specialize in loans for those interested in learning to fly, so that you can have the money available to complete your training in a timely manner. Someone at your flight school can help you with these different options.
[edit] THE FRAMEWORK OF REGULATIONS.
You are going to move in an environment where safety is the main factor: the world of aeronautics. For this reason the rules and regulations are created so that they can be adapted to the world of aeronautics today to guarantee the safety of those who, at present, take part. The great majority of countries that take part in aeronautical activities move in a framework of regulations always for the reasons of security. We are interested in the regulations that affect the Private Pilot and the 'insight flying. (VFR Visual Flight Rules.) The organizations that are active at different levels, [World, European, National and Regional] produce the text and carry out the regulations and controls that apply to them. All that are active in aeronautics, and in particular the users, depend on such organizations. We are going to take and look at these frameworks of regulations that you will move in to get the title of Private Pilot and In sight flight VFR. We are interested, right away, in the aspect of the regulations that affect us closely. You are going to need to know the rules of navigation. We are talking about the license and the privileges it offers, the rules of pilot training. In particular certain qualifications and the medical condition of the trainee pilot. We will look at what is an 'aircraft'. The term is generic and designates all apparatus that can take off and move in the air: airplanes, microlights, helicopters, hang gliders, balloons, and so on.
[edit] Background
[edit] Aerodynamics
Areodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air, particularly when it interacts with a moving object. To be a competent pilot, you will need to know and understand aerodynamics intuitively, and also scientifically. See lift.
[edit] Why an airplane flies
[edit] Lift
Lift is the upward force exerted by the wings pushing down the air around them.
This counteracts weight.
[edit] Drag
Drag is the backward force of the friction produced from the airplane moving through the air.
This slows the plane down.
[edit] Thrust
Thrust is the pull that the propeller produces, pulling the airplane through the air.
This counteracts drag.hjdtjdytjdjdjjyjdtyjdty
[edit] Weight
Weight is the downward force on the aircraft produced by the earth's gravitational pull.
[edit] Maneuvering
[edit] Axes of Flight
An airplane moves in three dimensions, or along three axes. When driving a car or boat, it which moves in two dimensions. Adding a third dimension makes the control much more complex. A banking, climbing turn requires skill and concentration.
[edit] Pitch
Pitch is the change of attitude of flight about the lateral axis of the aircraft. It simple words it is nose down or nose up of the aircraft.
The airplane climbs or descends by changing the pitch. Pulling back the yoke or stick results in a change in the elevator causing a downward force on it and resulting in an equal upward change in attitude of the nose about the vertical plane.
[edit] Roll
Roll is the longitudinal axis causing one wing tip to go up while the other goes down.
The airplane turns about this axis from the center of the nose through the center of the tail. During a roll the airplane turn like a kabob on a rotisserie. Turning the yoke or moving the stick left or right causes one aeleron to rotate up while the other simultaneously rotates down.
[edit] Yaw
Yaw is the horizontal axis on which the airplain turns left and right.
A left or right turn is a rotation of the airplane about an imaginary line through the center of the airplane from top to bottom. The rudder pedals are moved with the feet left and right to move the rudder which turns the airplane about the horizontal plane.
[edit] Standard Day
[edit] Weather
[edit] Winds
[edit] Temperature
[edit] Clouds
[edit] Systems and Aircraft Components
In this segment I will cover the systems for a 1967 Cessna 150. I chose this aircraft because it is a fairly common training aircraft, and it has fairly simple systems. More complex aircraft require more study when it comes to systems.
[edit] Pitot-Static
[edit] Powerplant
[edit] Electrical
[edit] Flight Control Surfaces
[edit] Elevator
The controllable surface, usually on the back of the horizontal stabalizer, which causes the airplane to pitch up or down when changes are made to the yoke or stick by pulling back or pushing in.
[edit] Ailerons
The small controllable surfaces, typically on the outside of the back of each wing which causes the airplane to roll when changes are made via turning the yoke or moving the stick stick left or right. Ailerons move in opposite directions, one moving up while the other moves down, in order to create a change in the longitudinal axis.
[edit] Rudder
The controllable surface, usually on the back of the vertical stabalizer, which steers the airplane left and right when changes are made via the rudder pedals.
[edit] Flaps
About the size and shape and inboard of the aelerons are the flaps. These change the shape of the wing and increase the wing's lift but at the same time adding to the drag. They are used when landing to slow the plane down without causing change the pitch. The flaps move in the same direction unlike the aelerons. They are in the neutral position when they are retracted or in the up position.
