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Part One - Grammar[edit | edit source]
Section One - The Alphabet[edit | edit source]
The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U, and W.
NOTE 1: The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the letters G and Y. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of our era.
NOTE 2: The Latin names of the consonants were as follows:- B, be (pronounced bay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, de (day); F, ef; G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; M, em; N, en; P, pe (pay); Q, qu (koo); R, er; S, es; T, te (tay); X, ix; Z, zeta (the Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vowel was used as its name.
The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
NOTE: In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except before a in a few words, as Kal. ( Kalendae), Karthago. Thus there was no distinction in writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming (from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. 2.93), Y (originally a form of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.
I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see Sect: 5).
NOTE: V originally denoted the vowel sound u (oo), and F stood for the sound of our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our f, V came to be used for the sound of w as well as for the vowel u.
In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and v for consonant u:-ius, vir, iuvenis.
Vowels[edit | edit source]
The simple Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y.
The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai, oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one following the other in the same syllable.
Consonants[edit | edit source]
Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd). Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur that is heard in vowels; voiceless consonants lack this murmur.
- The voiced consonants are b, d, g, l, r, m, n, z, consonant i, v.
- The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, x.
Consonant Classification[edit | edit source]
Consonants are further classified as in the following table:
.LABIALS .DENTALS .PALATALS
Voiced (mediae) b d g
Mutes Voiceless (tenues) p t c (k, q)
Aspirates phth ch
Nasals m n n (before c, g, q)
Liquids l, r
Fricatives (Spirants) fs, z
Sibilants s, z
Semivowels v consonant i
Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz); h is merely a breathing.
1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch).
2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.
3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the upper front teeth.
4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching or approaching the palate.
5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously through the mouth with audible friction.
6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the breath passes through the nose.
SECTION:#5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable.Consonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v) that of English consonant w.
Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels.
NOTE 1.--The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant sounds of i and u, but used each letter ( I and V) with a double value. In modern books i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds; but in printing in capitals J and U are avoided: IVLIVS ( Iulius). The characters J and U are only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of j and v did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v in the pronunciation of some persons.
NOTE 2.--In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the consonant (w). Thus, aqua, anguis, consuetus (compare English quart, anguish, suave). In these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.
.ORTHOGRAPHY
SECTION:#6. Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the language and was never absolutely settled in all details.
Thus, we find lubet, vorto, as earlier, and libet, verto, as later forms. Other variations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus.
The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern editions of the classics.
After v (consonant u), o was anciently used instead of u ( voltus, servos), and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first century of our era.
The older quo became cu in the Augustan period; in the second century of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words:
cum, older quom;equos, ecus, later equus; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur; similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt.
NOTE.--In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum.
Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or u, an i was developed as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the consonant i. In such cases but one i was written: as, aio (for ai-io), maius (for *mai-ius), peius (for *pei-ius).
Similarly in compounds of iacio but one i was written (as, con-icio, not con-iicio); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i followed by vowel i (see Sect: 11. e).
NOTE.--Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not now recognized in classical texts.
1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike; hence nuntio was later spelled with a c and dicio with a t.
2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as, arena for harena) or mistakenly written (as, humor for umor).
3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open e (about like English e in there), and similarly oe after a time became a long close e (about like the English ey in they); and so both were often confused in spelling with e: as, coena or caena for the correct form cena.
.SYLLABLES
SECTION:#7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs:
u
aci-ce, mo-ne, fi-li-us, fe-ro-ci-ta-te.
In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated:
pa-ter, mi-li-tes, in-iu-ri-a, di-vi-do; mit-to, tol-lo.
NOTE 1.--Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as sp, st, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to di-xit, sa-xum; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, sac-sum.
NOTE 2.--A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.
In compounds the parts are separated:
ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cerno, du-plex, di-sto.
.Pronunciation
SECTION:#8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to represent approximately the pronunciation of classical times.
VOWELS: a as in father
e as in idea
e as eh? (prolonged)
a as in date
e as in eh? (clipped) or e in net.
i as in machine
DIPHTHONGS:
ae like ay
ei as in eight
oe like oy in boy
eu as eh'oo
au like ow in now
ui as oo'ee.
Consonants are the same as in English, except that
c and g are as in come, get, never as in city, gem.
s as in sea, lips, never as in ease.
Consonanta; i is like y in young
v (consonant u) like w in wing.
nasalization of the preceding vowel, which was also lengthened; and final m in an unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on the preceding vowel.
ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for convenience, be neglected); but ph probably became like (or nearly like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced to distinguish it from p.
z is as dz in adze.
bs is like ps
bt is like pt.
NOTE. Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in English (as, Julius Caesar); and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum; viva voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc.
.QUANTITY
SECTION:#9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, long and short.
In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the end of the syllable.
SECTION:#10. Vowels are either long or short by nature, and are pronounced accordingly (Sect: 8).
A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as in via, nihil.
A diphthong is long: as in aedes, foedus. So, also, a vowel derived from a diphthong: as in excludo (from *ex-claudo).
A vowel formed by contraction is long: as in nil (from nihil).
A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as in constans, infero, magnus.
NOTE.--But the quantity of the vowel before gn is not certain in all cases.
A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short: as in amandus, amant.
In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (a, e, etc.), and short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs at once occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.
NOTE.--The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter (called an apex), as ^ ; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An I made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i. But none of these devices came into general use {
SECTION:#11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position of the accent and in versification.
A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long by nature: as, ma-ter, aes, au-a.
A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (except a mute before l or r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be long by position, but the vowel is pronounced short: as, est, ter-a, sax-um, Me-zen-tius.
NOTE.--When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this distinctly. Thus in mit-to both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a single t as in better).
A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before l or r is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said to be common.
NOTE 1.--In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the vowel. In syllables of "common"quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordinary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable could become long.
NOTE 2.--In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel, the quantity in verse is determined by the following word: if this begins with a vowel the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation; if it begins with a consonant the syllable is long by position.
NOTE 3.--In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the apparently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see Sect: 5. N. 2).
A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is long whether the vowel itself is long or short: as, ai-io, mai-ior, pe-ius.
In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel.
NOTE.--The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound (vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, ai-o (for ai-io), ma ior (for mai-ior). See Sect: 6. c.
In some compounds of iacio (as, in-icio) the consonant i of the simple verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syllable was long by position: as, in-icio (for in-iicio). See Sect: 6. d.
In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel.
When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is known to be long.
NOTE.--The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden. It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evidence (see Sect: 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels known to be long is marked. 7]
.ACCENT
SECTION:#12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable: as, Roma, fi'des, tan'go.
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult if that is long (as, ami'cus, mone'tur, contin'git); otherwise on the Antepenult (as, do'minus, ala'cris, dissocia'bilis).
When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, dea'que, amare've, tibi'ne, ita'que (and ... so), as distinguished from i'taque (therefore). So (according to some) ex'inde, ec'quando etc.
Exceptions: 1. Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the accent of the simple verb: as, benefa'cit, calefa'cit (see Sect: 266. a).
NOTE.--These were not true compounds, but phrases.
2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative: as, Corne'li, Vergi'li, inge'ni (see Sect: 49. c).
3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the complete words: as, illic for illice, produc for produce, sati'n for sati'sne.
.Combinations
SECTION:#13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together, are written as one: unusquisque ( unus quisque), siquis ( si quis), quare ( qua re), quamobrem ( quam ob rem; cf. quas ob res), respublica ( res publica), iusiurandum ( ius iurandum), paterfamilia s ( pater familias).
NOTE.--Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the old poets, before est in homost ( homo est), periculumst ( periculum est), ausust ( ausus est), qualist ( qualis est). Similarly there occur vin', scin' for visne, scisne, sis ( si vis), sodes ( si audes), sultis ( si vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he's, I've, thou'rt.
Phonetic Changes
SECTION:#14. Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies, the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early form of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Germanic), from which are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise 8]
belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian, are modern descendants of spoken Latin.
The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These increase in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in literature; that is, about B.C. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical period (B.C. 80-A.D. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is mainly this that is described in this book.
SECTION:#15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms of classical Latin may be mentioned the following:
.Vowel Changes
1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae ( aedilis for old aidilis), old oi became oe or u ( unus for old oinos), and old ou became u ( duco for old douco).
2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i or e, and ae similarly appears as i:
facio, factum, but conficio, confectum; caedo, but occido, and similarly cecidi, perfect of caedo (cf. cado, occido; cecidi, perfect of cado).
NOTE.--This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syllable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see Sect: 12) became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by either of these principles; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.
3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted:
cogo for co-ago; promo for pro-emo; nil for nihil; debeo for de-hibed ( de-habeo).
.Consonant Changes
4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacism), passing first through the sound of (English) z:
eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus.
NOTE.--Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honos), from the analogy of honoris, etc.
5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d, or s: as, equestris for equettris, casus for cadtus (cf. 6, below).
6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found:
cessi for ced-si; summus for supmus; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see Sect: 16). 9]
Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the repetition of the same sound in successive syllables:
Thus, parilia for palilia (from Pales); meridies for medidi es; naturalis with suffix -alis (after r), but popularis with -aris (after l).
