User:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC001/2020-21/Thursday2-3/History

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History of Disciplines: Physiology and Psychology in Mental Health

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Physiology and psychology have different approaches to health issues, rooted in their different histories as disciplines, resulting in conflicts between aims and methods of conducting and interpreting research. This is seen to cause problems when approaching mental health from an interdisciplinary perspective, such as trying to apply the connection between the mind and body in treatments. The knowledge of the mechanisms of the body and mind are required from physiology and psychology respectively, to best understand a phenomenon such as the brain-gut axis. The connection between the brain and gut is an area with much potential for developing the effectiveness of mental health treatments, however its application is yet to be seen on the scale that other treatments are practiced. It has been found that more than 90% of the body's serotonin is produced in the gut[1], and there is a strong correlation between poor mental health and poor digestive health[2], demonstrating the need to integrate the approaches of these different disciplines in mental health treatment.

Physiology

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Physiology is the study of how the body works, from cellular and molecular mechanisms to whole organ systems. Its research and application is predominantly concerned with observable phenomena: diseases, injuries, etc., as it emerged as a discipline to cure ailments that individuals were visibly suffering from, through constructing methods based on direct observation e.g. blood tests and electrocardiograms. These methods used by physiology produce empirical data which is easy to quantify, display and deduce conclusions from. This empirical approach was, and still is, seen as the most effective scientific method, partly to maintain the recognition and respect of science, separate from arts, humanities and social sciences; historically, the social sciences tried to adopt these methods of natural science to gain the same recognition and respect.[3] Furthermore, throughout history, those pursuing physiology have been preoccupied with treatment rather than prevention, the greatest celebrations and landmarks in physiology have been those of vaccine and drug development, as arguably the primary purpose of physiology was to cure disease and other ailments. This approach strongly persists today, with many individuals entering the medical field with the intention of creating a "cure" or method to mask the symptoms of a disease, rather than prevention in the first place.[4] This approach has been displayed as resulting in the most success, recognition and application, therefore many of those pursuing physiology would approach mental health issues in the same way, suggesting drug-based medication as a course of treatment.

Psychology

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Psychology is the study of how the mind works, with a focus crossing over between research to understand how the mind works e.g. developmental and social psychology, and clinical applications of psychology concerning mental illness. This integration has historically deemed psychology as separate from medical practices like physiology and has affected the approach and methodology that psychology uses today. In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud was one of the most influential figures in psychology with the aim of constructing a treatment for those suffering with mental health issues. Freud developed the "talking cure", which focused on patterns of thought which would represent an underlying subconscious state to uncover.[5] Early psychological theories were built upon qualitative and anecdotal data, contrary to physiology and other natural sciences; psychology was not perceived as a discipline on the same level as physiology in society and academia, its progression and development was not as recognised. Psychology did not receive as much funding or research opportunities as natural sciences such as physiology, as the result of its applications were less fruitful in terms of successfully treating (mental) health issues, and as the outcomes are harder to defy quantitatively.[6] As psychology was seen as separate from psychiatry (which focused on prescribing medication, from a physiological perspective), it was more concerned with phenomenology i.e. the meaning and perception of the experience to an individual. Psychological therapies throughout history have been largely based on theories of mind with little empirical evidence. Many existing mental health treatments continue to follow early psychological theories based around patterns of thought in research and practice - it is perhaps most commonly applied in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) based on consciously deconstructing and reconstructing patterns of thought which result in unpleasant emotions.[7] The approach of psychology is a necessity in mental health, to understand how the mind works from a philosophical and phenomenological perspective to make sense of an individual's experience and to aim to understand the cause of the problem.

Interdisciplinary issues

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The methods by which physiology and psychology conduct their research are different; physiology largely relies on direct observation and empirical data, the historical basis of natural sciences. On the other hand, psychology mostly produces qualitative data when concerning the mind as an unobservable phenomenon, such as anecdotal studies in the form of unstructured interviews or behavioural observation, as it is not perceived as a natural science and is considered separate from psychiatry. This would result in complications when carrying out interdisciplinary research concerning the methodology employed to conduct the research and the interpretation of results.

