User:Garrett/The Great War

This is a collection of notes and tables based loosely on those spoken and handed out during Massey University's paper The Great War and its Legacy.

Feel free to edit and correct and improve as you see fit, these are only stored in "my" space until the course material for The Great War and Versailles can accomodate them.

Note that not all of this information will necessarily feature in Wikiversity's take on the subject.

Causes of The Great War

Causes of The Great War

The Crisis of 1914
June 28	Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
July 32	Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia
July 25	Serbia accepts most Austro-Hungarian demands
July 28	Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
July 30	Russia declares general mobilization
August 1	Germany declares war on Russia; France mobilizes
August 3	Germany declares war on France and invades Belgium
August 4	Germany declares war on Belgium; Britain declares war on Germany
August 5	Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia
August 10	France declares war on Austria-Hungary
August 12	Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary

German Revolution Chronology

The German Revolution Chronology

1918
October 8	Prince Max Von Baden becomes Chancellor
October 29	the Kiel Mutiny stops the German fleet from sailing
October 31	Mutiny temporarily put down; cabinet split over whether the Kaiser should abdicate
November 1	demands in Kiel for the release of the mutineers; the Kaiser refuses to abdicate
November 3	disturbances in Kiel; sympathy for mutineers leads to clashes with the police
November 4	risings in Kiel Barracks Soldieers councils and Workers Councils formed; General Strike called for the following day
November 5	eight cruisers flying the red flag revolt in Hamburg and Lubeck
November 6	Workers and Soldiers Councils in Hamburg revolt spreads to Bremen and Wilhelmshafen; Fredrick Ebert (SPD) willing to head new government in parliamentary monarchy
November 7	revolution spreads to Hannover, Munich, Cologne and Braunschweig
November 8	Workers and Soldiers Councils in Dusseldorf, Magdeburg, Leipzig and Frankfurt; SPD fear that councils will gain power and abolish democracy (as in Russia year before)
November 9	Max of Baden confers office of Chancellor on Ebert Scheidemann (SPD); proclaims a republic; the Kaiser finally abdicates
November 10	secret pact formed between Ebert and Groener (head of army) to ensure a Bolshevik revolution is averted
December 6	clashes in Berlin
December 16	National Congress of Workers and Soldiers Councils
December 30	formation of KPD (Communist party)
1919
January 6-7	Spartacist uprising
January 11	Rosa Luxemberg and Karl Liebnicht, leaders of the KPD, murdered by Friekorps; Ebert was implicated in their murders
January 19	elections held for National Assembly
February 6	Weimar Constituent Assembly

The United States and The Great War

Why didn't the United States enter the war before 1917?

1. "Isolationalism"
   • far-removed from Europe, many citizens immigrants rejecting aspects of Europe, looking westward (and south), large navy, Monroe Doctrine, enormous economic strength and potential, moral superiority
2. Tradition of hostility to Britain
   • revolution, friction over Monroe Doctrine, friction during civil war, economic competitors in Latin America, Ireland
3. "Hyphenated Americans"
   • millions of recent immigrants from Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Catholic Ireland
4. Woodrow Wilson
   • considered neutrality moral stance
   • re-elected at end of 1916 - "He kept us out of war" (but close election, with Republicans favouring intervention)
5. Objections to British blockade
   • exceeds normal rules, impact on some commodities e.g. cotton

Why did the United States enter the war on April 6, 1917?

1. Sympathy for Britain amongst East Coast elite (including Wilson, Robert Lansing)
   • connections, common language, massive British propaganda campaign, control of most news, purchase of UK and French bonds
2. Sympathy for France
   • assistance during Revolution, fellow republicans, democratic
   • Lafayette Escadrille
3. Sympathy for Belgium
   • shock at violation of neutrality, "scrap of paper"
   • atrocities (magnified by British propaganda)
   • Belgian Food Relief (Hoover)
4. Growth of imperial and militarist sentiment
   • 1898 Spanish-American War
   • interventions in Caribbean, especially Mexico
   • "preparedness" movement
   • 1916 law to double size of army
5. German influence in Mexico
   • defeat of Pershing Expedition
6. Lusitania (May 7, 1915) and submarine warfare
   • Lansing: "our friendship with Germany is a thing of the past"
7. German sabotage
   • factories, depots, bridges. New Jersey Black Tom plant
   • expulsion of some German and Austrian diplomats
8. Failure of Wilson's peace attempts during 1917
   • prepared to intervene on Entente side if accepted and Germans didn't; German considered evasive
9. reintroduction of unrestricted submarine warfare (February 1917)
10. Zimmermann Telegram (January 19)
    • Wilson releases to Newspapers in March
    • sensitive issue in West and South
11. Economic links
    • Massive commitment by American financiers (especially J.P. Morgan and Co.) to support Britain and France
    • only significant trade with Entente
    • 1915-17, 24% of Entente munitions
    • Washington supports British loan January 1917
    • exports to Entente underwrite economic boom
    • enormous increase in trade

