Classical Chinese/Printable version

Classical Chinese

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Pronoun

Ways to address "me" in 文言文 Classical Chinese.

我 (wǒ): This is the most common and neutral way to refer to oneself, used mainly in Pre-Qin Chinese.

For example, “其知我也。” (qí zhī wǒ yě.) This means "He knows me."

吾 (wú): This is another common way to say "I" or "me," though it is slightly more formal or literary than 我.

[ "我" was frequently used as an object pronoun or to show emphasis, whereas "吾" was rarely used as an object in affirmative sentences. So both can't be swapped.]

For example, “吾十有五而志于学。” (wú shí yòu wǔ ér zhì yú xué.) This means "At fifteen, I set my heart on learning."

予 / 余 (yú): These are formal ways to address oneself, often used by people of status or in poetic contexts. For example, “予谓菊，花之隐逸者也。” (yú wèi jú, huā zhī yǐn yì zhě yě.) This means "I think that the chrysanthemum is the recluse among flowers."

臣 (chén): This is a humble way to address oneself when speaking to a ruler or superior, literally meaning "your servant." For example, “臣闻大王将兴师。” (chén wén dà wáng jiāng xīng shī.) This means "I (your servant) have heard that the Great King is about to raise an army."

孤 (gū): This is a specialized term used by rulers or kings to refer to themselves, meaning "the lonely one" or "the orphaned one" (a sign of humility in power). For example, “孤不度德量力。” (gū bù dù dé liàng lì.) This means "I (this lonely king) did not estimate my virtue or measure my strength."

Ways to address "you" in 文言文 Classical Chinese.

子 (zǐ): This is a respectful way to address someone who is equal or superior to the speaker, such as a friend, a teacher, or a ruler.

For example, “子曰：学而时习之，不亦说乎？” (zǐ yuē: xué ér shí xí zhī, bù yì yuè hū?) This means "The Master said: Isn't it a joy to learn and practice what one has learned in due time?"

君 (jūn): This is a way to address someone who is the lord, the king, or the sovereign of the speaker, such as a ruler or a feudal lord. ["君子" is a way to say "gentleman" or "nobleman".]

For example, “君子不器。” (jūnzǐ bù qì.) This means "The gentleman is not a vessel. (is not like an implement that has a fixed form and whose operation is subject to its properties)"

汝 (rǔ): This is a way to address someone who is equal or inferior to the speaker, such as a friend, a servant, or a child.

For example, “汝何故迟也？” (rǔ hé gù chí yě?) This means "Why are you late?"

公 (gōng): This is a way to address someone who is a noble, a prince, or a high-ranking official, such as a duke or a minister.

For example, “公之于国也。” (gōng zhī yú guó yě.) This means "Your contribution to the state."

卿 (qīng): This is a way to address someone who is a close friend, a lover, or a subordinate, such as a general or a minister.

For example, “卿可谓善吏乎？” (qīng kě wèi shàn lì hū?) This means "Can you be called a good official?"

尔 (ěr): This is a way to address someone who is equal or inferior to the speaker, such as a friend, a servant, or a child. For example, “尔其学之。” (ěr qí xué zhī.) This means "You should learn it."

Ways to address "he/she/it/they" in 文言文 Classical Chinese.

Note: In Classical Chinese, third-person pronouns are often omitted if the subject is understood from the context. Furthermore, there is no gender distinction (he vs. she) in the written characters of that era.

其 (qí): This is the most versatile and common third-person pronoun, often used to mean "his," "her," "its," or "their."

For example, “工欲善其事，必先利其器。” (gōng yù shàn qí shì, bì xiān lì qí qì.) This means "A craftsman who wishes to perfect his work must first sharpen his tools."

之 (zhī): This is primarily used as an object pronoun (him, her, it, them) following a verb. F

or example, “爱之欲其生。” (ài zhī yù qí shēng.) This means "To love him (or it) is to wish him(or it) alive."

彼 (bǐ): This is a demonstrative pronoun meaning "that one" or "those".

