User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 1/Disciplinary categories

Libraries

A library (derived from the Latin word libraria meaning ‘bookshop’, the feminine noun of librarius ‘relating to books’) is an assortment of books, periodicals and other materials such as newspapers, visual and audial media, maps, e-books, databases, etc. It can either be a physical or an online space where these can be read, viewed, referenced and borrowed by the public or the members of an institution, for instance a university. The disciplinary categories appear prominently in libraries around the world in the form of subject headings, which provide a classification of the materials catalogued in the library by grouping them according to topic or genre.

Library of Congress - Subject Headings

The purpose of subject headings in libraries is to provide the library with a catergorisation system which would cover a wide range of disciplines and be inclusive to most, if not all, of its materials. They also facilitate locating and classifying books for the users and staff of the library.

The labelling system used in most major libraries around the world is established by the Library of Congress, the national library of the United States and the largest library in the world, which occupies a position of authority amongst international librarianship. The Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) are created by professional catalogers and follow a complicated set of rules. They date back to 1914, when the first list of labels was published and implemented. Since then they have undergone many significant changes to become more adapted to the rapidly developing world and modernising society. For the first two decades of utilising LCSH, amendments to the system could only be made directly by professional catalogers, but as a need for more reader-centred, broader and more interdisciplinary labels increased, this system was opened to a wider workgroup, such as the Subject Authority Cooperative (SACO) Program, which allowed external parties to send proposals to create new or alter the existing Subject Headings. Today it is even possible for the general public to suggest changes to the LCSH through the Policy and Standards Division (PSD), where they are reviewed regularly by the Cataloging policy specialists, who ultimately decide on the changes made. Out of thousands of suggestions received every year, the LC accepts a majority. The goal of the LC is to provide a universal cataloguing system that "brings consistency to library collections by categorizing topics into logical arrangements, and by controlling synonyms, variant spellings, and homographs".

Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) System

The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) System is a quantitative general knowledge organisation tool that is used to keep pace with the constantly changing knowledge. The DDC is the 'most widely used classification system in the world' and is primarily used in libraries, including The Library of Congress.

History and Development

DDC was constructed by Melvil Dewey in 1873 and later appeared in public in 1876. It is now adapted in the libraries in exceeding 140 nations, and at least 60 countries have included DDC numbers in their national bibliographies. This system has been developed in 30 different languages, and continuously editors are attempting to translate the DDC into more languages. Meanwhile, there is a continual improvement in DDC managed by the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee (EPC) whose members are from a variety of libraries.The EPC are a international board, consisting of 10 members, who work together to primarily advise editors and the OCLC on changes to the DDC.

Editions

Physical and online editions of the DDC are available. The online edition of the DDC is constantly being updated so to get the most relevant information, WebDewey is where to find this. WebDewey is the electronic classification system of the DDC which is available in PDF form. [3] This system is simple to use and information is available within seconds.

Notation and the Hierarchal Structure

The DDC is neatly organised in a hierarchal structure. The basic classes are based on ten different disciplines of study. There are three main summaries in the DDC in which cover the vast amount of knowledge. The notation of a specific part of knowledge is made up of a three digit number.

First summary is the 10 main classes of knowledge. The first number in the three digit number tells us which of the 10 main classes it belongs to. For example 500 which tells us the main discipline is Science.

These 10 fields are made up of

000 Computer science, information & general works

100 Philosophy & psychology

200 Religion

300 Social sciences

400 Language

500 Science

600 Technology

700 Arts & recreation

800 Literature

900 History & geography

Second summary consists of the hundred divisions. Therefore, the second number in the three digit number tells us which division of the main discipline the knowledge belongs to. Example - Within Chemistry (500), there are 10 divisions of the subject, e.g. 540 represents Chemistry.

Third summary consists of the thousands divisions. Similarly, the third number in the three digit number lets us know even more specifically the subject matter. Again, the subject matter is divided into 10 more divisions. Example 547 represents Organic Chemistry.