Furthermore, there may be contradictions in the aims of the research, as applications of physiology are concerned with masking the symptoms of an illness rather than addressing the cause, as the predominant treatment for health problems is drug-based, historically being the most rewarded. Whereas psychology seeks to understand the cause of the problem, largely influenced by the historical aim of uncovering memories or subconscious thoughts about past experiences or trauma, being a discipline seen as separate to drug-based physiology and medical practices. This contradiction leads to problems in treating mental health from an interdisciplinary perspective; today, psychology is increasingly seen to integrate more holistic approaches into its treatment, such as meditation and dietary changes[8][9], as psychologists cannot prescribe medication unlike psychiatrists, due to fundamental differences in the history of the demarcation of these disciplines.

For a given health problem, such as a chronic digestive illness (e.g. IBS with a strong brain-gut basis), a physiological approach may suggest long-term digestive medication, however, practices in holistic psychology may look into the individual's life situation and stress level, which impacts the gut microbiome. The effect of poor digestive health on mental health may be seen only as a mental health issue by physiology, treating this through psychiatric medication, whereas (holistic) psychology would look into the cause, such as state of the gut microbiome based on diet. Holistic applications of psychology are sometimes lacking a scientific basis, such as an understanding of gut physiology when concerning the diet or the specific structure and role of the different bacteria in the microbiome, demonstrating the need to integrate these disciplines in research. Furthermore, in practice, it is necessary to consider both approaches; for example, in a situation of a mental health issue caused by an incurable gut disorder, digestive medication may be the most appropriate course of treatment.

An interdisciplinary approach between Architecture and biology

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Introduction

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Architecture has been entwined with biology since the birth of the art form. The first architectural representations date back to the Neolithic (100,000 BC), where the settlement of nomadic people lead to the construction of structures including shelters, ritual monuments, and tombs among others. [10] . Its relation to biology resides not only in the materials used for this primitive construction, taken from the wilderness; but also in its design and form, resembling the shapes prehistorian “architects” observed in nature. From then until now, architectural designs and structures have been heavily inspired by the patterns, materials, and morphology of living beings.

The aim of the following paragraphs is to illustrate the different ways in which these two disciplines intertwine in modern architecture nowadays; and the environmental, artistic, and technological impact of this new specialty.

Biomimetics

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The term Biomimetics comes from the addition of the Greek prefix "Bio" (meaning life) to the stem "mimesis", which means imitation or mimicry. This term, which in its whole means "imitation of life", is used to describe the practice of taking inspiration from nature's processes, systems, and structures and applying it in fields unaffiliated with biology. [11]

Nature has undergone millions of years of evolution, where all of the systems, cycles, and microorganisms have balanced and perfected themselves over time. The morphology of living beings is highly sophisticated and more complex than any artificial machine ever created, thoroughly organized at a macro and microscopical level. [12] Furthermore, architecture counts with two gateways to get inspiration and imitate biology: through art and science. Architecture is a discipline that combines subjective areas such as design and art with more objective and rigid areas such as physics or mathematics, and both aspects can be heavily inspired by the patterns, colors, and motion of nature.

Some examples of architectural and artistic features that are heavily inspired by biology are the following:[13]

  1. Structure: Inspiration from bones, shells, leaves in the making of the building's skeleton.
  2. Hydrophobicity: Inspiration from lotus leaves and insect wings, concerning impermeability and hydrophobic/hydrophilic surfaces.
  3. Photorregulation: Inspiration from eyes and phototropism for tracking solars used in photovoltaic panels.
  4. Skin: human and animal skin, Namib desert beetle (able to collect water with his wings from the fog) concerning porosity, water collection...
  5. Colour: The use of carbon nanotubes to produce the coloration of some surfaces is often inspired by butterfly wings and bird feathers.

Bioarchitecture

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Since the birth of the combination of these disciplines, bioarchitecture has had many different definitions. Some consider it as the design of ecological and sustainable constructions, others as the creation of buildings that aesthetically resemble the shapes of nature, etc. In our case, we will refer to bioarchitecture as the use of microorganisms for the construction of structures and architectural elements. 

The principal pioneer in this new discipline is the Israeli architect and designer Neri Oxman. With a Ph.D. in Design Computation at MIT, a diploma from the Architectural Association in London, and training at the Department of Medical Sciences at the Hebrew University, Oxman counts with the ideal formation for interdisciplinary research. [14]

Her work focuses on the relationship between the buildings and the ecosystems they inhabit. The new ways of production she uses enables her constructions to possess characteristics, such as texture, color, taste, or smell that make them heterogeneous and versatile. Oxman’s team has discovered a new way of creating her constructions, where microorganisms are strategically used to synthesize ecological materials, taking advantage of their properties and nature’s complex design. [15] In doing so, humans and nature establish a symbiotic relationship where the different abilities of the microscopic world are exploited in industry and tissue engineering. The purposes of these materials are boundless, from textiles and fabric to building materials.