For example, “知彼知己，百战不殆。” (zhī bǐ zhī jǐ, bǎi zhàn bù dài.) This means "Know it (the enemy) and know yourself, and in a hundred battles you will never be in peril."

渠 (qú): This emerged later in the development of the language (around the Han and Jin dynasties) as a more direct way to say "he" or "she." For example, “问渠那得清如许？” (wèn qú nǎ dé qīng rú xǔ?) This means "Asking it (the pond) how it can be so clear?"

伊 (yī): This was often used in poetry or more casual classical prose to refer to "that person" or "he/she." For example, “所谓伊人，在水一方。” (suǒ wèi yī rén, zài shuǐ yī fāng.) This means "She, the person of whom I speak, is on the other side of the water."

Lesson 1

Text:

日出而作，日落而息。凿井而饮，耕田而食。

Pinyin:

Rì chū ér zuò, rì luò ér xī. Záo jǐng ér yǐn, gēng tián ér shí. 

Gloss:

• 日 (rì): sun / 出 (chū): comes out / 而 (ér): and then (conjunction of sequence) / 作 (zuò): work.

• 落 (luò): sets / 息 (xī): rest.
• 凿 (záo): dig / 井 (jǐng): well / 饮 (yǐn): drink.
• 耕 (gēng): plow / 田 (tián): field / 食 (shí): eat.

Analysis:

This is known as the 《击壤歌》 (Jī Rǎng Gē) or "Song of Clapping the Earth."

The legend says an old man was singing this while playing a game (clapping the earth). When asked about the Emperor's power, he replied with these lines—the implication being that the Emperor’s influence was so benevolent and non-intrusive that the people felt they owed their livelihood only to nature and their own hard work.

It remains the ultimate Chinese literary symbol for agrarian contentment and personal autonomy. It suggests that a perfect society is one where the people hardly know they are being governed at all.

The structure is perfectly symmetrical, using the particle 而 (ér) to connect the cause (nature's cycle) with the effect (human action). It establishes a harmonious relationship between humanity and the cosmos.

而：

日出而作 (Sun rises, then work).

Function: conjunction of sequence 顺承.

It connects two actions that happen chronologically or where the second follows naturally from the first.

Translation: "and then," "and so." Example: 登高而望 (Climb high and then look far).

In Classical Chinese, 而 (ér) is one of the most versatile and frequently used functional particles (虚词). While in Modern Chinese it usually means "but" (érqiě or rén'ér), in Classical Chinese it acts as a grammatical bridge connecting two actions, states, or concepts(like: Conjunction of Manner 修饰, Conjunction of Adversative/Contrast 转接, Conjunction of Condition or Reason 假设/因果).

Lesson 2

Text:

上善若水。水善利万物而不争，处众人之所恶，故几于道。

Pinyin:

Shàng shàn ruò shuǐ, shuǐ shàn lì wàn wù ér bù zhēng, chǔ zhòng rén zhī suǒ wù, gù jī yú dào.

Gloss:

• 上 (shàng): high (highest) / 善 (shàn): goodness (virtue) / 若 (ruò): (is) like / 水 (shuǐ): water.
• 利 (lì): benefits / 万物 (wàn wù): the ten thousand things (everything) / 而 (ér): but (adversative conjunction) / 不 (bù): not / 争 (zhēng): contend (strive).
• 处 (chǔ): stays in (dwells) / 众 (zhòng): many / 人 (rén): people / 之 (zhī): [possessive particle] / 所 (suǒ): [particle indicating the object of the verb] / 恶 (wù): loathe (dislike).
• 故 (gù): therefore / 几 (jī): near (approaching) / 于 (yú): to / 道 (dào): the Way.

Translation:

The highest virtue is like water. Water excels in benefiting all things without striving. It settles in places that people loathe, and therefore, it is close to the Way.

Analysis:

This passage comes from Chapter 8 of the 《道德经》 (Tao Te Ching), attributed to Laozi. It is the quintessential expression of Taoist philosophy, using water as the ultimate metaphor for the Tao.