[edit] In The Cockpit Basics
The basic thing to remember in the cockpit is this: "THINK!" Being impulsive is only useful in a close-range dogfight, and since it it not 1916, being impulsive is useless. It can, in fact, get you killed mighty fast - know what and how to do what ever needs to be done. If you don't, ask someone. They will be certain to help.
[edit] Checklists
Aviation is very procedural. Every action you will undertake in the aircraft will have a checklist tied to it somewhere. Many of the checklists are simple, and can be memorized, but this is not always a good practice. Memories can be faulty, and in aviation a faulty memory can be a death sentence. Use your checklists.
[edit] Preflight
Here is an example of a checklist for a 1967 Cessna 150[[3]] (which is the aircraft we will use as an example most often in this tutorial. This checklist should not be used as a replacement for your instructor's checklist. It should only be used as an example
PREFLIGHT CHECKLIST
(1)Remove Control Locks and Tiedown Ropes
This is the first portion. Here we approach the aircraft, and begin our systematic search for problems that will make the aircraft unsafe. We unrope the aircraft, and remove the control locks so that the aircraft is free and able to move.
(2)Master - - On
By turning on the master switch, we have given the aircraft instruments, gyroscopes, and other electrically driven systems life.
(3)Flaps - - Down
We lower the flaps so that we may later inspect their integrity.
(4)Fuel Gauge - - Check
The fuel gauges only work when the master is on
(5)Master - - Off
By turning the master off, we insure battery life. Without it, the engine will not be able to start.
(6)Ignition (MAGS) - - Off
This is to make sure that the magnetos, which control the engine sparkplugs are off. If the magnetos are on and the prop is turned by accident, the engine might start up and the propeller could injure, or kill you.
(7)Throttle - - Closed (Pulled Out)
This is to make sure that if even if the magnetos were not grounded, and the engine were to start, it will not be able to run because there would be little or no fuel running into the engine.
(8)Mixture - - Lean (Pulled Out)
Similar to above, this ensures that even if the throttle has some fuel running through it, the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders will be excessively lean, and the engine will be unable to continue running.
(9)Sample Fuel (Check for Water & Sediment) - - Left Wing
By draining fuel into a small clear container, we ensure that there is no water or debris in the fuel. Unclean fuel could lead to engine damage, or, in a bad case, to engine failure. Water in the engine would cause the engine to stop because water will not combust.
(10)Inspect Left Side of Fuselage for Damage
Here we are looking for wrinkles, or anything that might impede the integrity of the airflow. If the aircraft is not streamlined, it will not fly very well.
(11)Inspect Leading Edge of Horizontal & Vertical Stabilizer for Damage
Again, check for wrinkles, and any sort of damage. If our vertical stabilizer was broken, maintaining a level attitude would be hard.
(12)Inspect Skin on Tail Surfaces for Damage
Smooth airflow is the key. Rough airflow will get you killed.
(13)Check Stabilizers, Elevator, and Rudder for excessive travel
If they seem to go to far up or down, there is probably a problem. The push rods that control their movement may be damaged.
(14)Check that Hinge Bolts are fastened & Cotter Pins are in Place on Tail Surfaces
This is to make sure that the aircraft's tail is actually fastened in place, and not just hanging there.
(15)Inspect Right Side of Fuselage for Damage
Yet again we are looking for wrinkles, or anything that might impede the integrity of the airflow. Again, if the aircraft is not streamlined, it will not fly very well.
(16)Drain Fuel (Check for Water & Sediment) - - Right Wing
Same purpose as the above check.
(17)Check Flaps for excessive travel, bolts are fastened, and Control Rod is attached and is not bent
If the flaps are not properly attached, assymetrical flap position, and or the flaps going up through the wing could result. Those are not too favorable outcomes.
(18)Check Ailerons for excessive travel, hinges are attached and not Cracked, Cotter Pins are attached to hinge ends
The ailerons control roll, if they are broken, it will be more difficult to control the aircraft. Make sure they will function.
(19)Remove all Ice Formation from Aileron
This is incredibly important. Ice changes the surface of the aileron, and may make it less effective. It may also limit the movement of the aileron.
(20)Check that Lead Weights are attached to Aileron
These weight the aileron in order to ensure a return to their original, "neutral" position.