Exports from US ($ million)

	Great Britain	France
1915	912	369
1916	1887	861
1917	2009	941
1918	2061	931

Impact of the entry of the United States to the war

1. War at sea
   • big increase merchant marine (including interned German vessels)
   • big increase shipbuilding capacity
   • big increase anti-submarine forces
2. Effect on battlefield
   • very limited 1917, but significant latter part of defence against German offensives in 1918, counterattacks
   • two million fresh troops in France by end war
   • impact on German morale
3. Financial support
   • loans to Entente powers from US Government April to mid-July came to 1917 $430 million
4. Supplies
   • some increase, but big expansion earlier
5. Fourteen Points
   • much appeal to nationalities in Austro-Hungarian Empire
   • basis for German agreement to armistice
6. American influence over war and peace
   • control over finance and resources
   • creation of League of Nations

Factors contributing to likelihood of conflict

1. Nationalism
   • in Balkans, within Austria-Hungary and in major nation-states
   • fueled drive both to change and to mantain status quo—drive to become world power, fear that would lose great power status
   • resistance to actions or policies that might harm national prestige
2. Imperialism
   • no evidence that capitalist interests pushed for war in accordance with Leninist argument
   • imperialism outside Europe often exaggerated as factor—settlement of imperial disputes in wider world more a feature of 1900-14 period (and previously more conflict between Britain and France, Russia)
   • resentment in Germany that denied "place in the sun"
   • French-German confrontation over Morocco in 1905 and 1911 helped cement Entente Cordiale (French for "friendly understanding")
   • Italian attack on Turkey to seize territory (1911-12) weakened Turkish power further
   • Austro-Hungarian designs on Serbia a form of imperialism, supported by Germany
3. Alliance System
   • ostensibly means by which Russia, Germany and France drawn into a conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia
   • importance can be exaggerated—some moral influence (and possible resulting domestic political considerations), but alliances generally embody real interests and become operative because those interests are threatened or can be advanced
   • no formal alliance between Russia and Sebia, or Britain and France
4. Arms Races
   • naval competition soured relations between Britain and Germany
   • heightened tension as Russia and France built up their armies in response to Germany—temptation of latter to strike first (especially as many in government perceived that could not compete in medium term)
5. Military Planning/Technological Improvements in Mobilization
   • importance of railway timetables, quick decisions
   • French-British military talks implied some commitment
6. Changes in Existing Power Balance
   • unification of Germany and its rapid industrial development and population growth
   • rapid economic development of Russia
   • decline of Turkey
   • rise of Serbia
7. Internal Pressures
   • definite fear in Austria-Hungary
   • problem for German Imperial Government—rise of Social Democrats, rise of nationalistic anti-Socialist parties
   • fear of nationalist backlash in Russia and possibly France if backed down from confrontation
   • internal problems in Britain tended to exert pressure against involvement in war
8. Misjudgement of Nature of Coming War
   • widespread belief that it would have to end quickly, presumably with a conference, after decisive war of movement
9. Ideological and Moral Influences
   • glorification of war and self-sacrifice made for widespread acceptance amongst populations
   • concepts of "honor"
   • some perception of ideological conflict—Russian autocracy, German militarism, French republicanism; religious divisions
   • some affected by ideologies of power and necessary conflict; concepts of Social Darwinism, ideas of Nietzsche *but fear stronger than "will to power" amongst most decisionmakers)

Reasons for the decisions of individual governments

Austria-Hungary Attacks Serbia July 28

• assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbs almost certainly supported by elements in Serbian military; refusal by Serbia to accept all demands unconditionally
• more fundamental reason: desire to crush perceived growing Serbian threat by absorbing Serbia
  • Austro-Hungarian nationality problem, acute in Balkans area
  • close relations between Serbia and Russia, the main power threat to Austria-Hungary
  • Serbia aggressively nationalistic since 1903, looking to unite with Serbs and Croats in Turky and Austria-Hungary
  • 1905-09 failure of "pig war"
  • 1908 Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia-Herzgovina increases Serb hostility
  • 1912-13 Serbia greatly increases its territory and proves militarily effective in the Balkan Wars
• support of Germany—July 5 "blank cheque"

Russia Mobilizes (partially July 29, generally July 30)