Silk Pavilion by Neri Oxman, MIT Media Lab. Constructed in place by silkworms on a hung frame.

Some of her most revolutionary projects are:

  • Aguahoja Pavilion[16]: This sustainable design based on cellulose, chitin, and pectin, abundant materials in nature, allows the structure to return to the ecosystem and be part of the life cycle again, making it renewable and biocompatible. The five meters tall, strong, and flexible structure is designed to resist and adapt to different conditions while maintaining its consistency.
  • Fiberbots[17]: Neri Oxman and her team designed an army of robots that autonomously create high-strength cylindrical structures made with fiberglass. In total there are 16 robots and a design system that controls them, responsible for simultaneously creating a 4.5-meter-high structure. The construction was tested outdoors in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The structure withstood without damage for seven months.
  • Silk pavilion [18]: They programmed a robotic arm to mimic the way a silkworm builds its cocoon. After making the base structure, 6,500 worms were placed to make a panel suspended from the ceiling. This was used to study the movements of silkworms when making their cocoon and transferred to a robotic database, in order to perform nature’s work on larger scales. They created an army formed by 16b robots and a design system that monitories them, that autonomously create 5-meter high-strength cylindrical structures with fiberglass. The construction was tested outdoors in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where the process took 12 hours to make the fabrics. The structure withstood without damage for seven months.

Art Nouveau: An interplay between Biology and Architecture

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An example of artistic and architectural concepts being influenced by biology is the Art Nouveau movement that emerged around the 1890s in Europe and the United States. This movement incorporates organic shapes and lines and is most commonly found in architectural designs. In this style of architecture, constricting, symmetrical shapes are substituted for asymmetrical, free-flowing lines that are created to resemble shapes found in nature. These shapes can include, the wings of a bird or insect, the outlines of leaves and flowers, shapes representing animals and many other naturally occurring, biological aspects of nature. [19]

History of Forensic Science: The Use of Fingerprint Classification and Identification in the Conviction of Criminals

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History of Forensic Science

Forensic Science is known as the application of scientific techniques and methods in judiciary procedures, where evidence is collected and analysed to aid in matters of criminal investigations. The history of Forensic Science can be traced back to Alexandria in 300 B.C.[20] where the first known autopsies were carried out however, Forensic Science can be said to have emerged as a discipline starting around 1909 when the Institut de police scientifique was founded by Archibald Reiss, this being the first institute of forensic science.[21] Following this, more forensic laboratories and schools started to emerge, with the FBI opening its Scientific Crime Detection laboratory in 1932[22] the American Academy of Forensic Science’s foundation in 1948[23] and the establishment of one of the first criminology department at the University of California, Berkeley in 1950.[24]

Paradigm shift: Fingerprint Analysis

The introduction of fingerprint analysis as a method of identification created a paradigm shift in the way evidence was collected and revolutionised the manner in which criminals were convicted, allowing for a much higher degree of accuracy than the previous Bertillon method, previously employed in the forensic field. In 1879, after the rise of photographical evidence, Alphonse Bertillon, a French criminologist, created the Bertillon method where photographs of suspects/criminals would be analysed, and measurements would be taken of specific, supposedly unique, anatomical features. This information was then stored in police galleries and was believed to suffice as evidence for convictions. [25]

Fingerprint analysis started to emerge in 1892 after Sir Francis Galton published a text on fingerprint identification, Finger Prints[26], which prompted Sir Richard Henry to develop a system of fingerprint identification in India and Juan Vucetich to also create a fingerprint system in Argentina in the same year.[27] This along with the William and Will West case caused the Bertillon system to become obsolete.[28] Eventually, this led to the conviction of Harry Jackson through the use of fingerprint identification in the United Kingdom in 1902.[29]. The establishment of fingerprint analysis lead to this technique being used in a range of other disciplines such as technology, biology, law and many more, highlighting the interdisciplinary impact this discovery had.