7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced; as, plenu fidei.
NOTE.--Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero's time. He speaks of the omission of final s before a word beginning with a consonant as "countrified"( subrusticum).
8. A final consonant often disappears: as, virgo for virgon; lac for lact; cor for cord.
9. G, c, and h unite with a following s to form x: as, rex for regs; dux for ducs; traxi for trahsi.
10. G and h before t become c: as, rectum for regtum; actum for agtum; tractum for *trahtum. /p>
11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed: as, sumpsi for sumsi; emptum for emtum.
SECTION:#16. In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably.
There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations; as, for ad, acc-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com- (comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, cons. i, q, s, t, cons. v; we find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; co- in conecto, coniveo, conitor, conubium. In usually changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f, g, or p; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p; surr-, summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant. Circum often loses its m before i. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimilated to a following f; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef- before f (also ecf-). The d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant. The preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases.
.Vowel Variations
SECTION:#17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel sounds of kindred words. /p>
This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, u; e, e), sometimes as a difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o; i, ae): 12
tego, I cover, toga, a robe; pendo, I weigh, pondus, weight; fides, faith, fidus, faithful, foedus, a treaty; miser, wretched, maestus, sad; dare, to give, donum, a gift; rego, I rule, rex, a king; dux, a leader, duco (for older douco), I lead. Compare English drive, drove (drave), driven; bind, bound, band; sing, sang, sung; etc.
.Kindred .Cognate Forms
SECTION:#18. Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, different in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both preserve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here.
SECTION:#19. The most important correspondences in consonants between Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following table: /p>
LATIN ---------------------------ENGLISH
p: ------------pater // f: ------ father, earlier fader /p>
f from bh: ------ fero, frater // -b: to bear, brother
b from bh: ------ lubet, libet v, // f: love, lief
t: tu, ------ tenuis // th: thou, thin /p>
d: ------ duo, dent- // t: -- two, tooth
f from dh:------ facio // d: do
d from dh:------ medius // d: mid
b from dh: ------ ruber // d: red
c: ------ ------ cord-, cornu // h: heart, horn
qu: ---------------quod // wh: what
g:------ ------ genus, gustus // c, k, ch:------ kin, choose
h (from gh): ----- hortus, haedus // y, g: yard, goat
cons. i: ------ iugum // y: yoke
v: ------ ------ --ventus, ovis // w: wind, ewe
v from gv:------ vivus (for *gvivos), venio (for gvemio ). qu, c, k: // quick, come
NOTE 1.--Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as, niv- (for sniv-), Eng. snow; a nser (for hanser), Eng. goose.
NOTE 2.--From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be carefully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French. Thus facio is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle ( factum) of this verb comes Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat.
1 Strictly, a labio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.
2 The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.
3 Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or rising toward the soft parate (in the back part of the mouth), and (2) palatals, in which the tongue touches crrises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth). Compare the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o, or u
4 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three.
5 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that no distinct and separate consonant u was heard.
6 The spelling quum is very late and without authority.
7 The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but two.
8 A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (cf. was), lorn (cf. lose).
9 Really for *traghsi. The h of traho represents an older palatal sound (see Sect: 19).
10 Really for traghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above).
11 This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits.
12 In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.
13 The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates (bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being, for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f); for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has d); for gh, Latin h, g ( English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change, while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed considerably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes.
14 Theth in father is a late development. The older form fader seems to show an exception to the rule that Englishth corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Germanic form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the consonant underwent a secondary change to d.
15 But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st; as in Latin sto, English stand.
.PARTS OF SPEECH
SECTION:#20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns, Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as, Caesar; Roma, Rome; domus, a house; virtus, virtue.
Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns; other nouns are called Common.
NOTE.--An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea: as, audacia, boldness; senectus, old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like: as, turba, crowd; exercitus, army.
An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good; fortis, brave, strong.
NOTE 1.--A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, Caesar consul creatus, Caesar having been elected consul.
NOTE 2.--Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any common name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.
A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or idea without either naming or describing it: as, is, he; qui, who; nos, we.
Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something: as, sum, I am; amat, he loves.
NOTE.--In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts anything, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.
An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or attribute: as, splendide mendax, gloriously false; hodie natus est, he was born to-day.
NOTE.--These same functions are often performed by cases (see Sect: 214-217) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.
A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence: as, per agros it, he goes over the fields; e pluribus unum, one out of many.
NOTE.--Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. Sect: 219). The relations expressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.
A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without affecting their grammatical relations: as, et, and; sed, but.
NOTE.--Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; donec, until.
Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts of speech. Thus,--heus, halloo! o, oh!
NOTE.--Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words: as, vae victis, woe to the conquered (alas for the conquered)!
.INFLECTION
SECTION:#21. Latin is an inflected language.
Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical relations.
Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination:
vox, a voice; vocis, of a voice; voco, I call; vocat, he calls; vocet, let him call; vocavit, he has called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched.
Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English.
Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.
Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in English:
frangit, he breaks or is breaking; fregit, he broke or has broken; mordet, he bites; momordit, he bit.
SECTION:#22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension, and these parts of speech are said to be declined.
The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be conjugated.
NOTE.--Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote).
SECTION:#23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are not inflected and are called Particles.
NOTE.--The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, - ne, an (interrogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence.
.Root, Stem, and Base
SECTION:#24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the Stem.
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be used without some termination to express them.
Thus the stem voc- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice.
NOTE.--The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a comparison with other forms is necessary to determine it.
SECTION:#25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its component parts.
Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kindred languages.
Thus the root of the stem voc-is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With a-it becomes voca-, the stem of vocare (to call); with av-it is the stem of vocavit (he called); with ato- it becomes the stem of vocatus (called); with ation- it becomes the stem of vocationis (of a calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, voc-is (a voice: that by which we call). This stem voc-, with -alis added, means belonging to a voice; with -ula, a little voice.
NOTE.--In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning.
Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a separate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used carlier.
SECTION:#26. The Stem may be the same as the root: as in duc-is, of a leader, fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root.
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB, shave); reg-is, of a king (REG, direct); voc-is, of a voice (VOC, call).
2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as in fuga-, stem of fuga, flight (FUG + a-); regi-s, you rule (REG + stem-ending e/o-); sini-t, he allows (SI + ne/o-).
3. By two or more of these methods: as in duci-t, he leads (DUC + stemending e/o-).
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See Sect: 227 ff.)
SECTION:#27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in inflection: as, serv- in servus; mens- in mensa; ign- in ignis.
The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of mensa, mensa-; that of ignis, igni-.
SECTION:#28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by combination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see Sect: 36, 164) developed.
1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the system of inflections.
2 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege).
3 For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit <
>, Latin sistere and stare, German fteben, and English stand.
4 These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.
.GENDER
SECTION:#29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three: Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.
SECTION:#30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: as, puer (M.), boy; puella (F.), girl; rex (M.), king; regina (F.), queen.
NOTE 1.--Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peoples are masculine: as, Romani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.
NOTE 2.--A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class: as, mancipium , your slave (your chattel).
Many petenames of girls and boys are neuter in form: as, Paegnium, Glycerium.
NOTE 3.--Names or classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as, exercitus (M.), acies (F.), and agmen (N.), army; operae (F. plur.), workmen; copiae (F. plur.), troops, senatus (M.), senate; cohors (F.), cohort; concilium (N.), council.
Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; manus mea (F.), my hand.
.Gender (grammatical)
SECTION:#31. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains, are masculine:
pater, father; Iulius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; Ianuarius, January; Apenninus, the Apennines.
NOTE.--Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mensis, month, being understood: as, Ianuarius, January.
A few names of Rivers ending in - a (as, Allia), with the Greek names Lethe and Styx, are feminine; others are variable or uncertain.
Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender of their termination: as, Alpes (F.), the Alps; Soracte (N.).
SECTION:#32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine:
mater, mother; Iulia, Julia; Roma, Rome; Italia, Italy; rosa, rose; pinus, pine; sapphirus, sapphire; anas, duck; veritas, truth.
Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine: as, Sulmo, Gabii (plur.); or neuter as, Tarentum, Illyricum.
A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termination: as, centaureum (N.), centaury; acanthus (M.), bearsfoot; opalus (M.), opal.
NOTE.--The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the terminations, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gens or house (see Sect: 108. b).
SECTION:#33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter:
fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to know); triste vale, a sad farewell; hoc ipsum, this very thing; diu, very long
SECTION:#34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow; parens, parent.
NOTE.--Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex. These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is always feminine.
.NUMBER AND CASE
SECTION:#35.
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative.
The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of.
The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (Sect: 274). It may usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for.
The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (Sect: 274). It is used also with many of the prepositions.
The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from, by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.
The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as objectcases; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases ( casus obliqui).
In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the Locative), denoting the place where: as, Romae, at Rome; ruri, in the country.
NOTE.--Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (Sect: 215. 4).
.DECLENSION OF NOUNS
SECTION:#36. Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to different forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the language have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see Sect: 109 ff.).