1. The Philosophy of Non-Contention (不争 - Bù zhēng): Laozi argues that true power does not come from force or competition, but from "non-striving." Water is soft and yielding, yet it sustains all life and can wear away the hardest stone. By "not contending," water avoids conflict and remains invincible. In human terms, this suggests that the greatest leader is one who serves others without seeking recognition or status.

2. Humility and the "Low Places": Human nature generally seeks high status and avoids "low" or "dirty" places. However, water flows to the lowest ground—the places "众人之所恶" (that people loathe). In Taoism, this represents profound humility. By occupying the position others reject, the sage stays grounded and aligned with the natural flow of the universe.

3. Alignment with the Tao (几于道): The Tao is the underlying, nameless principle of the universe. Because water is selfless, nourishing, and humble, it mimics the behavior of the Tao itself. It does not try to be "good"; it simply is. This "effortless action" (无为 - Wú wéi) is why Laozi says water is "near to the Way."

而（again）：

水善利万物而不争 (Water benefits all things but does not contend).

Function: Conjunction of Adversative/Contrast (转接).

Explanation: In this context, ér connects two contrasting traits. It highlights the "paradox" of water: it is incredibly powerful and beneficial, yet it remains completely unassertive.

Translation: "but," "yet," "nonetheless."

The Structural Particle 之 :

In this context, 之 acts as a connector between a Subject and a Predicate to turn the whole clause into a noun phrase. This is often called "canceling the independence of the sentence" (主谓之间，取消句子独立性).

• 众人 (Subject): The people; 恶 (Verb): To loathe/dislike.
• 众人恶: "People loathe [something]." (A complete sentence)
• 众人之恶: "The loathing of the people." (A noun phrase)

In Classical Chinese, 之 is the most common functional particle. While it often means "of" (possessive), here it acts as a structural bridge to allow the phrase to function as the object of the verb 处 (to dwell in).

The Object Placeholder 所 :

所 is a "pronominal particle." It is placed before a verb to turn that verb into a noun representing the object of the action.

• 恶: To loathe.
• 所恶: That which is loathed / The loathed thing

Same: 所见: That which is seen; 所听: That which is heard.

When used together in the structure [Subject] + 之 + 所 + [Verb], they create a very specific description:

众人 (People) + 之 + 所 (that which) + 恶 (loathe) = "That which the people loathe."

Lesson 3

Text:

年四岁时，与诸兄共食梨，融辄引小者。大人问其故，答曰：“我小儿，法当取小者。”由是宗族奇之。

Pinyin:

Nián sì suì shí, yǔ zhū xiōng gòng shí lí, Róng zhé yǐn xiǎo zhě. 

Dà rén wèn qí gù, dá yuē: "Wǒ xiǎo ér, fǎ dāng qǔ xiǎo zhě." 

Yóu shì zōng zú qí zhī.

Gloss:

• 年 (nián): years (age) / 四 (sì): four / 岁 (suì): years old / 时 (shí): time (when).
• 与 (yǔ): with / 诸 (zhū): various / 兄 (xiōng): older brothers / 共 (gòng): together / 食 (shí): eat / 梨 (lí): pear.
• 融 (róng): Kong Rong (the child's name) / 辄 (zhé): always / 引 (yǐn): take (reach for) / 小者 (xiǎo zhě): the small one.
• 大人 (dà rén): elders / 问 (wèn): ask / 其 (qí): its (the) / 故 (gù): reason.
• 答 (dá): answer / 曰 (yuē): say.
• 我 (wǒ): I / 小儿 (xiǎo ér): [am a] small child / 法 (fǎ): naturally, by rule / 当 (dāng): should / 取 (qǔ): take / 小者 (xiǎo zhě): the small one.
• 由是 (yóu shì): because of this / 宗族 (zōng zú): clan (family members) / 奇 (qí): found ... extraordinary / 之 (zhī): him.

Translation:

When Kong Rong was four years old, he ate pears with his older brothers. He would always take the smallest one. When the elders asked him the reason, he replied: "I am a small child, by rule, I should take the small one." Because of this, his entire clan found him extraordinary.

