User:Tom 144/Indo-European Studies

Introduction

Indo-Iranian

Indo-Iranian can be subdivided into the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches. It is believed that speakers of these languages referred to themselves as 'ārya-' ‘Aryans’.

Phonology

The IE consonant system can be divided into three main categories: the stops, often denoted with a capital "T", the resonants (also called sonorants), referenced by the letter "R", and the laryngeals, represented by "H". For the sake of clarity, laryngeals will be treated along vowels. The only sound that is not part of any of these sets of consonants is the sibilant *s.

Consonants

Consonant phonemes

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Dorsals			‘Laryngeal’
				Front	Back	labialized
Plosive	voiceless	*p	*t	*k̑	*k	*kʷ
	voiced		*d	*g̑	*g	*gʷ
	aspirate	*bʰ	*dʰ	*g̑ʰ	*gʰ	*gʷʰ
Fricative			*s				*h₁, *h₂, *h₃
Sonorants	Nasal	*m	*n
	Liquid		*r, *l
	Aproximant			*i̯		*u̯

Stops

Labials

Sound correspondances

PIE	Skt.	Av.	OCS	Lit.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Grc.	Lat.	OIr.	Got.
*p	p	p	p	p	h-, w²	p	p	pp	p	p	Ø	f, b
(b)	b	b	b	b	p	b	p	p	b	b	b	p
*bʰ	bh	b	b	b	b-, w²	b	p	p	pʰ	f-, b	b	b

Dorsals

• Traditional view
• Velar/Uvular view
• Two velar theory

Resonants

Syllabification rules

• Siever's law

Laryngeal theory

• Hittite
• possible values

Early sound changes

• Szemerényi's law
• Assimilatory voicing
• Final stop neutralization
• m/u
• mj > j
• r/n
• DD > (D)sD
• k'/k
• absence of *b
• Geminate simplification

Morphology

Nominals

Proto-Indo-European nominals is a set of the IE vocabulary that encompasses adjectives, nouns and pronouns. All of these share common morphological features.

Inflectional categories

PIE is classically believed to have had eight inflectional cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, locative, and instrumental. Unlike most daughter languages (i.e latin, Attic, Sanskrit), IE nominals do not typically belonged to a set of normalized declensions, but they could be divided in two main categories: thematic and athematic.

• mention thematic and athematic

PIE is believed to have had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. The masculine and feminine are often said to belong to the "animate" gender, and the neuter would represent the "inanimate". This is because it is widely believed that at some stage of PIE's development (which highly is debated), there where only these two genders. Nouns

• Case
• number
  • Collectives
• gender
  • collective > feminine theory

Nouns

Athematic inflection

• accentual paradigms
• basic accentuation principle
• r-stems

Animate (amphikinetic)	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	(é)-ōr	(é)-orh₁	(é)-ores
Vocative	(é)-or	(é)-orh₁	(é)-ores
Accusative	(é)-orm̥	(é)-orh₁	(Ø)-rḿ̥s
Genitive	(Ø)-rós	(Ø)-róus?	(Ø)-róHom
Ablative	(Ø)-rós	?	(Ø)-ŕ̥mos, (Ø)-ŕ̥bʰos
Dative	(Ø)-réi	?	(Ø)-ŕ̥mos, (Ø)-ŕ̥bʰos
Locative	(Ø)-éri	(Ø)-róus?	(Ø)-ŕ̥su
Instrumental	(Ø)-réh₁	?	(Ø)-ŕ̥mis, (Ø)-ŕ̥bʰis