SECTION:#37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular.
.DECLENSIONS OF THE 5 Types
SING.
Decl. 1 Nom sg. -a
Decl. 2 Nom sg.- -o/u
Decl. 2 Nom sg. --
Decl. 3 Nom sg. -u
Decl. 4 Nom sg. -ie
PLUR.
Decl. 1 Gen Sg. -ae
Decl. 2 Gen Sg. -rum
Decl. 3 Gen Sg. -is
Decl. 4 Gen Sg. -us
Decl. 5 Gen Sg. -ies
The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by Decl. 3 omitting the case-ending; if a vowel stem, by substituting Decl. 4 for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.
SECTION:#38. The following are General Rules of Declension:
The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have - e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs from the nominative.
In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a.
The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m; the Accusative plural in -s.
In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in -i.
The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
The Genitive plural always ends in -um.
Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long; final -a is short, except in the Ablative singular of the first declension; final -e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in plural cases.
.Case-endings of the Five Declensions
SECTION:#39. The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are the following:
Endings of the Five Declensions
.FIRST DECLENSION (a-STEMS)
SECTION:#40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a-. The Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in Greek nouns.
SECTION:#41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined:
stella, F., star
STEM stella-
SINGULAR
Nom stella
Gen. stellae
Dat. stellae
Acc. stellam
Abl. stella
Voc. stella
PLURAL
Nom stellae
Gen. stellarum
Dat. stellis
Acc. stellas
Abl. stellis
Voc. stellae
The Latin has no article; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or simply star.
.Gender in the First Declension
SECTION:#42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Exceptions: Nouns masculine from their signification: as, nauta, sailor. So a few family or personal names: as, Murena, Dolabella, Scaevola; also, Hadria, the Adriatic.
Case-Forms in the First Declension
SECTION:#43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -ai (dissyllabic), which is occasionally found: as, aulai. The same ending sometimes occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong.
An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, often used in the combinations pater ( mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family (plur. patres familias or familiarum).
The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae; for the plural in - is (cf. p. 34, footnote): as, Romae, at Rome; Athenis, at Athens.
The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, especially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of Aeneas, and in compounds with -cola and -gena, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum, celestials; Troiugenum, sons of Troy; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and drachma.
The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, end in an older form -abus (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corresponding cases of deus, god, and filius, son ( deis, filiis). So rarely with other words, as, liberta, freed-woman; mula, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents, etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and filia.
NOTE 1.--The old ending of the ablative singular (-ad) is sometimes retained in early Latin: as, praidad, booty (later, praeda).
NOTE 2.--In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -iis (as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis); so regularly in words in -aia (as, Bais from Baiae).
Greek Nouns of the First Declension
SECTION:#44. Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court); but others retain traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.
SINGULAR
Nom musicae
Dat. musicae
Acc. musicam
Abl. musica
Voc. musicae
SINGULAR
Nom eptome
Gen. epitomes
Dat. epitome
Acc. epitomen
Abl. epitome
Voc.
SINGULAR
Nom Aeneas
Gen. Aeneae
Dat. Aeneae
Acc. Aenean
Abl. Aenea
Voc. Aenea
PLURAL
Nom Aeneadae
Gen. Aeneadarum
Dat. Aeneadis
Acc. Aeneadas
Abl. Aeneadis
Voc. Aeneadae
There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being names of plants or arts: as, crambe, cabbage; musice, music. Most have also regular Latin forms: as, cometa; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.
Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it occurs, is regular: as, cometae, -arum, etc.
Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third declensions: as, Bootae (genitive of Bootes, -is), Thucydidas (accusative plural of Thucydides, -is). See Sect: 52. a and Sect: 81.
NOTE.--The Greek accusative Scipiadam, from Scipiades, descendant of the Scipios, is found in Horace.
1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little left hand; but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it became masculine. Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun.
.SECOND DECLENSION (o-STEMS)
SECTION:#45. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in o-: as, viro- (stem of vir, man), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave), bello- (stem of bellum, war).
The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel o being weakened to u (see Sect: 6. a, 46. N.1).
In most nouns whose stem ends in ro- the s is not added in the Nominative, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r,if not already present: as, ager, stem agro-; cf. puer, stem puero-.
Exceptions: erus, hesperus, iuniperus, morus, numerus, taurus, umerus, uterus, virus, and many Greek nouns.
The stem-vowel o has a variant form e,which is preserved in the Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us: as, serve, vocative of servus, slave.
NOTE.--In composition this -e- appears as -i. Thus,--belli- ger, warlike (from bell- o/e-, stem of bellum, war).
SECTION:#46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (- os) and -um (-om) are thus declined:
servus, M., slave bellum, N., war Pompeiius, M., Pompey
STEM servo- STEM bello- STEM Pompeio-
Masculine. . servus (- os) -
SINGULAR
Nom servus (os)
Gen. servi
Dat. servo
Acc. servum (-om)
Abl. servo
Voc. serve
PLURAL
Nom servi
Gen. servorum
Dat. servis
Acc. servos
Abl. servis
Voc. servi
Neuter
SINGULAR
Nom bellum
Gen. belli
Dat. bello
Acc. bellum
Abl. bello
Voc. bellum
PLURAL
Nom bella
Gen. bellorum
Dat. bellis
Acc. bella
Abl. bellis
Voc. bella
NOTE 1.--The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were - os, -om, and these were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions: as, Cornelio for Cornelios, Corneliom.
NOTE 2.--Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu to c before u. Thus,--ecus (earlier equos), equi, equo, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modern editions disregard this principle.
SECTION:#47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus declined:
puer, M., boy ager, M., field vir, M., man
STEM Masc.puero- STEM Masc.viro-
SINGULAR
Nom puer
Gen. pueri
Dat. puero
Acc. puerum
Abl. puero
Voc. puere
PLURAL
Nom pueri
Gen. puerorum-
Dat. pueris
Acc. pueros
Abl. pueris
Voc. pueri
SINGULAR
Nom vir
Gen. viri
Dat. viro
Acc. virum
Abl. viro
Voc. vir
PLURAL
Nom viri
Gen. virorum
Dat. viris
Acc. viros
Abl. viris
Voc. viri
NOTE.--When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout; other, wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.
Gender in the Second Declension
SECTION:#48. Nouns ending in -us (- os), -er, -ir, are Masculine; those ending in -um (-on) are Neuter.
Exceptions: Names of countries and towns in -us (- os) are Feminine: as, Aegyptus, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following: alvus, belly; carbasus, linen (pl. carbasa, sails, N.); colus, distaff; humus, ground: vannus, winnowing-shovel.
Many Greek nouns retain their original gender: as, arctus (F.), the Polar Bear; methodus (F.), method.
The following in -us are Neuter; their accusative (as with all neuters) is the same as the nominative: pelagus, sea; virus, poison; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagus, which has a rare nominative and accusative plural pelage.
NOTE.--The nominative plural neuter cete, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative singular cetus occurs in Vitruvius.
Case-Forms in the Second Declension
SECTION:#49. a. The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in - i: as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at Corinth; for the plural, in - is: as, Philippis, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote).
The genitive of nouns in - ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age, in a single - i: as, fili, of a son; Pompeii, of Pompey ( Pompeiius); but the accent of the nominative is retained: as, inge' ni, of genius.
Proper names in - ius have - i in the vocative, retaining the accent of the nominative: as, Vergi'li. So also, filius, son; genius, divine guardian: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son.
Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occasionally used as nouns: as, Lacedaemonie, O Spartan.
NOTE.--Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie: as, Lyrcius, vocative Lyrcie.
The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. Sect: 6. a) instead of - orum, especially in the poets: as, deum, superum, divom, of the gods; virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money, measure, and weight: as, Sevirum, of the Seviri; nummum, of coins; iugerum, of acres.
The original ending of the ablative singular (-o d) is sometimes found in early Latin: as, Gnaivod (later, Gnaeo), Cneius.
Proper names in -aius, - eiius, -eius (as, Aurunculeiius, Boi), are declined like Pompeiius. (N Sg deus N.Pl dei
NOTE.--The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said to have been dee; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive plural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used.
SECTION:#50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem, retain the e throughout and are declined like puer (Sect: 47):
adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; puer, boy;
socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening; Liber, Bacchus.
Also, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural (Sect: 111. a), and compounds in - fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-): as, lucifer, morning star; armiger, squire.
An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, boy, as if from *puerus (regularly puer).
Vir, man, has genitive viri; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi; vesper, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperi, in the evening).
Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric names Hiber and Celtiber retain e throughout.
SECTION:#51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the nominative singular and are declined like ager (Sect: 47):
ager, field, stem agro-; coluber, snake; magister, master;
aper, boar; conger, sea eel; minister, servant;
arbiter, judge; culter, knife; oleaster, wild olive;
auster, south wind; faber, smith; onager (-grus), wild ass;
cancer, crab; fiber, beaver; scomber (-brus), mackerel.
caper, goat; liber, book;
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension
SECTION:#52. Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in - os, - os, masculine or feminine, and in -on neuter.