Analysis:

出处 (Source): This story is recorded in the 《后汉书》 (Book of the Later Han) and is famously known in Chinese culture as “孔融让梨” (Kong Rong Yielding the Pears).

Background & Philosophy:

1. Confucian Ethics (悌 - Tì): The story exemplifies "fraternal love" or "brotherly respect." In Confucianism, social harmony begins in the family. By yielding the larger fruit to his elders, Kong Rong demonstrates a precocious understanding of his place within the family hierarchy.
2. Logic and Ritual: Kong Rong doesn't just give the pear away; he justifies it with a "rule" (法). This reflects the Chinese ideal of the "Child Prodigy" (神童)—someone who understands the abstract principles of Li (Ritual/Etiquette) even at a tender age.
3. The "Extraordinary" (奇): To the clan, what was "strange" or "extraordinary" wasn't just his kindness, but his ability to override natural childhood greed with philosophical reasoning.

者 (zhě):

小者 (The small one).

Function: In Classical Chinese, zhě is a noun-forming suffix. It turns adjectives or verbs into nouns.

Rule: [Adjective/Verb] + 者 = "The one who is [Adjective]" or "The thing that is [Verb]."

Usage: 老(pinyin, view above)者:The elderly 智(zhì)者:The smart(the one who is smart)

The Putative/Intentional Usage (意动用法):

宗族奇之 (The clan found him extraordinary).

Rule: Here, the adjective 奇 (strange/extraordinary) is used as a verb. In Classical Chinese, an adjective can mean "to consider [object] to be [adjective]."

Example: Qí zhī doesn't mean "they strange him," it means "they viewed him as strange/extraordinary."

其 (qí):

问其故 (Asked Its(the) reason).

Function: A third-person possessive or demonstrative pronoun. Here, it refers back to the action of picking the small pear.

Lesson 4

Text:

群儿戏于庭，一儿登瓮，足跌没水中。众皆弃去，光持石击瓮破之，水迸，儿得活。

Pinyin:

Qún ér xì yú tíng, yī ér dēng wèng, zú dié mò shuǐ zhōng. 

Zhòng jiē qì qù, Guāng chí shí jī wèng pò zhī, shuǐ bèng, ér dé huó.

Gloss:

• 群 (qún): group / 儿 (ér): children / 戏 (xì): play / 于 (yú): in / 庭 (tíng): courtyard.
• 一 (yī): one / 儿 (ér): child / 登 (dēng): climb / 瓮 (wèng): large vat (urn).
• 足 (zú): foot / 跌 (dié): slip / 没 (mò): submerge (sink) / 水 (shuǐ): water / 中 (zhōng): middle (inside).
• 众 (zhòng): the others (the crowd) / 皆 (jiē): all / 弃 (qì): abandon / 去 (qù): leave (away).
• 光 (Guāng): Sima Guang (the boy's name) / 持 (chí): hold / 石 (shí): stone / 击 (jī): strike / 瓮 (wèng): vat / 破 (pò): broken（make it break） / 之 (zhī): it.
• 水 (shuǐ): water / 迸 (bèng): gush out (burst forth).
• 儿 (ér): child / 得 (dé): managed to / 活 (huó): survive (live).

Translation:

A group of children were playing in the courtyard. One child climbed onto a large vat, slipped, and fell into the water. Everyone else panicked and ran away, but Sima Guang picked up a stone and smashed the vat to make it break. The water gushed out; the child was saved.

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Analysis:

出处 (Source): This text is from the 《宋史·司马光传》 (History of Song: Biography of Sima Guang). It is the famous story of “司马光砸缸” (Sima Guang Smashes the Vat).

Background & Philosophy:

1. Presence of Mind (镇定): While the other children (众) are overcome by fear and flee (弃去), Sima Guang remains calm. In Chinese history, Sima Guang grew up to be a great historian and statesman. This childhood anecdote serves to foreshadow his future wisdom and steadiness.
2. Practical Intelligence: The story emphasizes "breaking the container" to save the content. It is often used in modern contexts as a metaphor for "thinking outside the box" or prioritizing human life over material property (the expensive vat).
3. Contrast in Character: The text contrasts the collective ("the crowd") with the individual hero. It suggests that true leadership is demonstrated when one acts decisively while others are in chaos.