• n-stems

Animate (amphikinetic)	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	(é)-ō	(é)-onh₁	(é)-ones
Vocative	(é)-on	(é)-onh₁	(é)-ones
Accusative	(é)-onm̥	(é)-onh₁	(Ø)-nḿ̥s
Genitive	(Ø)-nós	(Ø)-nóus?	(Ø)-nóHom
Ablative	(Ø)-nós	?	(Ø)-ń̥mos, (Ø)-ń̥bʰos
Dative	(Ø)-néi	?	(Ø)-ń̥mos, (Ø)-ń̥bʰos
Locative	(Ø)-éni	(Ø)-nóus?	(Ø)-ń̥su
Instrumental	(Ø)-néh₁	?	(Ø)-ń̥mis, (Ø)-ń̥bʰis

• heteroclitic stems

Animate (amphikinetic)	Singular	Collective
Nominative	(é)-r̥	(é)-ōr
Vocative	(é)-r̥	(é)-ōr
Accusative	(é)-r̥	(é)-ōr
Genitive	(Ø)-éns	(Ø)-nós
Ablative	(Ø)-éns	(Ø)-nós
Dative	(Ø)-énei	(Ø)-nós
Locative	(Ø)-éni	(Ø)-éni
Instrumental	(Ø)-énh₁	(Ø)-néh₁

• nt-stems

Animate (amphikinetic)	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	(é)-ōnts	(é)-onth₁	(é)-ontes
Vocative	(é)-ond	(é)-onth₁	(é)-ontes
Accusative	(é)-ontm̥	(é)-onth₁	(Ø)-n̥tḿ̥s
Genitive	(Ø)-n̥tós	(Ø)-n̥tóus?	(Ø)-n̥tóHom
Ablative	(Ø)-n̥tós	?	(Ø)-ń̥tmos, (Ø)-ń̥dbʰos
Dative	(Ø)-n̥téi	?	(Ø)-ń̥tmos, (Ø)-ń̥dbʰos
Locative	(Ø)-énti	(Ø)-n̥tóus?	(Ø)-ń̥tsu
Instrumental	(Ø)-ntéh₁	?	(Ø)-ń̥tmis, (Ø)-ń̥dbʰis

Inanimate (amphikinetic)	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	(é)-n̥d	(é)-onth₁	(é)-onth₂
Vocative	(é)-n̥d	(é)-onth₁	(é)-onth₂
Accusative	(é)-n̥d	(é)-onth₁	(Ø)-n̥tḿ̥s
Genitive	(Ø)-n̥tós	(Ø)-n̥tóus?	(Ø)-n̥tóHom
Ablative	(Ø)-n̥tós	?	(Ø)-ń̥tmos, (Ø)-ń̥dbʰos
Dative	(Ø)-n̥téi	?	(Ø)-ń̥tmos, (Ø)-ń̥dbʰos
Locative	(Ø)-énti	(Ø)-n̥tóus?	(Ø)-ń̥tsu
Instrumental	(Ø)-ntéh₁	?	(Ø)-ń̥tmis, (Ø)-ń̥dbʰis

• s-stems
• i-stems

Animate (proterokinetic)	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	(é)-is	(é)-ih₁	(é)-ei̯es
Vocative	(é)-ei	(é)-ih₁	(é)-ei̯es
Accusative	(é)-im	(é)-ih₁	(é)-ims
Genitive	(Ø)-óis	(Ø)-ei̯óus?	(Ø)-ei̯óHom
Ablative	(Ø)-óis	?	(Ø)-ímos, (Ø)-íbʰos
Dative	(Ø)-éi̯ei	?	(Ø)-ímos, (Ø)-íbʰos
Locative	(Ø)-ḗi̯	(Ø)-éi̯ous?	(Ø)-ísu
Instrumental	(Ø)-iéh₁	?	(Ø)-ímis, (Ø)-íbʰis

• u-stems

Animate (proterokinetic)	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	(é)-us	(é)-uh₁	(é)-eu̯es
Vocative	(é)-eu	(é)-uh₁	(é)-eu̯es
Accusative	(é)-um	(é)-uh₁	(é)-ums
Genitive	(Ø)-óus	(Ø)-éu̯ous?	(Ø)-éu̯oHom
Ablative	(Ø)-óus	?	(Ø)-úmos, (Ø)-úbʰos
Dative	(Ø)-éu̯ei	?	(Ø)-úmos, (Ø)-úbʰos
Locative	(Ø)-ḗu	(Ø)-éu̯ous?	(Ø)-úsu
Instrumental	(Ø)-u̯éh₁	?	(Ø)-úmis, (Ø)-úbʰis

ih₂-stems

• root nouns

Thematic inflection

• masculine
• feminine
• neuter

Adjectives

Athematic inflection

• participles
• u-stems?