They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular:
SINGULAR
Nom Del os
Gen. Deli
Dat. Delo
Acc. Delon
Abl. Delo
Voc. Del e
SINGULAR
Nom Ilion
Gen. Ilii
Dat. Ilio
Acc. Ilion
Abl. Ilio
Voc. Ilion
Many names in - es belonging to the third declension have also a genitive in - i: as, Thucydides, Thucydidi (compare Sect: 44. b).
Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer or Teucrus. The name Panthus has the vocative Panthu (Sect: 81. 3).
The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek termination -on: as, Georgicon, of the Georgics.
The termination -oe (for Greek -oi) is sometimes found in the nominative plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and third declensions (see Sect: 82).
1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre.
2 Compare Greek agros, which shows the original o of the stem.
3 By so-called Ablaut (see Sect: 17. a).
4 The genitive in -ii occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably unknown to Cicero.
.THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND i-STEMS)
SECTION:#53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in
a, e, i, o, y, c, l, n, r, s, t, x.
SECTION:#54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows:
I. Consonant Stems a. Mute stems. b. Liquid and Nasal stems.
II. I-Stems a. Pure i-stems. b. Mixed i-stems.
SECTION:#55. The Nominative is always derived from the stem.
The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi fications of the stem, of which the most important are.
1. Combination of final consonants: as of c (or g) and s to form x; dux, ducis, stem duc-; rex, regis, stem reg-.
2. Omission of a final consonant: as of a final nasal; leo, leonis, stem leon-; oratio, orationis, stem o ration-.
3. Omission of a final vowel: as of final i; calcar, calcaris, stem calca ri-.
4. Change of vowel in the final syllable : as of a to e; princeps (for -caps), principis, stem princip- (for -cap-).
.CONSONANT STEMS
Mute Stems
SECTION:#56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the Nominative by adding s to the stem.
A labial (p) is retained before s: as, princep- s.
A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s: as, miles (stem milit-), custos (stem custod-).
A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x: as, dux (for *duc-s), rex (for reg-s).
In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nominative and i in the stem: as, princeps, stem princip- (for -cap-).
SECTION:#57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:
princeps, C., chief radix, F., root miles, M., soldier
STEM princip- "chief"
SINGULAR
Nom princeps
Gen. princip is
Dat. princip i
Acc. princip em
Abl. princip e
Voc. princeps
PLURAL
Nom princip es
Gen. preincipum
Dat. principibus
Acc. princip es
Abl. principibus
Voc. princip es
SINGULAR
Nom radix
Gen. radic is
Dat. radic i
Acc. radic em
Abl. radic e
Voc. radix
PLURAL
Nom radic es
Gen. rade cum
Dat. radicibus
Acc. radic es
Abl. radicibus
Voc. radic es
SINGULAR
Nom miles
Gen. milit is
Dat. milit i
Acc. milit em
Abl. milit e
Voc. miles
PLURAL
Nom milit es
Gen. militum
Dat. militibus
Acc. milit es
Abl. militibus
Voc. milit es
SINGULAR
Nom custos
Gen. custod is
Dat. custod i
Acc. custod em
Abl. custod e
Voc.
PLURAL
Nom custod es
Gen. custodum
Dat. custodibus
Acc. custod es
Abl. custodibus
Voc. custod es
SINGULAR
Nom dux
Gen. ducis
Dat. duci
Acc. ducem
Abl. duce
Voc. dux
PLURAL
Nom duces
Gen. ducum
Dat. ducibus
Acc. duces
Abl. ducibus
Voc. duc es
SINGULAR
Nom rex
Gen. reg s
Dat. regi
Acc. regem
Abl. rege
Voc. rex
PLURAL
Nom reges
Gen. regum
Dat. regibus
Acc. reges
Abl. regibus
Voc. reges
In like manner are declined--
aries, - etis (M.), ram; comes, - itis (c.), companion; lapis, -idis (M.), stone; iudex, -icis (M.), judge; cornix, -icis (F.), raven, and many other nouns.
SECTION:#58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But:
Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute: as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in ea t- from the Greek: as, poe ma (stem poemat-).
The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for capot).
SECTION:#59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:
cor, N., heart caput, N., head poema, N., poem
STEM cord- STEM capit- STEM poemat-
SINGULAR
Nom cor
Gen. cordis
Dat. cord i
Acc. cor
Abl. corde
Voc. cor
PLURAL
Nom cord a
Gen. cordum
Dat. cordibus
Acc. cord a
Abl. cordibus
Voc. cord a
SINGULAR
Nom caput
Gen. capitis
Dat. capiti
Acc. caput
Abl. capite
Voc. caput
PLURAL
Nom capita
Gen. capiyum
Dat. capitibus
Acc. capita
Abl. capitibus
Voc. capita
SINGULAR
Nom poema
Gen. poemat is
Dat. poemat i
Acc. poema
Abl. poemat e
Voc. poema
PLURAL
Nom poemat a
Gen. poematum
Dat. poematum
Acc. poemat a
Abl. poematum
Voc. poemat a
SECTION:#60. The following irregularities require notice:
Greek neuters with nominative singular in - a (as poema) frequently end in - is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in - orum in the genitive plural; as, poematis (for poematibus), poematorum (for poematum).
A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the genitive plural (like cor). See Sect: 103. g. 2.
.Liquid and Nasal Stems (l, n, r)
SECTION:#61. In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.
Exceptions are the following:
1. Stems in on- drop n in the nominative: as in legio, stem legion-.
2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original o in the nominative: as in virgo, stem virgin-.
3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nominative: as in cornicen, stem cornicin-.
4. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, pater, stem patr-.
SECTION:#62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:
consul, M., consul leo, M., lion virgo, F., maiden pater, M., father
SINGULAR
Nom consul
Gen. consul is
Dat. consul i
Acc. consul em
Abl. consul e
Voc. consul
PLURAL
Nom consul es
Gen. consulum
Dat. consulibus
Acc. consul es
Abl. consulibus
Voc. consul es
SINGULAR
Nom leo
Gen. leonis
Dat. leoni
Acc. leonem
Abl. leone
Voc. leo
PLURAL
Nom leon es
Gen. leonum
Dat. leonibus
Acc. leones
Abl. leonibus
Voc. leon es
SINGULAR
Nom virgo
Gen. virginis
Dat. virgini
Acc. virginem
Abl. virgine
Voc. virgo
PLURAL
Nom virgines
Gen. virginum
Dat. virginibus
Acc. virgines
Abl. virginibus
Voc. virgines
SINGULAR
Nom pater
Gen. patris
Dat. patri
Acc. patrem
Abl. patre
Voc. pater
PLURAL
Nom patres
Gen. patrum
Dat. patribus
Acc. patres
Abl. patribus
Voc. patres
NOTE 1.--Stems in ll-, rr- (N.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far, farris; mel, mellis.
NOTE 2.--A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as in -r: as, honos or honor, arbos or arbor.
NOTE 3.-- Canis, dog, and iuvenis, youth, have - is in the nominative.
SECTION:#63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.
Exceptions: 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative: as in nomen, stem nomin-.
2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative: as, genus, stem gener-.
SECTION:#64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:
nomen, N., name genus, N., race corpus, N., body aequor, N., sea
SINGULAR
Nom nomen
Gen. nomin is
Dat. nomin i
Acc. nomen
Abl. nomin e
Voc. nomen
PLURAL
Nom nomin a
Gen. nominum
Dat. nominibus
Acc. nomin a
Abl. nominibus
Voc. nomin a
SINGULAR
Nom genus
Gen. generis
Dat. generi
Acc. genus
Abl. genere
Voc. genus
PLURAL
Nom genera
Gen. generum
Dat. generibus
Acc. genera
Abl. generibus
Voc. gener a
SINGULAR
Nom corpus
Gen. corporis
Dat. corpori
Acc. corpus
Abl. corpore
Voc. corpus
PLURAL
Nom corpora
Gen. corporum
Dat. corporibus
Acc. corpore
Abl. corporibus
Voc. corpora
SINGULAR
Nom aequor
Gen. aequoris
Dat. aequori
Acc. aequor
Abl. aequore
Voc. aequor
PLURAL
Nom aequor a
Gen. aequorum
Dat. aequoribus
Acc. aequora
Abl. aequoribus
Voc. aequora
So also are declined opus, - eris, work; pignus, - eris or - oris, pledge, etc.
NOTE.--The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems: imber, linter, uter, venter; glis, mas, mus, [ ren]; also vires (plural of vis: see Sect: 79).
The i-STEMS
SECTION:#65. Nouns of this class include:
1. Pure i-Stems:
Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in - is and four in -er.
Neuters in - e, -al, and -ar.
2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems, the plural like i-stems.
1 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and in part upon the influence of analogy.
2 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and in part upon the influence of analogy.
3 These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weakened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and vocative singular show the e. But cf. Maspitris and Maspiteris (Ma[r]s-piter), quoted by Priscian as old forms.
4 These were originally s-stems (cf. Sect: 15. 4).
5 I.e. having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular.
.Pure I-Stems --Pure
SECTION:#66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in - is form the Nominative singular by adding s to the stem.
Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i and insert e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter.
SECTION:#67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:
sitis, F., thirst turris, F., tower ignis, M., fire imber, M., rain
SINGULAR
Nom sitis
Gen. sitis
Dat. siti
Acc. sitim
Abl. siti
Voc. sitis
SINGULAR
Nom turris
Gen. turris
Dat. turri
Acc. turrim (-em)
Abl. turri
Voc. turris
PLURAL
Nom turres
Gen. turrium
Dat. turribus
Acc. turres
Abl. turribus
Voc. turres
SINGULAR
Nom ignis
Gen. ignis
Dat. igni
Acc. ignem
Abl. igne
Voc. ignis
PLURAL
Nom ignes
Gen. ignium
Dat. ignibus
Acc. ignes
Abl. ignibus
Voc. ignes
SINGULAR
Nom imber
Gen. imbris
Dat. imbri
Acc. imbrem
Abl. imbre
Voc. imber
PLURAL
Nom imbres<
Gen. imbrium<
Dat. imbribus
Acc. imbres<
Abl. imbribus
Voc. imbres<
SECTION:#68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with final i changed to e: as, mare, stem mari-. But most nounsin which the i of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final vowel and shorten the preceding a: as, animea l, stem animali-.
Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have - i in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural: as, animal, animali, -ia, -ium.
SECTION:#69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:
SINGULAR
Nom sedile
Gen. sedilis
Dat. sedili
Acc. sedile
Abl. sedile
Voc. sedile
PLURAL
Nom sedilia
Gen. sedilium
Dat. sedilibus
Acc. sedilia
Abl. sedilibus
Voc. sedilia
SINGULAR
Nom animal
Gen. animalis
Dat. animali
Acc. animal
Abl. animali
Voc. animal
PLURAL
Nom animalia
Gen. animalium
Dat. animalibus
Acc. animalia
Abl. animalibus
Voc. animalia
SINGULAR
Nom calcar
Gen. calcaris
Dat. calcari
Acc. calcar
Abl. calcari
Voc. calcar
PLURAL
Nom calcaria
Gen. calcarium
Dat. calcaribus
Acc. calcaria
Abl. calcaribus
Voc. calcaria
1 Such are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minutal, puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectigal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear, tucar, luminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dentalia, frontalia, genualia, sponsalia; altaria, plantaria, specularia, talaria; also many names of festivals, as, Saturnalia.
2 Exceptions are augurale, collare, focale, navale, penetrale, ramale, scutale, tibiale; alveare, capillare. cochleare.
.Mixed i-Stems
SECTION:#70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their i-forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i- forms in the plural.
NOTE.--It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.
SECTION:#71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and - e in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitiveand - is or - es in the accusative plural. They include the following:
1. Nouns in - es, gen. - is.
2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, pons, arx.
3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as, cliens, cohors.
4. Nouns in -tas, genitive - tatis (genitive plural usually -um): as, civitas.
5. Penat es, optimates, and nouns denoting birth or abode (patrials) in -as, - is, plural -ates, - ites: as, Arpinas, plural Arpinates; Quiris, plural Quirites.
6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel: dos, fraus, glis, lis, mas, mus, nix, nox, strix, vis.
SECTION:#72. Nouns of this class are thus declined:
nubes, F., cloud urbs, F., city nox, F., night cliens, M., client aetas, F., age
SINGULAR
Nom nubes
Gen. nubis
Dat. nubi
Acc. nubem
Abl. nube
Voc. nubes
PLURAL
Nom nubes
Gen. nubium
Dat. nubibus
Acc. nubes
Abl. nubibus
Voc. nubes
SINGULAR
Nom urbs
Gen. urbis
Dat. urbi
Acc. urbem
Abl. urbe
Voc. urbs
PLURAL
Nom urbes
Gen. urbium
Dat. urbibus
Acc. urbes
Abl. urbibus
Voc. urbium
SINGULAR
Nom nox
Gen. noctis
Dat. nocti
Acc. noctem
Abl. nocte
Voc. nox
PLURAL
Nom noctes
Gen. noctium
Dat. noctibus
Acc. noctes
Abl. noctibus
Voc. noctes
SINGULAR
Nom cliens
Gen. clientis
Dat. clienti
Acc. clientem
Abl. clientem
Voc. cliens
PLURAL
Nom clientes
Gen. clientium
Dat. clientibus
Acc. clientes
Abl. clientibus
Voc. clientes
SINGULAR
Nom aetas
Gen. aetatis
Dat. aetati
Acc. aetatem
Abl. aetate
Voc. aetas
PLURAL
Nom aetates
Gen. aetatum
Dat. aetatibus
Acc. aetates
Abl. aetatibus
Voc. aetates
1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having -ium, some -um, and some both.
2 These are acinaces, aedes, alces, caedes, cautes, clades, compages, contages, fames, feles, fides (plural), indoles, labes, lues, meles, moles, nubes, palumbes, proles,propages, pubes, sedes, saepes, sordes, strages, strues, suboles, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, vepres, verres, vulpes; aedes has also nominative aedis.
3 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having -ium, some -um, and some both.
4 Rarely clientum.
5 Also aetatium. Cf.Sect: 71. 4.
Summary of i-Stems
SECTION:#73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them. The nominative plural (-is)was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular (-im), next the ablative (-i); while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, - is) were retained in almost all.
SECTION:#74. I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms:
They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack it entirely). For a few exceptions, see Sect: 78.
All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.
The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly - is.
The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im (Sect: 75).
The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and feminines, ends in - i (see Sect: 76).
SECTION:#75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i- stems (M. or F.) would be -im: as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella, -am; servus, -um); but in most nouns this is changed to - em (following the consonant declension).
The accusative in -im is found exclusively:
1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.
2. In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis.
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim; and in amussim.
The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, turris, securis, sementis, and rarely in many other words.
SECTION:#76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would be - i: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed to - e.
The ablative in - i is found exclusively:
1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (Sect: 75); also securis.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: aequalis, annalis, aqualis, consularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis.
3. In neuters in - e, -al, -ar: except baccar, iubar, rete, and sometimes mare.
The ablative in - i is found sometimes:
1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis,imber, lux, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, canalis, familiaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, tridens, triremis, vocalis.
NOTE 1.--The ablative of fames is always fam e (Sect: 105. e). The defective mane has sometimes mani (Sect: 103. b. N.) as ablative.
NOTE 2.--Most names of towns in - e (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Soracte, a mountain, have the ablative in - e. Caere has Caerete.
NOTE 3.--Canis and iuvenis have cane, iuvene
SECTION:#77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -es,but - is is occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural - is is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is -eis (diphthong).
SECTION:#78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural:
1. Always,-- canis, iuvenis,ambages, mare (once only, otherwise wanting), volucris; regularly, sedes, vates.
2. Sometimes,-- apis, caedes, clades, mensis, strues, suboles.
3. Very rarely,--patrials in -as, -atis; - is, - itis; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum, Samnis, Samnitum.
.Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension
(Editor: In the original format these are in a table, here you can find the same forms in plain text format.)
SECTION:#79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nominative or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined:
bos, C.--- senex, M. ---caro, F. ---os, N. ---vis, F.
SINGULAR
NOM. bos ----senex ----caro ----os ----vis
GEN. bov is ----sen is---- carn is ----oss is ----vis (rare)
DAT. bov i ----sen i ----carn i ----oss i---- vi (rare)
ACC. bov em ----sen em ----carn em ----os ----vim
ABL. bov e ----sen e---- carn e---- oss e---- vi
PLURAL
NOM. bov es---- sen es---- carn es ----oss a ----vir es
GEN. boum ----senum ----carnium ----ossium ----virium
DAT. bobus---- senibus---- carnibus---- ossibus---- viribus
ACC. bov es ----sen es---- carn es ----oss a ----vir is (- es
ABL. bobus---- senibus ----carnibus---- ossibus ----viribus
SINGULAR
NOM. sus------Iuppiter------nix------iter
GEN. su is ------Iov is ------niv is ------itiner is
DAT. su i------ Iov i------ niv i ------itiner i
ACC. su em ------Iov em ------niv em ------iter
ABL. su e------ Iov e ------niv e------ itiner e
PLURAL
NOM. su es ------niv es ------itiner a
GEN. suum ------nivium ------itinerum
DAT. suibus ------ nivibus ------itineribus
ACC. sues------ niv es------ itiner a
ABL. suibus ------ nivibus ------itineribus
Two vowel-stems in u-, gru- and su-, which follow the third declension, add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems: grus has also a nominative gruis; sus has both suibus and suè÷bus in the dative and ablative plural, grus has only gruibus.
In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes o in the nominative (bos, bovis).
In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, - is), and it is declined like turris (Sect: 67).
In Iov- (= Zeus) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in Iu-piter (for -pea ter), genitive I ovis, etc.; but the form Iuppiter is preferred.
In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (N.), supellex, supellectilis (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem; in senex, senis, from a longer; so that these words show a combination of forms from two distinct stems.
