Transportation Economics/Utility
Utility is the economists representation of whatever consumers try to maximize. Consumers may want more of one thing and less of another. ...
Indifference Curves
[edit | edit source]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/TE-Utility-Indifference.png/300px-TE-Utility-Indifference.png)
Demand depends on utility. Utility functions represent a way of assigning rankings to different bundles such that more preferred bundles are ranked higher than less preferred bundles. A utility function can be represented in a general way as:
where and are goods (e.g. the net benefits resulting from a trip)
An indifference curve is the locus of commodity bundles over which a consumer is indifferent. If preferences satisfy the usual regularity conditions (discussed below), then there is a utility function that represents these preferences. Points along the indifference curve represent iso-utility. The negative slope indicates the marginal rate of substitution (MRS):
Substitutes and Complements
[edit | edit source]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/TE-Utility-Indifference-Substitutes.png/200px-TE-Utility-Indifference-Substitutes.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/TE-Utility-Indifference-Complements.png/200px-TE-Utility-Indifference-Complements.png)
Substitutes would be represented by :
where the slope of the indifference curve would be = -a/b.
In graphic terms substitutability is greater the more the indifference curves approach a straight line. Perfect substitutability is a straight line indifference curve (e.g. trips to work by mode A or mode B).
Complements are represented by:
The more complementary the more the indifference curves approach a right angle curve; perfect complementarity would have a right angle indifference curve (eg. left and right shoes, trips from home to work and work to home)
Trade Game
[edit | edit source]The trade game is a way of examining how economic trading of resources affects individual utility. Imagine the economy consists of the following resources (denoted by colored slips of paper)
- White
- Purple
- Brown
- Orange
- Blue
- Gray
- Green
- Yellow
- Gold
The objective of the game is to maximize your gains in utility.
Define A Utility Function for Yourself
You are handed an assortment of resources
Measure your utility
Trade with others in the class (15 minutes) Record your trades.
At the end of the trading period measure your utility again. Compute your absolute and percentage increase.
Record scores on the board
Discuss
Is there a better way to allocate resources?
Preference Maximization
[edit | edit source]Graphical
[edit | edit source]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/TE-Utility-BudgetConstraints.png/200px-TE-Utility-BudgetConstraints.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/TE-Utility-IncomeBudget1.png/200px-TE-Utility-IncomeBudget1.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/TE-Utility-IncomeBudget2.png/200px-TE-Utility-IncomeBudget2.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/TE-Utility-Optimization.png/200px-TE-Utility-Optimization.png)
Utility maximization involves the choice of bundles under a resource constraint. For example, individuals select the amount of goods, services and transportation by comparing the utility increase with an increase in consumption against the utility loss associated with the giving up of resources (or equivalently forgoing the consumption which those resources command).
Often one price is taken to be 1, and one good is taken to be money. An income increase can be represented by the outward movement of the budget line.
An increase in the price of good can be represented by a change in the slope of the budget line (still anchored at one end).
In graphic terms the process of optimization is accomplished by equating the rate at which an individual is willing to trade off one good for another to the rate at which the market allows him/her to trade them off. This can be represented in the following graph
The individual maximizes utility by moving down the budget constraint to that point at which the slope of the budget line () which is the rate of exchange dictated by the market is just equal to the rate at which the individual is willing to trade the two goods off. This is the slope of the indifference curve or the marginal rate of transformation (MRT). A point such as 'e' is an equilibrium point at which utility is being maximized.
Equilibrium is the tangency between the indifference curve/utility and the budget constraint.
Optimization
[edit | edit source]As an optimization problem, this can be written:
subject to:
is in
where:
- = price vector,
- = goods vector,
- = income
(Because of non-satiation, the constraint can be written as px=m.) This kind of problem can be solved with the use of the Lagrangian:
where
- is the Lagrange multiplier
Take derivatives with respect to , and set the first order conditions to 0
Divide to get the Marginal rate of substitution and Economic Rate of Substitution
Example: Optimizing Utility
[edit | edit source]
Solving
or
substituting into the budget constraint:
Demand, Expenditure, and Utility
[edit | edit source]Indirect Utility
[edit | edit source]The Marshallian Demand relates price and income to the demanded bundle. This is given as . This function is homogenous of degree 0, so if we double both and , remains constant. We can develop an indirect utility function:
subject to:
where X that solves this is the demanded bundle
Example: Indirect Utility
[edit | edit source]
taking a monotonic transform:
which increases in income and decreases in price
where the that solves this is the demanded bundle
Properties
[edit | edit source]Properties of the indirect utility function
- is non-increasing in , non-decreasing in
- homogenous of degree 0
- quasiconvex in
- continuous at all
Expenditure Function
[edit | edit source]The inverse of the indirect utility is the expenditure function
subject to:
Properties of the expenditure function :
- is non-decreasing in
- homogenous of degree 1 in
- concave in
- continuous in for
Roy's Identity
[edit | edit source]The Hicksian Demand or compensated demand is denoted h(p,u).
vary price and income to keep consumer at fixed utility level vs. Marshallian demand. Roy's Identity allows going back and forth between observed demand and utility
Example (continued)
[edit | edit source]
Equivalencies
[edit | edit source]the minimum expenditure to reach is
the maximum utility from income is
Marshallian demand at is Hicksian demand at
Hicksian demand at is Marshallian demand at
Measuring Welfare
[edit | edit source]Money Metric Indirect Utility Function
[edit | edit source]The Money Metric Indirect Utility Function tells how much money at price p is required to be as well off as at price level q and income m. Define it as
Equivalent Variation
[edit | edit source]
note 1 indicates after, 0 indicates before
Current prices are the base, what income change will give equivalent utility
Compensating Variation
[edit | edit source]New prices are the base, what income change will compensate for price change
Consumer's Surplus
[edit | edit source]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/TE-Utility-CS.png/200px-TE-Utility-CS.png)
Generally
When utility is quasilinear (, then:
Arrow's Impossibility Theorem
[edit | edit source]Arrow's Impossibility Theorem An illustration of the problem of aggregation of social welfare functions:
Three individuals each have well-behaved preferences. However, aggregating the three does not produce a well behaved preference function:
- Person A prefers red to blue and blue to green
- Person B prefers green to red and red to blue
- Person C prefers blue to green and green to red.
Aggregating, transitivity is violated.
- Two people prefer red to blue
- Two people prefer blue to green, and
- Two people prefer green to red.
What does society want?
Preferences
[edit | edit source]Consumption Bundles
[edit | edit source]Define a consumption set X, e.g. {house, car, computer},
'x', 'y', 'z', are bundles of goods, such as x{house,car}, y{car, computer}, z{house, computer}.
Goods are not consumed for themselves but for their attributes relative to other goods
We want to find preferences that order the bundles. Utility is ordinal, so we only care about which is greater, not by how much.
Conditions
[edit | edit source]There are several Conditions on preferences to produce a continuous (well-behaved) utility function.
- Completeness: Either (Read x is preferred to y) or or both
- Reflexive:
- Transitive: if and then (This poses a problem for social welfare functions)
- Monotonicity: If then
- Local Non-satiation: More is better than less
- Convexity: if and then
- Continuity: small changes in input beget small changes in output. The preference relation in X is continuous if it is preserved under the limit operation
The function f is continuous at the point a in its domain if:
- exists
If 'f' is not continuous at 'a', we say that 'f' is discontinuous at 'a'.
References
[edit | edit source]Further Reading
[edit | edit source]