(21)Shake Right Wing Up and Down - - Check for tightness and unusual Sounds
(22)Check Wing Struts - - Check for tightness and unusual sounds
(23)Inspect Right Wing for Damage - - Check for Wrinkles
(24)Inspect Main Landing Gear for Damage
(25)Inspect Main Landing Gear Tire for proper inflation, cuts, condition of tread, or foreign objects (screws or nails in tire)
(26)Inspect Brake Pads for wear
(27)Inspect Brake Line for leaks
(28)Check that Wheel is fastened to Landing Gear (Cotter Pin is in Place)
(29)Check Oil Level (4 ½ Quarts Minimum to 6 Quarts Maximum)
(30)Check Oil Breather for blockage
(31)Drain Fuel from Fuel Strainer
(32)Check Inside the Cowling (Nose of Aircraft) for loose Wiring, Oil Leaks, Fuel Leaks, All Engine Accessories are installed and installed correctly
(33)Check that Cowling is fastened correctly - - All Screws are attached
(34)Check Propeller & Spinner - - Check for Damage and Security
(35)Check Engine Baffle - - Check for Damage and Security
(36)Check Engine Baffle Seals - - Check for Damage and Security
(37)Check Engine Exhaust Pipes - - Check for Damage and Security
(38)Check Carburetor Air Filter - - Clean
(39)Inspect Nose Gear for Damage and Proper Inflation (2 inch spread on Nose Strut)
(40)Inspect Nose Gear Shimmy Dampener for Damage
(41)Check that all Bolts and Nuts are attached to nose fork assembly
(42)Inspect Nose Gear Tire for proper inflation, cuts, condition of Tread, or foreign objects (screws or nails in tire)
(43)Check that Wheel is fastened to Nose Gear - - Bolt and Nut Attached
(44)Check Condition of Steering Rod Boots
(45)Check Static Port for Damage and Obstructions
(46)Check Radio Cooling Vent for Damage and Obstructions
(47)Check Pitot Tube for Damage and Obstructions
(48)Check Fuel Overflow Tube for Damage and Obstructions
(49)Check Stall Warning Port for Damage and Obstructions
(50)Check Wing Struts - - Check for tightness and unusual sounds
(51)Inspect Left Wing for Damage – Check for Wrinkles
(52)Shake Left Wing Up and Down - - Check for tightness and unusual sounds
(53)Check Ailerons for excessive travel, hinges are attached and not cracked, Cotter Pins are attached to hinge ends, Control Rod attached
(54)Remove All Ice Formation from Aileron
(55)Check that Lead Weights are attached to Aileron
(56)Check Flaps for excessive travel, bolts are fastened, and Control Rod is attached and is not bent
(57)Inspect Main Landing Gear for Damage
(58)Inspect Main Landing Gear Tire for Proper inflation, cuts, condition of tread, or foreign objects (screws or nails in tire)
(59)Inspect Brake Pads for wear
(60)Inspect Brake Line for leaks
(61)Check that Wheel is fastened to Landing Gear (Cotter Pin is in place)
(62)Check Left Fuel Tank
(63)Check Right Fuel Tank
(64)Check Top of Wings for Damage
(65)Remove all Ice Formation From the Top and Bottom of All Surfaces
(66)Check Navigation Lights, Landing Lights, Strobe Lights, Pulse Light System, and the Beacon for Damage and Proper Illumination
(67)Check Antennas for Damage
(68)Remove all Debris under Propeller (rocks etc.)
(69)Fold up Step Ladder and put it in the bed of the truck
As complicated as this may seem, it is barely anything. The checklists that needed to be completed to launch the Apollo Spacecraft would take days to complete. This only takes 45 minutes or so.
[edit] Post-flight
Here is an example of a post-flight checklist for the same aircraft[[4]] as above.