Biometrics: The modern day Fingerprint

Today, the applicability of Fingerprint analysis reaches far beyond the Forensic Sciences and within security, most commonly immigration[30], automated fingerprint analysis has become a standard tool. Fingerprint analysis highlighted the utility of measuring biological features, and as a result of its success, the principal concept was extended to make use of other unique human characteristics, such as; facial, iris, retina and DNA structures[31]. These developments allowed Biometrics, the automated analysis of human traits, to come into being[32].

Fingerprint analysis built the foundation for this field of study, and it continues to grow with the expansion of biometric databases, and technological advancements allowing auditory, spatial, chemical, olfactory and behavioural information,[33] to be used for the same purposes. Together, these characteristics form an individual's Biometric ID, which have the potential to replace the less reliable physical ID cards, currently in use[34]. Doubts regarding how accurate these measures of distinctiveness are, remain,[35] but the value of Biometric systems has evidently been recognised. In part this can be attributed to the successful application of Fingerprint analysis in the Forensic Sciences.

History of Obstetrics and Midwifery: how social construct and religious beliefs delayed their development into medical sub-disciplines

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Introduction

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The universality of childbirth has always made studying this natural process an intrinsic part of humanity, yet the recognition of midwifery and obstetrics as important medical subdisciplines, was repeatedly delayed by religious beliefs and social constructs, throughout history.

Obstetrics during the Middle Ages

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During the middle ages, midwifery had religious connotations, rather than medical ones, as there was a common belief that the practise involved witchcraft.[36][37][38] While general training and regulations regarding medical skills for midwifery were limited, the Church of England therefore implemented the requirement of an episcopal license.[36] Included in this process were an “examination of her character and skill” and an oath, found in “The Book of Oaths”[39] that stated: “The midwife shall not use witchcraft, charms, sorcery, unlawful prayers, or abortifacients...”[37] These critical views based on superstition, created a barrier between the highly regarded discipline of medicine and midwifery, yet this did not undermine the midwives necessity. From the middle ages through to the 18th century, midwives continued to be in charge of the delivery of a child,[40] as the presence of men during labour was considered “offensive”.[38] Male physicians were only called in case of complications.

Midwives offered experience, usually from undertaking an apprenticeship[41] or bearing a child themselves,[38] but they still lacked medical training, which in the 18th century began preventing them from using new obstetric tools e.g. the forcep.[41] Prior to 1754, there were no female doctors qualified to use these tools, thus the popularity of midwives schrank, as the demand for the presence of male physicians during labour grew. A rivalry was created,[38] rather than a unification of the two practitioners' knowledge, and pregnant women were faced by a new dilemma: whether to oppose social norms by allowing a man into the birthing room, or having access to potentially life saving instruments.

The birth of Obstetrics as a discipline

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In 1752, William Smellie,[42] a major advocate in the teaching of practical obstetrics, published “The treatise on Theory and Practise of Midwifery”.[43] This publication encouraged obstetrics and midwifery to be understood from a scientific point of view, marking an important moment in the progression of both practises from trades, to medical subdisciplines. The enlightenment set the stage for obstetrics to become a properly acknowledged subdiscipline of medicine, yet infant mortality rates remained high, until the 20th century.

Antenatal care, a concept very familiar to midwives that entailed supporting a pregnant woman before, during and after her pregnancy, was still a distant construct to obstetricians until 1911, when the first set of clinics for this purpose were founded.[42] The separation of the two disciplines, had again caused a delay in the advancement of knowledge.

Obstetrics and gynecology nowadays

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Religious and social beliefs made the beginnings of these subdisciplines difficult, hindering the sharing of knowledge and technological advancements from being used to their full potential. Once their overlap in subject matter was finally seen as an opportunity for development, rather than a competitive threat, subdisciplines, such as gynaecology, also gained recognition. Nowadays, these subdisciplines have established foundations within the discipline of medicine. Degree programs are available, and specifically, obstetrics is a subject that even General Practitioners are required to train in at university. Together, these subdisciplines encapsulate modern women's healthcare, and by using a more interdisciplinary approach that triggered research into contraception, treating infertility and psychiatric problems faced by patients, this field of medicine is continually expanding.

History of marketing

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History of marketing traces back to the start of civilization itself. In order to trade the goods or services they had to be presented in the most attractive way possible. Persuasive manner and communication were the key components of the beginning of marketing idea as we know it today.