• belief that they should not abandon Serbia
  • fellow Slavs, fellow Eastern Orthodox
  • would lose a strategic advantage against Austria-Hungary
  • would suffer immense loss of prestige internationally and domestically
    • had suffered defeat in war 1904-05, 1908 had not intervened when Bosnia annexed, 1913 had allowed Serbia to be deprived of an Adriatic coastline following Balkan Wars
• believed had chance of winning war following rapid recovery since 1905
• a successful war could lead to Russian control over the straits between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean (specifically, the Bosporus and the Dardanelles)—important for trade, especially grain exports
• 1913 German military mission to Turky (Liman von Sanders)—belief that German influence there increasing
• Tsar persuaded by military and French ambassador to carry out general mobilization on grounds that war with Germany inevitable

Germany Declares War on Russia (August 1)

• Austria-Hungary Germany's only reliable ally (1879 Dual Alliance)—believed could not afford to see it defeated or dismembered
• Russia allied with France, Germany's major opponent in western Europe
• planning for war assumed Austro-Hungarian attack on Russia
• belief that faced growing danger from Russia (building railways, industrialization, greater military effectiveness)—military in particular argue that best to strike early, before Russian reorganization and expansion of military complete (1917)
• defeat of Russia could open up economic opportunities in eastern Europe
• likely that war against "autocratic", brutal Russian threat would be popular domestically

Germany Declares War on France and Invades Belgium (August 3)

• superficially due to France's refusal to pledge neutrality and surrender its eastern forts
• Germany considers France an irreconcilable opponent because of German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871
• France allied with Russia in 1892 and had been deploying much of its capital surplus to build infrastructure (especially railways) and industry in Russia
• France moving to expand its military forces in response to German expansion, but not ready until 1915-16
• German military plans (von Schlieffen Plan) call for a rapid attack on France before Russia can fully mobilize and attack Germany (Kaiser told cannot mobilize solely against Russia—railway timetables)
• need to secure rapid passage through neutral Belgium on a narrow front (partly because had decided in 1911 not to violate neutrality of Netherlands)
• had come to accept likelihood of British intervention (formation of Entente Cordiale 1904, Triple Entente 1907, attitude in two Moroccan crises), but considered not significant militarily and now better prepared with completion improvement Kiel Canal

Britain Declares War on Germany (August 4)

• since 1880s had come to regard Germany as its likely enemy in a future European war (Kruger telegram 1896, attitude during South African War 1899-1902, Tangier Crisis 1905-06, Agadir Crisis 1911, above all because of large-scale German naval construction since 1898—naval supremacy seen as basis of British power and security)
• widespread belief that defeat of France would upset balance of power in Europe and lead to possibility of German naval bases in northern France and Low Countries—intolerable threat
• British military had been cooperating with French military in planning for several years—implied commitment
• Sir Edward Grey (Foreign Secretary) convinced that Britain had to get involved
• German attack on neutral Belgium gave additional justification and moral basis (particularly strong in influencing public opinion)

War Enthusiasm

Aim to give overview of social, economic, political and military issues of war

• It was an industrialised war, at the end of a long period of industrialisation for Britain and, more recently, Germany so these had an effect
• Way war remembered in 20th c., architecture, monuments, etc.
• During 90s it got "vogue"ish

Middle classes

• "pals battallions" were method of recruiting in Britain
• esp. linked to notion of "the city"
• represented by "Tommy Atkins"

War Enthusiasm

• 1914 - historians often speak of the "rush to the colours" in this year
  • also general atmosphere of war enthusiasm
• is this true to all classes?
• should we question some commonly-held assumptions about war enthusiasm?
• on eve of war in 1914 Britain had experienced several decades of economic growth
• when war broke out British army fairly small
  • their navy was bigger than their army!
• most of the army was in India defending the "Jewel of the crown" as Disraeli called it
• the army wasn’t something you’d see as a career move!
  • it was often home to the dregs of society in 19th c.
  • English *wanted* the army posted abroad for fear of what would happen if it stayed in Britain
  • there were military camps like Aldersharp/shark (sp?) but most was still kept overseas
• officers from middle of 19th c. came from upper classes; had gone thru public school education
• the army was short of 11,000 men when war broke out
  • this triggered Kitchener’s desire for new army
• he produced a well-known poster where his eyes followed you around the room
  • "Your country needs YOU!" poster art took off in WW1
  • US later adapted this for Uncle Sam because it was so effective
• the army went thru big changes in WW1; the existing army, the old Contemptibles (BEF) as well as the Territorials
• but now there were 2 new armies coming thru
  • those volunteers Kitchener managed to raise
  • and in 1916, another army made up of those forced to fight!
• Britain brought in laws to force you to fight at the Front; conscription was introduced
• highly contentious b/c liberal gov that was in power was supposed to be about freedom of choice!