An example of the hierarchal system

500 Science

540 Chemistry

547 Organic Chemistry

And then within Organic Chemistry there will be even more subdivisions, shown by more digits after the decimal point.

The Structural Hierarchy of the DDC System just means that each subject is part of the more vast disciplines above them, giving a structured system for identifying specific pieces of knowledge. However, a topic might appear in more then one discipline, which paves a way for debate and conflict as how to notate a certain topic. The solution to this is that the specific subject will just appear more then once underneath all the disciplines it belongs to.

Advantages and disadvantages of classification within the library

Creating categories for library materials and labelling books brings several important benefits. First of all it is convenient to have a system such as the LCSH, which establishes a universal and international classification for books, because it enables both the librarian and the reader to quickly find and reference materials relevant to their research or interest. It also allows for a certain level of order and coherence on the library shelves.

However such a system is often subject to debate and criticism. As the modern world becomes increasingly interdisciplinary, people begin to realise that some books are impossible to classify under a single heading and require multiple labels, if any at all. One of the most prominent disadvantages of subject headings within a library is that they tend to neglect the equivocality of some broad subjects, such as homosexuality, and are usually normalised to match the mentality of the general public and “majority reader”. Additionally it is difficult and takes a long time to make any larger alterations to the library labels, and thus the categorisation system often develops at a slower pace than the contemporary society. In that sense, it is a barrier to change.

Nevertheless, classification sometimes allows for a unique discussion between the categoriser and the categorised. Allowing the general public to be able to access and suggest amendments for the subject headings has led to the emergence of new perspectives on the matter of disciplinary classification, opening grounds for conversation and social change.

Article Querying the Library

''Let's Not Homosexualise the Library Stacks'' Liberating Gays in the Library Catalog is an article by Melissa A.Adler who looks at concerns and issues within the library, particularly problems concerning Sexuality within the Library Catalog. [4]Adler talks about the Library of Congress and its ever-expanding authority over libraries and its aim to standardise all knowledge and the way in which it is organised in libraries across the world. Adler looked at sexuality within the library and in libraries before the 1970's, any book that mentioned homosexuality would come under the topic ''Sexual perversion'' and would have been extremely difficult to come across. Furthermore, these books would have tragic endings in which the character who is homosexual would die. Nowadays, there is no need for these books to be hidden and are described as 'books filled with joy, depth and complexity'. During the 1970's and 1980's, a woman called Barbara Gittings, is known for her active role in eradicating homosexuality as a disability by talking with the American Psychiatric Association. She also played a big role in increasing availability of positive homosexual literature. All this was achieved by persuading the Library of Congress, who's authority had the power to change what was once a hidden topic. In 1975, the Library of Congress and the ALA approved a statement written by the SRRT saying ''the authentic name of ethnic, national, religious, social, or sexual groups should be established if such a name is determinable. If a group does not have an authentic name, the name preferred by the group should be established...upon organisational self-identification'. This statement could endorse feelings of seclusion within society, as people may feel they have to belong to one specific group. Towards the end of the article, Adler makes a powerful point 'negotiations between librarians, readers, and authors about library classifications are always structured by hierarchies of power in society' showing the perspective that classification of knowledge can be used by higher powers to make it easier to have control over all things in society.

Search engines

Search engine optimisation is something that considers how search engines work (the algorithms behind them) and how people interact with them (who searches for what, what keywords do they use)

Search engines - find information based on keywords inputted by the user

Net directories - more fixed than a search engine, information is pre-classified and a user follows a 'path' ie. Wikipedia game

Web query classification is the process in which user's search queries are matched to sources. One word inputted into a search engine may mean different things to different people eg. Windows; the computer operating system or windows for a house. Web query classification is important to ensure the correct search results are presented to the 'searcher' but also so that businesses can accurately market products to people using certain search terms.