Industrial Revolution caused a social, technological and scientific change that also made it easier for people to purchase goods than to produce them themselves as before. To fulfill the demands of people mass production industries were created. There had to be transportation and media improved in order to meet the customers’ satisfaction as well as products further developed. 20th century came with an increased competition in market. Up until late 1940s businesses started using more and more intense techniques, it became pivotal to market and develop a brand. The race of providing better product than competitor company took off, that required types of consumer communication and distribution methods to improve.

With 1960s the need for specialists in marketing became obvious. With increased competition and necessity to gain and keep clientele businesses started enlarge their contributions to marketing. The influence of marketing experts in deciding the means and content of communication to customers, prices and general strategy became more evident.

1990s focus on high-quality products and setting up their brand sprang a start in strategic branding. It quickly followed by marketing shift towards internet marketing in late 1990s. Initially used to provide information about products and services internet quickly became an essential tool for marketing. [44]

There are many aspects of marketing, which makes it an interdisciplinary subject. And its history hints that the changes occurring in technology as well as social aspects of human civilization add more and more aspects to it.

History of Marketing and Consumer Psychology

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Consumer psychology emerged as a discipline during a time of huge growth in the availability of products and services, and consequently the focus on marketing techniques to promote these products. Much of this occurred during the 20th century, where a pioneering figure in the establishment of this discipline was psychologist John B. Watson who had conducted experiments on conditioning children, and joined J. Walter Thompson - a major marketing communications brand, to incorporate psychology into their methodology, and deduced that evoking an emotional response in viewers was key to marketing success - making an advertisement personal and memorable.[45] The psychology of marketing and advertising grew much as a discipline, although the predominant focus within marketing was still on economics, however from the 1950s, following a report on the detrimental lack of incorporation of behavioural science, disciplines such as sociology and psychology were integrated to understand the psychological underpinnings of successful marketing.[46] This shift resulted in more emphasis on the consumer as a unit of analysis; this was incorporated into concepts such as opinion leadership and brand loyalty of customers, leading to marketing having more sophisticated theory development and research methods, and marketing and consumer psychology being a more established sub-discipline within marketing.[47]

History of Ethics as a Branch of Philosophy

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Ethics is a discipline that deals with questions of morality, what is good and what is bad, trying to create a set of moral values, it "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior"[48]. From Ancient Greek the work ēthos means "habitual character and disposition; moral character; habit, custom;"[49]. The origin of ethics as a system of moral norms cannot be described in the same sense as the origin of, for example, science or philosophy. There was no particular point on a timeline when morality arose, morality was inherent in the society, in one form or another, at all stages of its development. People living together were bound by different moral norms shaped by accepted beliefs, tendencies, and presuppositions.

The rise of Philosophy as a discipline

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In the western tradition, philosophical reflection on morality is considered to have started with the sophists in the fifth century B.C.E. The Sophists were teachers who taught a wide range of different subjects from philosophy and rhetoric to mathematics. They were focusing on arete –"virtue" or "excellence" [50] Socrates challenged the subjectivism of Sophist ethics. He held the belief that ethical principles were universal and they were able to be identified, examined, and improved within the individual[51]. Our knowledge of Socrates is derived mainly from Plato’s dialogues, such as The Republic and Gorgias[52]. Plato’s student, Aristotle builds his view of ethics upon his teacher’s beliefs but with significant differences. Unlike Plato, he viewed the goodness as a part of a flourishing life (or eudaimonia[53]) as the highest good, not the good itself. And eudaimonia can only be achieved through virtuous life.

The development of the concept of ethics

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With the development of the discipline, philosophers started to distinguish between deontological ethics (from Greek: δέον, 'obligation, duty' + λόγος, 'study') and consequentialism, the first of the two hold that morality of an action is determined by the action itself, while the second one focuses on the consequences or results of an action. In this sense, deontology is often associated with Immanuel Kant, who believed that ethical actions follow universal laws[54], while utilitarianists, such as Jeremy Bentham or John Stuart Mill, believed in maximization of utility of an action[55].


Ethics is now a part of most degrees in Philosophy, however it is rarely presented as a separate degree. On the other hand, it is a part of nearly all disciplines. Modern world is unimaginable without ethics in psychology, biosciences, social policy making, politics, etc.