Thematic inflection

• to-suffix
• uo-suffix
• mo-suffix
• dlo-suffix

Verbs

Inflectional categories

• mood
• person
• number
• aspectual stems

Active desinences		primary	secondary
Singular	1.sg	-mi, -u̯i	-m
	2.sg	-si	-s
	3.sg	-i, -ti	-Ø, -t [-d]
Dual	1.du	-u̯os, -u̯es	-u̯e(m)
	2.du	-th₁es	-tom
	3.du	-tes	-teh₂m [-taːm]
Plural	1.pl	-mos, -mes	-me(m)
	2.pl	-te	-te
	3.pl	-enti	-ēr, -ent

medio-passive desinences		primary	secondary
Singular	1.sg	-h₂er	-h₂e
	2.sg	-th₂er	-th₂e
	3.sg	-or, -tor	-o, -to
Dual	1.du	-u̯osdʰh₂	-u̯edʰh₂
	2.du	?	?
	3.du	?	?
Plural	1.pl	-mosdʰh₂	-medʰh₂
	2.pl	-dʰh₂wo	-dʰh₂wo
	3.pl	-ro, -entor	-ro, -ento

Presents

Thematic inflection

Animate (amphikinetic)	present	imperfect	subjunctive	optative	imperative
1.sg	-ō	-om	-ō	-oih₁m̥
2.sg	-esi	-es	-ēsi	-oih₁s
3.sg	-ei, -eti	-e, -ed	-ēi, -ēti	-oih₁, -oih₁d
1.du	-ou̯os	-ou̯e	-ōu̯os	-oih₁u̯e
2.du

• root-presents
• ye-stems
• ske-stems
• nu-presents
• nasal infixed presents

Lexicon

Numbers

Cardinals

One

Proto-Indo-European had two different roots to refer to the number one, which are generally distinguished by the manes "the one together" and "the one alone", in reference to their semantic differences. The "one together" formed words indicating one same identity, it generally unified two or more different things into a single one. English words deriving from the one together include "same" and "similar", which exemplify the meaning of the root, since "same" indicates two or more things that are actually one single thing, and "similar" is used to say that two things are if they were one, or in other words they look alike.

In the other hand, the one alone was used to form words meaning singleness or uniqueness, English words deriving from it include "one", "unique", "only", "universal".

Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine Ten The Teens The Tens Hundreds

English translation

• to be - h1esti ~ h1senti
• to bear, to carry - bhere-
• mouse — *muHs ~ muHsos
• new - *neuo-

References

• Beekes, Robert S. P. (2011). Michiel de Vaan (ed.). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. revised and corrected by Michiel de Vaan (2nd ed.). Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
• Clackson, James (2007). Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. Oxford University Press.
• Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.
• Hoffner, Harry A. (1964). "An Anatolian Cult Term in Ugaritic". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 23 (1): 66–68.
• Hoffner, Harry A.; Melchert, H. Craig (2008). A Grammar of the Hittite Language. Winona: Eisenbrauns. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-57506-119-1.
• Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008). Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series. Leiden, Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16092-7.
• Melchert, H. Craig (1994). Anatolian Historical Phonology. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 9789051836974.
• Melchert, H. Craig (2015). "Hittite Historical Phonology after 100 Years (and after 20 years)". Hrozny and Hittite: The First Hundred Years (PDF). Retrieved 2016-07-27.
• Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195083458.