In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural.
Vas (N.), vasis, keeps s throughout; plural vasa, vasorum. A dative plural vasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vasum.
.The Locative Case
SECTION:#80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends in the singular in - i or - e, in the plural in -ibus: as, ruri, in the country; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at Tralles.
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension
SECTION:#81. Many nouns originally Greek--mostly proper names-- retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially:
1. Genitive singular in - os, as, tigridos.
2. Accusative singular in - a, as, aethera.
3. Vocative singular like the stem, as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla.
4. Nominative plural in -es, as, heroe ¥s.
5. Accusative plural in -es, as: heroes.
SECTION:#82. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples:
heros, M., hero lampas, F., torch basis, F., base tigris, C., tiger nais, F., naiad
SINGULAR
NOM. heros -----lampas ----- bas is -----tigr is -----nais
GEN. hero is -----lampad os ----- bas eos -----tigr is(-id os) -----naid os
DAT. hero i -----lampad i -----bas i -----tigr i ----- naid i
ACC. hero a -----lampad a ----- bas in -----tigr in(-id a) -----naid a
ABL. hero e -----lampad e vbas i -----tigr i(-id e) -----naid e
PLURAL
NOM. -----heroes -----lampades -----bas es -----tigr es ----- naides
GEN. heroum -----lampadum -----basium(- eon) -----tigrium -----naidum
D.A.heroibus -----lampadibus -----basibus -----tigribus -----naidibus
ACC. heroea s -----lampadea s ----- bas is((-- eis) -----tigr is(-ide a s) -----naide a s
PROPER NAMES
NOM. Dido ------Simois ------Capys
GEN. Didonis(Dedus) ------Simoentis ------ Capy os
DAT. Didoni(Dido) ------ Simoenti ------Capy i
ACC. Didon em(-o) ------ Simoenta ------Capyn
ABL. Didon e(-o) ------Simoente ------Capye
VOC. Dido ------Simois ------Capy
NOM. Orpheus ------Pericles------ Paris
GEN. Orphe i(-e os)------ Pericl is(- i) ------Paridis
DAT. Orphe i(-e o)------ Pericl i(- i)------ Parid i
ACC. Orphe a(-um) ------Periclem(- ea, - en) ------Parid em, Parim(-in)
ABL. Orphe o ------Pericl e ------Parid e, Par i
VOC. Orpheu ------Pericles(- e) ------Pari
NOTE.--The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.
SECTION:#83. Other peculiarities are the following:
Delphinus, - i (M.), has also the form delphi n, - inis; Salamis, - is (F.) has acc. Salamina.
Most stems in id- (nom. - is) often have also the forms of i-stems: as tigris, gen. -i dis (-i dos) or - is; acc. -i dem (-i da) or -im (- in); abl. -i de or - i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. - idem (-ida); abl. -ide,--not -im or - i. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)
Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Agamemnon (or Agamemno), genitive -o nis, accusative -o na.
Stems in ont- form the nominative in -on: as, horizon, Xenophon; but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. - o): as, Draco, -onis; Antipho, -onis.
Like Simo is are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in unt- (nominative in -as, - is, -us): as, Atla s, - antis; Trapezus, -untis.
Some words fluctuate between different declensions: as Orpheus between the second and the third.
-on is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books: as, Metamorphoseon, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Georgicon, of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).
Gender in the Third Declension
SECTION:#84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or feminine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gender (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their principal exceptions, are the following:
SECTION:#85. Masculine are nouns in -or, - os, -er, -e ¥s (gen. - itis), - ex (gen. -i cis): as, color, flos, imber, gurges ( gurgitis), vertex ( verticis).
Exceptions are the following:
Feminine are arbor; c os, dos; linter.
Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor; os ( oris); also os ( ossis);
cadaver, iter, tuber, uber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er: as, acer, papaver.
SECTION:#86. Feminine are nouns in - o, -as, - es, - is, -us, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant: as, legio, civitas, nubes, avis, virtus, arx, urbs. The nouns in - o are mostly those in - do and -go, and abstract and collective nouns in -io.
Exceptions are the following:
Masculine are leo, leonis; ligo,-onis; sermo, -onis; also cardo, harpago margo, ordo, turbo; and concrete nouns in -io: as, pugio, unio, papilio;
acinaces, aries, celes, lebes, paries, pes;
Nouns in - nis and -guis: as, ignis, sanguis; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumis, ensis, fascis, follis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vomis;
mus;
calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in - ex (gen. -icis) (Sect: 85);
dens, fons, mons, pons.
NOTE.--Some nouns in - is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprilis (sc. mensis), M., April; oriens (sc. sol), M., the east; annalis (sc. liber), M., the year-book.
Neuter are vas ( vasis); crus, ius, pus, rus, tus.
SECTION:#87. Neuter are nouns in - a, - e, -l, -n, -ar, -ur, -?-s: as, poema, mare, animal, nomen, calcar, robur, corpus; also lac and caput.
Exceptions are the following:
Masculine are sal, sol, pecten, vultur, lepus.
Feminine is pecus (gen. - udis).
.FOURTH DECLENSION
SECTION:#88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Feminine nouns form the nominative by adding s; Neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with u (long).
SECTION:#89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows:
SINGULAR
Nom manus
Gen. manus
Dat. manui(-u)
Acc. manum
Abl. manu
Voc. manus
PLURAL
Nom manus
Gen. man uum
Dat. man uum
Acc. manus
Abl. manuum
Voc. manus
SINGULAR
Nom lacus
Gen. lacus
Dat. lacui(-u)
Acc. lacum
Abl. lacu
Voc.
PLURAL
Nom lacus
Gen. lacuum
Dat. lacubus -ibus
Acc. lacus
Abl. lacubus -ibus
Voc. lacus
SINGULAR
Nom genus
Gen. genus
Dat. genu
Acc. genus
Abl. genu
Voc.
PLURAL
Nom genua
Gen. genuum
Dat. genibus
Acc. genua
Abl. genibus
Voc. genua
1 An old, though not the original ending (see p. 32. footnote 2).
2 Always in the formula aqua et igni interdici (Sect: 401).
3 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -es (preserved in Greek in consonant stems, as ortux, ortug- es), contracts with a stem-vowel and gives - es in the Latin i-declension (cf, the Greek plural oeis). This - es was extended to consonant stems in Latin.
4 Canis and iuvenis are really n-stems
5 Also Iupiter.
6 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -i, which became -e in Latin. Thus the Latin ablative in - e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in - i (from -id) was an analogical formation (cf. - a from - ad, - o from -od), properly belonging to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was ascribed to forms in - i (as, Carthagini), partly on the analogy of the real locative of o-stems (as, Corinthi, Sect: 49. a); but forms in -e also survived in this use. The plural -bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative function. Cf. Philippis (Sect: 49. a), in which the ending - is is, historically considered, either locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athenis (Sect: 43. c), in which the ending is formed on the analogy of o-stems.
7 Dative, heroisin (once only).
8 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted.
9 Many nouns in - o (gen. -onis) are masculinby signification: as, gero, carrier restio, ropemaker: and family names (originally nicknames): as, Cicero, Naso. See Sect: 236. c, 255.
SECTION:#90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine.
Exceptions: The following are Feminine: acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (plural), manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatrus (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus.
SECTION:#91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are cornu, genu, pecu (Sect: 105. f), ver u.
1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians as occurring in certain cases.
SECTION:#92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth Declension require notice:
A genitive singular in - i (as of the second declension) sometimes occurs in nouns in -tus: as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatus).
In the genitive plural - uum is sometimes pronounced as one syllable, and may then be written -um: as, currum (Aen. 6.653) for curruum.
The dative and ablative plural in -ubus are retained in partus and tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words; portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.
Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension: as, ficus, fig, genitive ficus or fici.
An old genitive singular in - uis or - uos and an old genitive plural in -uom occur rarely: as, senatuis, senatuos; fluctuom.
The ablative singular ended anciently in -ud (cf. Sect: 43. N. 1): as, magistratud.
SECTION:#93. Domus (F.), house, has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions:
SINGULAR
Nom domus
Gen. domus (dom i, loc.)
Dat. domui (dom o)
Acc. domum
Abl. domo -u
Voc. dome
PLURAL
Nom domus domi
Gen. domuum (dom orum)
Dat. domibus
Acc. domus domos
Abl. domibus
Voc. --
NOTE 1.--The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home.
NOTE 2.--The Genitive domi occurs in Plautus; domorum is late or poetic.
SECTION:#94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (- sus) (Sect: 238. b):
cantus, song, CAN, cano, sing; casus (for *cad-tus), chance, CAD, cado, fall, exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul).
Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy:
consulatus (as if from *consulo, - are), senatus, incestus.
The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (- sus) form the Supines of verbs (Sect: 159. b): as, spectatum, petitum; dictu, visu.
Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun: as, iussu ( meo), by (my) command; so iniussu ( populi), without (the people's) order. Of some only the dative is used: as, divisui.
.FIFTH DECLENSION (e-STEMS)
SECTION:#95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in e-, which appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s.