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Key Grammar & Particles:

之 (zhī):

• 击瓮破之 (Struck the vat [and] made it break).
• Function: A third-person pronoun referring to the object(the vat).
• Rule: It is the most common use of zhī—replacing a noun that has already been mentioned.

得 (dé):

• 儿得活 (The child managed to live).
• Function: An auxiliary verb. While in modern Chinese it often means "to get," in Classical Chinese it often indicates the possibility or successful completion of an action.

In the phrase “击瓮破之”:

• 击 (jī): Strike (The action)
• 瓮 (wèng): The vat (The object)
• 破 (pò): Broken
• 之 (zhī): It (Referring to the vat)

破 is a Causative Verb (使动用法). In Classical Chinese, an adjective (like "broken") can be used as a verb meaning "to make [object] become [adjective]."

破之 = 使之破 (Made it break / Caused it to be broken).

In this text, 破 is an active result of the verb 击. Sima Guang exerted force, and the result was the breaking of the vat. Therefore, "破之" translates to "broke it".

Lesson 5

Text:

宋人有耕者。田中有株。兔走触株，折颈而死。因释其耒而守株，冀复得兔。兔不可复得，而身为宋国笑。

Pinyin:

Sòng rén yǒu gēng zhě. Tián zhōng yǒu zhū. Tù zǒu chù zhū, zhé jǐng ér sǐ. 

Yīn shì qí lěi ér shǒu zhū, jì fù dé tù. 

Tù bù kě fù dé, ér shēn wéi Sòng guó xiào.

Gloss:

• 宋 (Sòng): [State of] Song / 人 (rén): person / 有 (yǒu): there was / 耕者 (gēng zhě): farmer (one who plows).
• 田 (tián): field / 中 (zhōng): middle / 有 (yǒu): there was / 株 (zhū): stump.
• 兔 (tù): rabbit / 走 (zǒu): ran (in Classical Chinese, zǒu means run, not walk) / 触 (chù): hit (collided with) / 株 (zhū): stump.
• 折 (zhé): snapped / 颈 (jǐng): neck / 而 (ér): and then / 死 (sǐ): died.
• 因 (yīn): then (consequently) / 释 (shì): put down (released) / 其 (qí): his / 耒 (lěi): plow / 而 (ér): and / 守 (shǒu): guarded / 株 (zhū): stump.
• 冀 (jì): hoped / 复 (fù): again / 得 (dé): get / 兔 (tù): rabbit.
• 兔 (tù): rabbit / 不 (bù): not / 可 (kě): can / 复 (fù): again / 得 (dé): get.
• 而 (ér): but / 身 (shēn): [he] himself / 为 (wéi): by (passive marker) / 宋国 (Sòng guó): State of Song / 笑 (xiào): laughed at.

Translation:

There was a farmer in the State of Song. In his field, there was a tree stump. A rabbit ran by, hit the stump, snapped its neck, and died. Consequently, the farmer put down his plow and guarded the stump, hoping to get another rabbit. Another rabbit was not to be found, and he himself became the laughingstock of the State of Song.

出处 (Source): This is the famous fable 《守株待兔》 (Watching the Stump to Wait for a Rabbit) from 《韩非子·五蠹》

Against Traditionalism: Han Fei was a Legalist (法家) philosopher. He used this story to criticize those who tried to govern modern society by strictly following the "Ways of the Ancient Kings." To Han Fei, the ancient ways were like the "dead rabbit"—a lucky, one-time occurrence that won't happen again in a changing world.

The story mocks people who refuse to adapt. If the circumstances of the world change (the rabbit is gone), but your methods remain the same (waiting at the stump), you will fail.