Search engines have to undergo what is called « preparation work » before being able to research the key words the « searchers » put in. This preparation work is divided up into two distinct tasks:

- Crawling: Search engines are composed by computer programs called « crawlers » that look up the requested informations. These crawlers, or web spider, must scan the internet to create a list of all the websites that contain informations relevant to the one requested by the « searcher ». They mark the number of pages, if the website contains videos or just text … and take notes of the changes made on these websites.

- Indexing: All the informations gathered by the crawlers are later processed by many different algorithm during a process that is called « indexing ».

Once this preparation work is done, the search engines rely on a ranking algorithm that will organize the informations based on their popularity.

Online Filter Bubbles

A recent phenomenon of internet algorithms have been online filter bubbles. They are defined as the "intellectual isolation that can occur when websites make use of algorithms to selectively assume the information a user would want to see, and then give information to the user according to this assumption" Eli Pariser in his TED talk gives an example of how when his friend searches the key phrase 'Egypt' numerous travel agencies and websites pop up while with the same search phrase 'Egypt' he gets completely different hits With online filter bubbles, there is a danger for an increased categorzation of knowledge and disciplines based simply on your past searches and cookies.

School curricula

In academic settings, academic subjects are categorised in the form of their respective fields.

History of school curricula in the United Kingdom

School subjects in the United Kingdom have gone through many changes to the curriculum and are constantly going through more reforms. A National Curriculum was not introduced until the late 1980s by Margaret Thatcher but British schools since the 19th Century have always had a structure to schooling. For example, male students were taught 'the three Rs' (reading, writing and arithmetic) in Edwardian England. In addition, there were 'drills' which equated to the modern Physical Education lessons..

Currently, school subjects up to GCSE level are divided into two categories: Core subjects and foundation subjects.

Core subjects generally only include English, Mathematics and Science.

Foundation subjects cover a wide range of disciplines, including Music, History, Geography, Religious Studies, Physical Education, Foreign Languages, Art and Design, Computing and Design and Technology.

Key Stages

Not only are the subjects categorised, so are the level of difficulty of knowledge. In the National Curriculum, there are 4 key stages to a person's schooling. ^

• Key Stage 1: Year one and year 2. Compulsory subjects include most disciplines apart from Languages and Citizenship. Subject levels are all basic and/ or introductory.
• Key Stage 2: Years 3, 4, 5, and 6. Foreign Languages are introduced, and other disciplines are further developed.
• Key Stage 3: Years 7, 8, and 9. Just before selecting which subjects to take when sitting GCSE exams, students take a broad range of subjects. In addition to all the core and foundation subjects, Citizenship is also introduced as a compulsory subject. Schools must also all provide sex and relationship education.
• Key Stage 4: Years 10 and 11. All foundation subjects stripped of their compulsory need besides Computing and Citizenship. Students however, are compulsory relative to their ability, to choose a selection of humanities, Foreign Languages, Music and Art.
• GCE Advanced Level: In Higher Education, students take 3 to 5 selective subjects that are best suited to their interests and/or are essential subjects required for their prospective University degree courses. At this stage of education, subject choices include more nuanced options. For example, the subject of Science that only had Biology, Chemistry and Physics in Key Stage 4 now includes choices such as Applied Science, Life and Health Sciences, Environmental Science, Human Biology, Marine Science, and Science in society.

Criticism

Broadness of knowledge gradually narrows down and specializes up to University level. Criticism of this system has appeared, exclaiming the fact that it is not the broadness of choices that restrict students, but the fact that students focus on a narrow range of knowledge and most often than not, drop core subjects that many may need to keep options open at degree levels, especially for Russell Group Universities. Criticisms have stated that A levels are a very traditional and linear way of learning, and need 'a major culture change' to prevent 'young people learning more and more about less and less', a way that is not useful to a work culture that is demanding more flexible and transferable skills, as well, a broad range of expertise as well as specialised technical skills. One example of a different education system and depth to knowledge would be the International Baccalaureate, where the broadness of knowledge stays broad, but with decreased depth within a subject.

United States

In the U.S. the subjects are categorized by subject and the more 'important' or necessary subjects also vary by geographical location.