History of the Demarcation of Science and Scientific Disciplines

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During the 1820-1830s, Britain was undergoing a time of political and social reform, involving the replacement of human labour by machines, demonstrations over the right to vote and the expansion of the British Empire.[56] In the first half of the 19th century, science was a generic term in Britain, consisting of logic, theology, grammar and natural philosophy, however, specialised disciplines began to appear, such as chemistry, astronomy and biology; science was transformed from a vocation for those who can afford it, into a profession to earn money.[57] With the rise of engineering, more theoretical types of science were put into practical context; there became a friction of the definition of a scientist and what constitutes science: between those who work for science as a way to earn money such as engineers, and those who are more of a theoretician, such as natural philosophers.[58]

Methodology as a Demarcation Criterion

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The 19th century started with a fear of decline as science had stagnated since the revolutionary 17th century, the new scientific revolution was achieved by reviving induction as a scientific method; William Whewell was an influential figure in the demarcation of science, he thought that science should be identified by its method, which he argued, should be induction.[59] This became a priority as the specialisation of science was resulting in science becoming fragmented, so Whewell thought that the way to unify and demarcate science would be through its method. Whewell coined the term "scientist" as a remedy for the disintegration of science due to specialisation, stating that what defines a scientist is the method of conducting research - induction.[60] Whewell also praised a figure whom he had labelled a "natural philosopher" rather than a scientist, called Mary Somerville, who wrote "On the connexion of the physical sciences", unifying all specialisations of science through mathematics.[61] Somerville explained how mathematics is the underlying element which unifies all science, as it represents the foundations which all science is based on, and is the grounding for the desired systematicity across all scientific disciplines.

Norms as a Demarcation Criterion

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Robert Merton, the founder of the sociology of science, explained how society flourishes through individual contributions of different institutions, including science, and how science is defined by its norms - this became a popular approach within the early 1970s.[62] Merton suggested the concept of CUDOS norms[63] - essential rules to conform to in order to be part of the institution of science:

  • Communism - results should be shared between scientists
  • Universalism - the science should be seen as separate to the scientist
  • Disinterestedness - scientists should remain neutral to the outcome of research
  • Organised Scepticism - question everything

This more recent approach demonstrates how norms as a demarcation criterion have changed throughout history; today, much of science is published as open access research, whereas historically in early scientific journals, only a very small number of specialised and wealthy philosophers had access to scientific papers. Different historical demarcation criterions for science are very much reflected in science today, it is still unclear as to what specifically separates science from non-science, with much ongoing debate in this topic about what should be the determining factor.


History of Evolutionary Biology

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Evolutionary thought throughout history

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Evolutionary Biology is a subdiscipline of biology that deals with matters of evolutionary processes, with the study of patterns of relationship between species, as to understand the workings of the diversification of life on earth. History of evolutionary thought traces back to Antiquity, rudimentary ideas of evolution guided by natural processes in living beings can be found with pre-socratic philosophers such as Anaximander [64] or Empedocles [65]. Other Greek philosophers, notably Plato, rejected these ideas to adopt an essentialist view which leaves no place for “incremental organic change” [66]. Aristotle, in his work Parts of Animal[67] argues that life forms are a product of design rather than chance. The first evolutionary theory “transmutation of species”[68], produced by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, dates back to 1809. His findings preceded those of Darwins, who half a century later, proposed a new evolutionary theory: natural selection. The latter acknowledged patterns of relationship between species (ancestry) unrelated to morphology. Another significant event in this field is known as the “modern synthesis of the 20th century” [69] where Darwinian, and other ideas of the 19th century, such as Mendelian genetics, were assembled (Neo-Darwinism, or a gene-centered approach to Darwinism)[70]. The discipline of evolutionary biology formally emerged with the creation of academic departments in the 1980s.

Paradigm shifts in Evolutionary Biology

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Darwin’s theory of natural selection was a paradigm shift that impacted not only the field of Biology but also many other disciplines. The idea of the “survival of the fittest” has numerous applications in social sciences [71], such as seen with the moral theory of social Darwinism. Two opposing paradigms are, to this day, found in evolutionary biology: functionalism and structuralism. Functionalists (includes Darwinists) believe in external constraints (environment) to cause species to adapt, whereas structuralists believe in internal constraints, changes that arose are unrelated to the environment and do not happen to serve a purpose, rather they are simply reactions that took place due to physical rules of matter[72].


History of Genetics

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Initially a sub-discipline of Biology, Genetics emerged as a formal discipline in the first half of the 20th century with the first university departments of Genetics. [73], [74], [75] Today Genetics is widely available to study as a degree.