After Landing:
(1)Wing Flaps - - Up
(2)Carburetor Heat - - Cold
(3)Transponder - - Off
Securing Airplane:
(1)Brake - - Set
(2)CLOSE FLIGHT PLAN
(3)Comm Radio - - Tune to 121.5 (Make sure ELT is not activated)
(4)Radios - - (COMM, VOR, ADF, GPS, DME & INTERCOM) - - Off
(5)Radio Master - - Off
(6)Strobe & Landing Lights - - Off
(7)Pulse Lights - - Off
(8)Mixture - - Idle Cut-Off (Pull Full Out)
(9)Ignition (Mags) - - Off
(10)Master Switch - - Off
(11)Nav. & Beacon Lights - - Off
(12)Control Lock - - Install
(13)Fuel Selector to Off or Left or Right, but not Both to prevent cross feed
[edit] Take Off
The basic point behind take off is simple. Get the airplane in the air without crashing into anything! There are a couple of standard ways to do this:
[edit] Standard
The standard way to take off is fairly simple. Advance the throttle to full, and start off down the runway. Once your speed has sufficiently built (this should be your Vy speed) you pull back slightly on the stick, and raise the nose gear off of the runway. The airplane should, at this point, fly itself off the runway and into the air. Keep the airspeed at that Vy speed until you have finished climbing.
[edit] To Clear a Fifty Foot Obstacle
Climb out at Vx, to clear a 50 foot obstacle at the end of the runway.
[edit] Soft Field
With a soft field take off, the aircraft needs to get off the ground as soon as possible. Adjust flaps to 10degree, full aft on the yoke, and advance throttle full. You will prematurely lift off due to ground effect. Stay within ground effect (about the length of your wing span), and build your speed to Vx. Climb out at Vx.
[edit] Landings
[edit] Standard
A standard landing is just that, standard. If the runway is well light, dry, smooth, and no obstructions at either end of the runway. Your landing would be standard.
[edit] Short Field
With a short field landing, you have almost no room for error. Make sure you establish an approach with a low speed. For a Cessna 152, a steady 60kias will do. Sometimes it is neccessary to slip your aircraft (Foward Slip), to lose altitude fast without increasing airspeed. As you cross over the threshold, reduce power to idle, after your flare, apply full brakes and back pressure.
[edit] Soft Field
Would be the same as a Standard landing or a Short field landing expect once you flare. To prevent your wheels to dig in to a soft runway, like grass, sometimes you must extend your flare. When you flare, you might need to add a notch of power, to prevent your nose gear from digging in. Once all wheels are on the ground , retract flaps to 0.
[edit] Go - Arounds
A Go-Around happens when a pilot aborts a landing. This might be due from a obstruction on the runway, or the pilot's approach being too high or too low. A Go-Around is also called a Balked Landing. To perform a go-around in a typical flight training aircraft, like a Cessna 152 or Cessna 172...retract flaps to 20degrees, advance throttle to full open, slowly retract flaps with a steady rate of climb and speed, then tell the tower or CTAF.
[edit] Steep Turns
Bank the aircraft smoothly over to 45 degrees. As you pass 30 degrees of bank you will need to add power (200rpm)and back pressure on the yoke.
The most important thing is to keep the aircraft from diving or climbing. Use sufficient back pressure to maintain the pitch, at first this can seem like a lot, but you will soon appreciate this and anticipate it. Steep turns are fun, and the aircraft will feel 'in the groove'. When rolling out be aware that the aircraft will want to pitch up, so be ready for it and make the manouvere nice and smoothly.
[edit] Slow Flight
[edit] Maneuvering
[edit] Power Off Stalls
Practicing power off stalls teaches the student to recognize and avoid stall situations that might be encountered during engine failure. If a stall should occur, the student learns how to recover quickly.
Stalls occur when the airflow over the wing is at an excessive Angle of Attack (AOA). An excessive angle-of -attack disrupts the smooth flow of air over the wings. As the angle of attack, relative to the direction of movement, increases, air begins to separate from the rear of the wing and begins to swirl causing increases drag. As the AOA increases, the flow disruption creeps towards the front of the wing until the drag caused by the airflow disruption exceeds the lift. At this point, the aircraft begins to drop until the flow of air is corrected by reducing the angle of attack. Since the aircraft is now headed towards the ground, the angle of attack is reduced by pushing the stick forward and pointing the nose of the aircraft towards the ground. Since this is a power off stall, recover will take longer than a power on stall because all of your increased airspeed is generated by the effect of gravity.
Typically, stall practice is performed at high altitudes so the student will feel comfortable and have plenty of time to recover. A power off stall is most likely to occur during landing approach, so it is a vital skill to master. It is also very easy for most students to learn.
[edit] Power On Stalls
Practicing power-on stalls teaches the student to recognise and avoid stall situations, an how to properly recover should the stall occur during take off phase of the flight while full power is applied.
Since this is a power on stall, recovery is quick and easy because you have the assistance of the engine. You simply push forward on the stick to reduce the angle of attack, and increase the power to maximum.