SECTION:#96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows:
res, F., thing dies, M., day fides, F., faith
SINGULAR
Nom res
Gen. rei
Dat. rei
Acc. rem
Abl. re
Voc. res
PLURAL
Nom res
Gen. rerum
Dat. rebus
Acc. re
Abl. rebus
Voc. res
SINGULAR
Nom dies
Gen. diei
Dat. diei
Acc. diei
Abl. die
Voc. dies
PLURAL
Nom dies
Gen. dierum
Dat. diebus
Acc. dies
Abl. diebus
Voc. dies
SINGULAR
Nom fides
Gen. fidei
Dat. fidei
Acc. fidem
Abl. fide
Voc. fides
PLURAL ?
Nom fides
Gen. fiderum<
Dat. fidibus
Acc. fides
Abl. fidibus
Voc. fides
NOTE.--The e of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides, spes, res, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e is always short.
Gender in the Fifth Declension
SECTION:#97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except dies (usually M.), day, and meridies (M.), noon.
Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general: as, constituta die, on a set day; longa dies, a long time.
Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension
SECTION:#98. The following peculiarities require notice:
Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or accusative in acies, effigies, e luvies, facies, glacies, series, species, spes.
The Locative form of this declension ends in - e. It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time:
hodie, to-day; die quarto (old, quarti), the fourth day;
perendie, day after to-morrow; pridie, the day before.
The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns have forms of both: as, materia, -ies; saevitia, -ies. The genitive and dative in - ei are rarely found in these words.
Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension: as, requies, saties (also satias, genitive -atis), plebes (also plebs, genitive plebis), fames, genitive famis, ablative fame.
NOTE.--In the genitive and dative - ei (-ei) was sometimes contracted into -ei: as, tribunus pleb ei, tribune of the people ( plebes). Genitives in - i and - e also occur: as, dii (Aen. 1.636) , plebi-scitum, acie (B. G. 2.23) . A few examples of the old genitive in - es are found (cf. -as in the first declension, Sect: 43. b). The dative has rarely -e, and a form in - i is cited.
1 The forms facierum, specierum, speciebus, sperum, spebus, are cited by grammarians, also speres, speribus, and some of these occur in late authors.
.DEFECTIVE NOUNS
Nouns wanting in the Plural
SECTION:#99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only ( singularia tantum). These are:
1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Caesar; Gallia, Gaul.
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as, aurum, gold; aer, air; triticum, wheat.
3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio, ambition; fortitudo, courage; calor, heat.
SECTION:#100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in some other sense.
The plural of a proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common:
duodecim Caesares, the twelve Caesars.
Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine).
Castores, Castor and Pollux; Ioves, images of Jupiter.
The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nives, snowflakes; or different kinds of a thing: as, aeres, airs (good and bad).
The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like:
quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority; otia, periods of rest; calores, frigora, times of heat and cold.
Nouns wanting in the Singular
SECTION:#101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the Plural ( pluralia tantum). Such are:
1. Many names of towns: as, Athenae ( Athens), Thurii, Philippi, Veiii.
2. Names of festivals and games: as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Bacchanalia, feast of Bacchus; Quinquatrus, festival of Minerva; ludi Romani, the Roman Games.
3. Names of classes: as, optimates, the upper classes; maiores, ancestors; liberi, children; penates, household gods; Quirites, citizens (of Rome).
4. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; artus, joints; divitiae, riches; scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors; fores, double-doors; angustiae, a narrow pass (narrows); moenia, city walls.
NOTE 1.--Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English nouns in the singular number: as, deliciae, delight, darling; fauces, throat; fides, lyre (also singular in poetry); insidiae, ambush; cervices, neck; viscera, flesh.
NOTE 2.--The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion: as, ora (for os), the face; sceptra (for sceptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium), silence.
SECTION:#102. Some nouns of the above classes (Sect: 101. 1-4), have a corresponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense:
1. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat.
2. As adjective: as, Cato Maior, Cato the Elder.
3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder, valva, a door; artus, a joint.
Nouns Defective in Certain Cases
SECTION:#103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms::
Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular: fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus (need), secus.
NOTE 1.--The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative.
NOTE 2.--The genitive nihili and the ablative nihilo (from nihilum, nothing) occur.
Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes):
1. In the nominative singular: glos (F.).
2. In the genitive singular: dicis, nauci (N.).
3. In the dative singular: divisui (M.) (cf. Sect: 94. c).
4. In the accusative singular: amussim (M.); venum (dative veno in Tacitus).
5. In the ablative singular: pondo (N.); mane (N.); astu (M.), by craft; iussu, iniussu, natu, and many other verbal nouns in -us (M.) (Sect: 94. c).
NOTE.--Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mani is used as ablative. Pondo with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A nominative singular astus and a plural astus occur rarely in later writers.
6. In the accusative plural: infitias.
Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes):
1. In the nominative and ablative singular: fors, forte (F.).
2. In the genitive and ablative singular: spontis (rare), sponte (F.).
3. In the accusative singular and plural: dicam, dicas (F.).
4. In the accusative and ablative plural: foras, foris (F.) (cf. fores), used as adverbs.
Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes):
1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular: impetus, -um, -u (M.); lues, - em, - e (F.).
2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural: grates, -ibus (F).
3. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural: iugera, -um, -ibus (N.); but iugerum, etc., in the singular (cf. Sect: 105. b).
Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes):
In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: dicionis, - i, - em, - e (F.).
Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular:
1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frugis, - i, - em, - e (F.); opis, - i (once only), - em, - e (F.; nominative Ops as a divinity).
2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: preci, - em, - e (F.).
3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative: cassem, - e (F.); sordem, - e (F.).
4. Nouns found in the ablative only: ambage (F.); fauce (F.); obice (C.).
Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural:
1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative only: fel ( fella), far ( farra), hordeum ( hordea), ius, broth ( iura), mel ( mella), murmur ( murmura), pus ( pura), rus ( rura), tus or thus (tura).
NOTE.--The neuter ius, right, has only iura in classical writers, but a very rare genitive plural iurum occurs in old Latin.
2. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lanx, lux, nex, os ( oris),os ( ossis),pax, pix, ros, sal, sol, vas ( vadis), want the genitive plural.
3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural (see Sect: 98. a).
Nouns defective in both singular and plural:
1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative, accusative, dative, ablative plural: vicis, - em, - e; - es, -ibus.
2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular; genitive plural wanting: dapis, - i, - em, - e; - es, -ibus.
1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted.
2 The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each.
3 The ablative plural oribus is rare, the classical idiombeing in ore omnium, in everybody's mouth, etc., not in oribus omnium.
4 The genitive plural ossium is late; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem) is early and late.
5 An old nominative daps is cited.
.VARIABLE NOUNS
SECTION:#104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender.
SECTION:#105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called heteroclites.
Colus (F.), distaff; domus (F.), house (see Sect: 93), and many names of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.
Some nouns vary between the Second and Third: as, iugerum, - i, - o, ablative - o or - e, plural - a, -um, -ibus; Mulciber, genitive -beri and - beris; sequester, genitive -tri and - tris; vas, vasis, and (old) vasum, - i (Sect: 79. e).
Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth: as, penus, penum, genitive peni and penoris, ablative penu.
Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see Sect: 98. c).
Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus,-- requies has genitive - etis, dative wanting, accusative -etem or - em, ablative - e (once - ete); fames, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame (Sect: 76. N. 1), and pubes (M.) has once dative pube (in Plautus).
Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, etc., but also nominative pecu, ablative pecu; plural pecua, genitive pecuum.
Many vary between different stems of the same declension: as, femur (N.), genitive - oris, also - inis (as from *femen); iecur (N.), genitive iecinoris, iocinoris, iecoris; munus (N.), plural munera and munia.
SECTION:#106. Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous.
The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um: balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many others of rare occurrence.
The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the Singular:
balneum (N.), bath; balneae (F.), baths (an establishment).
caelum (N.), heaven; caelos (M. acc., Lucr.).
carbasus (F.), a sail; carbasa (N.) (- orum), sails.
delicium (N.), pleasure; deliciae (F.), pet.
epulum (N.), feast; epulae (F.), feast.
frenum (N.), a bit; freni (M.) or frena (N.), a bridle.
iocus (M.), a jest; ioca (N.), ioci (M.), jests.
locus (M.), place; loca (N.), loci (M., usually topics, passages in books).
rastrum (N.), a rake; rastri (M.), rastra (N.), rakes.
NOTE.--Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous.