There has been interest in the manipulation and understanding of genetics for millennia. After the Neolithic Revolution, which began 12,000 years ago, crops began to be cultivated and animals domesticated. Artificial selection occurred when individuals chose higher-yielding plants and more tame animals to breed. This resulted in the foods we farm today. [76] Hippocrates (c.460 – c.375 BCE) believed that semen was formed from products of each body part and that progeny inherited those characteristics. Aristotle (385 – 322 BCE) disagreed in parts, but agreed that acquired characteristics were inherited. [77][78]

Modern Genetics

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Modern Genetics began with Gregor Mendel, an Austrian Monk who lived in the 19th century. He experimented with pea plants, observing how distinct characteristics such as flower colour were inherited. Mendel developed a new theory of inheritance. At this time the common theory held by Charles Darwin, among others, was that offspring had the average of their parents' characteristics - they were 'blended'. From his experiments, Mendel concluded that characteristics were inherited as unconnected (genes are unlinked), discrete factors, with dominant and recessive versions, now called alleles. He determined that progeny got one from each parents’ two alleles, and that the combinations of these could account for the characteristics expressed (phenotype). Mendel presented his ideas in 1965 in a paper entitled 'Experiments in Plant Hybridization'[79] This could be considered the paradigm shift that started Genetics as a discipline, although his findings were not accepted by the scientific community until 1900 when other scientists revisited his work and his theories were found to fit patterns of inheritance.

In the first half of the 20th century advances were made, including determining the components of deoxyribose-nucleic-acid (DNA), first isolated in 1869, in 1929, as well as discovering that genes, and therefore the characteristics they code for, are carried on chromosomes [80]. In the 1950s it was confirmed that DNA carried the genetic code and Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1962 for their determination of DNA’s double-helix structure, based on the research of Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin. [81]

In the following decades methods for sequencing DNA were invented and in 1983 the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was developed as a way of copying sections of DNA called short tandem repeats (STRs) rapidly. The Human Genome Project (HGP), started in 1990, had sequenced the whole human genome by 2003.[82]

Recent developments and interdisciplinary uses

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Since the HGP completed in 2003, genome sequencing has become much easier and is now widely commercialised with many companies offering to sequence customers’ genomes. This has caused ethical considerations around ownership of biological data to be raised. Another recent development is gene-editing, with the CRISPR-Cas9 technique. [83] This won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020, demonstrating how closely related modern Genetics is to Chemistry. [84] The same technique has possible applications in cancer therapy and curing heritable diseases. Another use of Genetics in medicine is to diagnose conditions, calculate risk of developing conditions and therefore treatment options for patients. PCR is used in forensic science as part of the processing to analyse DNA samples from a crime scene.

Genetics and Evolutionary Biology

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Genetics and Evolutionary Biology are closely entwined, having developed alongside one another. Although Darwin believed that traits were inherited as a combination of both parents’ characteristics, rather than as discrete units, genetics has become vital in the study of evolution. [85][86]By sequencing the genome of an organism the species it is most closely related to can be determined, and where in the evolutionary tree it sits. This was groundbreaking in the field of taxonomy, and enabled a greater understanding of how humans, and other organisms, evolved. In aiding the taxonomy of species, genome-sequencing also helps conservation efforts.

Notes

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  1. ↑ Jessica M. Yano, Kristie Yu, Gregory P. Donaldson, Gauri G. Shastri, Phoebe Ann, Liang Ma, Cathryn R. Nagler, Rustem F. Ismagilov, Sarkis K. Mazmanian and Elaine Y. Hsiao1. Indigenous bacteria from the gut microbiota regulate host serotonin biosynthesis. Cell: 161(2); p264-276 (2015) [Accessed 16 October 2020] doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.047
  2. ↑ Ting-Ting Huang, Jian-Bo Lai, Yan-Li Du, Yi Xu, Lie-Min Ruan, Shao-Hua Hu. Current Understanding of Gut Microbiota in Mood Disorders: An Update of Human Studies. Frontiers Genetics: 10:98 (2019) [Accessed 16 October 2020] doi:10.3389/fgene.2019.00098
  3. ↑ Karin D. Knorr-Cetina. Social and Scientific Method or What Do We Make of the Distinction Between the Natural and the Social Sciences? Philosophy of the Social Sciences. 11(3):335-359 (1981) [Accessed 23/10/2020] doi:10.1177/004839318101100304
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