A power-on stall is most likely to be encountered during take-off. Due to the low altitude, it is vital that you recover quickly.
Typically, stall practice is performed at high altitudes so the student will feel comfortable and have plenty of time to recover. A power on stall is most likely to occur during takeoff, so it is a vital skill to master. It is also very easy for most students to learn.
[edit] Spins
Practicing spins teaches the student to recognise and avoid spin situations that might be encountered during takeoff or normal flight. In a spin, the nose of the aircraft is pointed towards the ground and rotating. The longer the aicraft is in a spin, the faster it rotates and the airspeed continues to increase. If a spin should occur, the student learns how to recover quickly.
Typically, spin practice is performed at high altitudes [1000m or 3500' is the minimum] so the student will feel comfortable and have plenty of time to recover. A spin is most likely to occur during the early part of the takeoff, so recognising a spin situation and avoiding it is a vital skill to master. Preventing a spin is as easy as reducing pressure on the pedal and pushing forward on the stick.
To recover from an actual spin, the pilot reduces the throttle to idle (to reduce acceleration), Ailerons are placed in the straight and level position (you want them neutral to avoid aggravating the spin...), and presses the opposite rudder all the way to the floor (to counter the rotation). Once the spin is broken (This happens quickly), the pilot pushes forward on the yoke/stick to unstall the aircraft. A spin is caused by a stall, so you want to get back into the flight regime as soon as you stop rotating [The common instinct and a recipe for death is to "pull back on the stick", which will put you right back into a stall, and then into another spin] and increases power until the aircraft resumes level flight.
In modern planes, Spins are not difficult to recover from, but many students find them to be quite a scary experience at first. As you build confidence though, the nervousness will fade.
[edit] Getting More Complex
[edit] Ground Reference Maneuvers
Ground Reference Maneuvers are just that. Maneuvers where the pilot is mainly looking at a reference point or intersection on the ground to keep the position and path of the airplane lined up with the point or intersection on the ground. The goals of these maneuvers is to learn to keep the airplane at the same airspeed and altitude during the entire maneuver. These maneuvers are best practiced in remote areas and at 1000 feet above ground level (AGL) which is the same as the pattern altitude at most airports. Variations of these maneuvers are sometimes called for while flying in the pattern around an airport in preparation for landing. This is the main reason for practicing these maneuvers away from an airport.
[edit] S-Turns
[edit] Turns Arround A Point
[edit]
Navigating in an airplane, is a tough thing. There are many different ways of navigating. More known than others. One of the easiest ways of navigating in the air - is visual navigation. An example to this, is trying to follow a highway, seen from above - found on a map, for instance.
There are also more difficult ways to navigate (note that visual navigation was the only easy one that's mentioned). As an example, we have VOR and NDB. Both of these (as most navigation aids) sends out radio beams, what the instruments in the airplane gathers together, and shows it in an easy way for the pilots to understand, via the instruments. The NDB works the easiest, though. It's simply shown as an arrow, pointing towards the radio-beacon on a compass. VOR works a little bit more complicated, though it is just as easy when you get into it. It works somehow like lining up to a certain bearing. No matter what angle you come from, you have to decide what bearing you want after flying trough the beacon. The instruments will help you line up on that course. Very poorly explained, but that's how it works.
Then again, if we move into the commercial world (not what you are supposed to learn, really - but just mentioned for you to try to understand all the different varieties of navigation), we have the most commmon thing, on high-tech airliners, something called FMS (Flight Management System) or the more known word FMC (Flight Management Computer) which is the same thing. It simply works as a "computer" you type in waypoints and navigational aids into, as well as altitudes and speeds (on the more complicated models only), and it will guide the airplane to it. Also, if we look back 10 years, before the FMC was in use (or in full use), there was something called INS or Inertial Navigation System. It works almost like the FMC, but instead of typing in the names of the identifiers and all the other additions; one could ONLY add coordinates on the INS. It was a very complex navigation aid of it's time, but today it's out to date, and in many countries around the world, it's now forbidden to fly with a INS - as they easily drifted off course.
[edit] Pilotage
[edit] Dead Recon
[edit] Diversion
[edit] Lost Procedures
[edit] Disclaimer
I take no responsibility for any of the data posted on this Wiki. This information may be a helpful training aide, but it cannot take the place of logged instructional time with an instructor. Thanks, and happy landings.