The "Song Person" Trope: In ancient Chinese literature, people from the State of Song were often the "butt of the joke," portrayed as stubborn or slow-witted (similar to "a man from Gotham" in English folklore)

为 (wéi) - The Passive Voice:

身为宋国笑 ([He] was laughed at by the State of Song).

• Function: Unlike the previous text where "破" pò was active, here 为 acts as a passive marker.
• Structure: A + 为 + B + Verb (A is [verbed] by B).
• Translation: "A be... by B."

而 (ér) - Sequence and Contrast:

1. 折颈而死 (Snapped neck and then died): Conjunction of sequence (顺接).[see first article]
2. 而身为宋国笑 (But he himself was laughed at): Conjunction of contrast (转接). [see second article]

Note how the same particle changes meaning based on the logic of the sentence.

Lesson 6

Text：

夸父与日逐走，入日。渴，欲得饮，饮于河、渭；河、渭不足，北饮大泽。未至，道渴而死。弃其杖，化为邓林。

Pinyin:

Kuāfù yǔ rì zhú zǒu, rù rì. kě, yù dé yǐn, yǐn yú Hé, Wèi; Hé, Wèi bù zú, běi yǐn dà zé. Wèi zhì, dào kě ér sǐ. Qì qí zhàng, huà wéi Dèng lín.

Gloss:

• 夸父 (Kuāfù): Kuafu (name of a giant) / 与 (yǔ): with / 日 (rì): sun / 逐走 (zhú zǒu): race (chase, run).
• 入 (rù): approached (entered) / 日 (rì): the sun.
• 渴 (kě): thirsty / 欲 (yù): desired / 得 (dé): to get / 饮 (yǐn): drink.
• 饮 (yǐn): drank / 于 (yú): at / 河 (Hé): Yellow River / 渭 (Wèi): Wei River.
• 不足 (bù zú): [were] not enough.
• 北 (běi): north (to the north) / 饮 (yǐn): drink / 大泽 (dà zé): Great Lake.
• 未 (wèi): not yet / 至 (zhì): reached [it].
• 道 (dào): [on the] road / 渴 (kě): thirst / 而 (ér): and then / 死 (sǐ): died.
• 弃 (qì): abandoned (threw down) / 其 (qí): his / 杖 (zhàng): staff.
• 化为 (huà wéi): transformed into / 邓林 (Dèng lín): Peach Forest (Deng Forest).

Translation:

Kuafu raced with the sun. He followed it until he reached the setting sun. Feeling thirsty and desiring a drink, he drank from the Yellow River and the Wei River. But the Yellow River and the Wei River were not enough, so he traveled north to drink from the Great Lake. Before he could reach it, he died of thirst on the way. He cast aside his staff, and it transformed into the Deng Forest.

Analysis:

出处 (Source): This myth is found in the 《山海经·海外北经》 (Classic of Mountains and Seas).

Background & Philosophy:

1. Heroic Struggle: Kuafu represents the ancient human spirit’s desire to understand and conquer nature. Though the story ends in tragedy, Kuafu is often viewed as a tragic hero rather than a fool (unlike the "man from Song").
2. Sacrifice and Life: Even in death, Kuafu’s journey brings life. His staff becomes a "Peach Forest" (邓林), providing shade and food for future travelers. This reflects a cyclical view of life and the idea that a hero's legacy sustains the community.
3. Nature's Magnitude: The text emphasizes the scale of the landscape. Kuafu drinks entire rivers (河、渭), yet they are "not enough" (不足) compared to the power of the sun.

Key Grammar & Particles:

于 (yú) - Preposition of Location:

• 饮于河、渭 (Drank at the Yellow and Wei rivers).
• Rule: The structure is Verb + 于 + Place.

而 (ér) - Conjunction of Cause/Result:

• 道渴而死 (Thirsty on the road and so died).
• Rule: Here, 而 connects the condition (thirst) with the result (death).[see before]

Noun as Adverb (Directional):

• 北饮大泽 (Drank northward at the Great Lake).
• Rule: In Classical Chinese, nouns for directions (North, South, etc.) are often placed before the verb to indicate the direction of movement without needing a preposition like "to the ... ."