There is no national curriculum in the U.S.

Each state has national associations that do require and recommend certain standards in their primary and secondary education institutions. For example, the state of Maine requires high school students to take English, Social studies and history, including American history, government, civics and personal finance, Mathematics, Science, and Fine Arts. The primary standardized test, the SAT, only contains three academic categories: Math, Reading, Writing and Language.

Comparisons

School subjects are generally divided similarly across borders. However, nuanced differences can also be observed. The subject of History can often be further categorised into specific locations and eras: e.g. American History. In Mathematics, the US typically subdivides and holds separate assessment material for different topics. Common Maths subjects to be seem are Algebra (with different levels of I and II), Geometry, Statistics, Calculus and Pre-Calculus.

UCAS

UCAS governs over all university applications in the UK. The service dates back to 1961. The organisation offers many services to students, such as course finders, and categorises university courses by subject, institution codes and course codes. UCAS also categorises applications to universities by undergraduate, conservatoires and postgraduate - undergraduate applications are the main scheme however.

Within undergraduate applications, different parts of the application are categorised into, personal details, choices, education, employment and perhaps the most significant 4000 word personal statement. Applicants must pay to send off their application, before receiving offers from their maximum of 5 courses, they will then choose a 'firm' and 'insurance' choice. Following the release of exam results, applicants will receive a confirmation of their place provided they meet the offer made, otherwise students in the UK will use UCAS's clearing or adjustment services.

UCAS's website contains resources for helping people decide on what path to follow. They separate these paths into five different categories:

• University
• Employment
• Internships
• Gap years
• Apprenticeships

On each of the pages, UCAS provide information to consider about each options, as well as more interactive resources such as quizzes to help people decide on which option they would be best suited to.

University

According to the UCL admissions website, 216 undergraduate degree courses are being offered for 2019. The breadth of study available at this institution alone is indicative of the development in our understanding of knowledge from the imitations of the early Medieval Universities, where it was thought that Higher Education would serve just three disciplines: Theology, Law and Medicine (cite de Ridder-Symoens).

Interdisciplinarity

Warwick University defines interdisciplinarity as "the combining of methods and insights of two or more academic disciplines into the pursuit of a common task." The idea of an Interdisciplinary Intellectual has evolved from The Polymath or Renaissance Man and is becoming rapidly more prominent in Higher Education teaching and, subsequently, learning. A document published in 2016 by The British Academy entitled Crossing Paths: Interdisciplinary Institutions, Careers, Education and Applications highlights the importance of the student-teacher relationship in unlocking the full potential of an Interdisciplinary Academic. Crossing Paths uses the Arts and Sciences (BASc) programme at UCL as a case study, exemplifying the success of an interdisciplinary education at undergraduate level - the British Academy state that they are "optimistic about the future of the BASc and similar degrees," despite the day-to-day complications of running such a broad course.

University of Pennsylvania also offers an interdisciplinary programme - Huntsman Programme. While BASc offers both arts and humanities, Huntsman programme offers students to pursue both BSc Economics and BA in international studies. The overlapping principle of BASc and Huntsman is that both faculties believe that grasping a broader spectrum of knowledge is a valuable power for the future. As world's top higher education institutions began to recognize the benefit and significance of interdisciplinary education, many students are seeking to become an all-rounded learner.

Categorisation of Students

UK university admission categorizes students by educational background of individuals. University website explicitly states the entry requirement for their courses. Usually, A-levels and International Baccalaureate (IB) are the only ones stated. Prospective students without the A-levels or IB would then refer to the 'Other Qualifications' section, which often includes; French Baccalaureate, European Baccalaureate or other national qualifications. If applicant does not hold any of the qualifications recognised by the institution, they would then be classified as a foundations programme student.

Notes

1. ^ Structure of Key Stages relevant to all of United Kingdom but Scotland. To see categorisation of knowledge in Scottish schools, see https://education.gov.scot/scottish-education-system