SECTION:#107. Many nouns are found in the Plural in a peculiar sense:
aedes, - is (F.), temple--- aedes, -ium, house.
aqua (F.), water--- aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place.
auxilium (N.), help--- auxilia, auxiliaries.
bonum (N.), a good--- bona, goods, property.
carcer (M.), dungeon--- carceres, barriers (of race-course).
castrum (N.), fort--- castra, camp.
comitium (N.), place of assembly--- comitia, an election (town-meeting).
copia (F.), plenty--- copiae, stores, troops.
fides (F.), harp-string--- fides, lyre.
finis (M.), end--- fines, bounds, territories.
fortuna (F.), fortune--- fortunae, possessions.
gratia (F.), favor (rarely, thanks)--- gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces).
hortus (M.), a gardon--- horti, pleasure-grounds.
impedimentum (N.) hindrance--- impedimenta, baggage.
littera (F.), letter (of alphabet)--- litterae, epistle, literature.
locus (M.), place [plural loca (N.)]--- loci,topics, places in books.
ludus (M.), sport--- ludi, public games.
mos (M.), habit, custom--- mores, character.
natalis (M.), birthday--- natales, descent, origin.
opera (F.), work--- operae, day-laborers (uhands‰Û?).
[ ops,] opis (F.), help (Sect: 103. f. 1)--- opes, resources, wealth.
pars (F.), part--- partes, part (on the stage), party.
rostrum (N.), beak of a ship--- rostra, speaker's platform.
sal (M. or N.), salt--- sales, witticisms.
tabella (F.), tablet--- tabellae, documents, records.
1 That is, "nouns of different inflections"(eteros, another, and klin?, to inflect).
2 That is, "of different genders"( heteros, another, and genos, gender).
3 In early writers the regular plural.
.NAMES OF PERSONS
SECTION:#108. A Roman had regularly three names: (1) the praenomen, or personal name; (2) the nomen, or name of the gens or house; (3) the cognomen, or family name:
Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicero we have--
Marcus, the praenomen, like our Christian or given name;
Tullius, the nomen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian gens (or house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus;
Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in origin a nickname,--in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
NOTE.--When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cognomen is usually put in the plural: as, Publius et Servius Sullae.
A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or distinction, or to show adoption from another gens.
Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio africanus Aemilianus: e Ûfricanus, from his exploits in Africa; Aemilianus, as adopted from the Aemilian gens.
NOTE.--The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these additions, but later grammarians invented the word agnomen to express them.
Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the nomen of their gens.
Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia tertia, and so on.
The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated:
A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus.
App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.
C. (G.) Gaius ( Caius) (cf. Sect: 1. a). M'. Manius. Sex. (S.) Sextus.
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.
D. Decimus. N. ( Num.) Numerius T. Titus.
K. Kaeso (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.
NOTE 1.--In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value or G (Sect: 1. a).
1 In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the praenomina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVLLIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Marcus Tullius Marci filius Marci nepos Marci pronepos Cornelia tribu Cicero. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive: as, Postumia Servi Sulpicii (Suet. Iul. 50) , Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli (Div. 1.104) , Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.
.ADJECTIVES
SECTION:#109. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.
1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. Thus,--
bonus puer, the good boy.
bona puella, the good girl.
bonum donum, the good gift.
2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third Declension.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (a- AND o-STEMS)
SECTION:#110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (a- and o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager; in the Feminine like stella; and in the Neuter like bellum.
The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declensions is bonus, - a, -um, which is thus declined:
bonus, bona, bonum, good
MASCULINE STEM bono----FEMININE STEM bona---- NEUTER STEM bono-
SINGULAR
NOM. bonus -----------bona -----------bonum
GEN. boni ----------bonae -----------boni
DAT. bono ----------bonae -----------bono
ACC. bonum -----------bonam -----------bonum
ABL. bono ----------bona -----bono
VOC. bon e----------- bon a -----------bonum
PLURAL
NOM. boni ----------bonae ----------bona
GEN. bonorum ----------bonarum ----------bonorum
DAT. bonis ----------bonis ----------bonis
ACC. bonos ----------bonas ----------bona
ABL. bonis ----------bonis ----------bonis
NOTE.--Stems in quo- have nominative -cus (- quos), - qua, - cum (- quom), accusative - cum (- quom), - quam, - cum (- quom), to avoid quu- (see Sect: 6. b and 46. N. 2). Thus,:
NOM. propincus (-quos) propin qua propin cum (- quom)
GEN. propin qui propin quae propin qui, etc.
But most modern editions disregard this principle.
The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in - ius ends in - ii, and the Vocative in -ie; not in - i, as in nouns (cf. Sect: 49. b, c); as, Lacedaemonius, - ii, -ie.
NOTE.--The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi (cf. Sect: 145).
SECTION:#111. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative Masculine like puer (Sect: 47) and are declined as follows:
miser, misera, miserum, wretched
MASCULINE STEM misero- FEMININE STEM misera- NEUTER STEM misero-
SINGULAR
NOM. miser--------- -- miser a -----------miserum
GEN. miseri -----------miserae -----------miseri
DAT. misero -----------miserae -----------misero
ACC. miserum -----------miseram -----------miserum
ABL. misero -----------misera -----------misero
PLURAL
NOM. miseri -----------miserae -----------misera
GEN. miserorum --------miserarum --------miserorum
DAT. miseris ----------miseris ----------miseris
ACC. miseros ----------miseras -----------misera
ABL. miser is ----------miser is ----------miser is
Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros perus), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of - fer and -ger: as, saetiger, - era, - erum, bristle-bearing; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dextra it is often omitted: as, dextra manus, the right hand.
NOTE.--Stems in ero- (as procerus), with morigerus, prope ¥rus, have the regular nominative masculine in -us.
The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use: cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases: as, postero die, the next day.
NOTE.--An ablative feminine in - o is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectica; octophoro (Verr. 5.27) .
SECTION:#112. Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative Masculine like ager (Sect: 47) and are declined as follows:
niger, nigra, nigrum, black
MASCULINE STEM nigro- FEMININE STEM nigra- NEUTER STEM nigro-
SINGULAR
NOM. niger -----------nigra -----------nigrum
GEN. nigri -----------nigrae -----------nigri
DAT. nigro -----------nigrae -----------nigro
ACC. nigrum -----------nigram -----------nigrum
ABL. nigr acute; -----------nigra -----------nigro
PLURAL
NOM. nigri ------------nigrae -----------nigra
GEN. nigrorum ---------nigr arum -------nigrorum
DAT. nigris -----------nigr is ----------nigris
ACC. nigros -----------nigras -----------nigra
ABL. nigris -----------nigris ----------nigris
Like niger are declined aeger, ater, creber, faber, glaber, integer, ludicer, macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer; also the possessives noster, vester (Sect: 145).
SECTION:#113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have the Genitive Singular in - ius and the Dative in - i in all genders:
alius (N. aliud), other. totus, whole. alter, -terius, the other.
nullus, no, none. ullus, any. neuter, -trius, neither.
solus, alone. unus, one. uter, -trius, which (of two).
Of these the singular is thus declined:
NOM. unus ------------una ------------unum
GEN. un ius ----------unius ----------un ius
DAT. un i------------ uni------------ un i
ACC. unum --------- -unam -------------unum
ABL. un o ------------un a ------------un o
NOM. uter --------- utr a --------- utrum
GEN. utrius -------- utrius --------- utr ius
DAT. utri --------- utri --------- utri
ACC. utrum --------- utram --------- utrum
ABL. ut o --------- utra--------- utro
NOM. alius --------- ali a --------- aliud
GEN. al ius--------- al ius --------- al ius
DAT. ali i ------- -- ali i --------- ali i
ACC. alium -------- - aliam --------- aliud
ABL. alio ------- -- alio --------- alia o
NOM. alter ------- --alter a ------- --alterum
GEN. alter ius ------- alter ius ------- -alter ius
DAT. alter i ------- --alter i ------- --alter i
ACC. alterum------- -- alteram ------- --alterum
ABL. alter o ------- --alter a ------- --alter o
The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (Sect: 110).
The genitive in - ius, dative in - i, and neuter in -d are pronominal in origin (cf. illius, illi, illud, and Sect: 146).
The i of the genitive ending - ius, though originally long, may be made short in verse; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.
Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense the adjective alienus, belonging to another, another's.
In compounds--as alteruter--sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, to one of the two.
NOTE.--The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine, alio. Rare forms are alis and alid (for alius, aliud).
.THIRD DECLENSION ADJECTIVE (CONSONANT AND i-STEMS)
SECTION:#114. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified:
1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular,--one for each gender: as, acer, acris, acre.
2. Adjectives of Two Terminations,--masculine and feminine the same: as, levis (M., F.), leve (N.).
3. Adjectives of One Termination,--the same for all three genders: as, atrox.
Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain in the ablative singular - i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly - is (see Sect: 73 and 74).
Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations
SECTION:#115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined:
acer, acris, acre, keen, STEM acri-
SINGULAR
NOM. acer -------------acr is ----------acr e
GEN. acr is ----------acr is ------------acr is
DAT. acr i -----------acr i ---------- acr i
ACC. acr em ----------acr em -----------acr e
ABL. acr i ----------- acr i ---------- acr i
PLURAL
NOM. acr es ----------acr es -----------acria
GEN. acrium -----------acrium ------------acrium
DAT. acribus ----------acribus ----------acribus
ACC. acr is (-es) -----acr is (- es)-----acria
ABL. acribus ----------acribus ----------acribus
Like acer are declined the following stems in ri-:
DAT.
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, silvester, terrester, volucer. So
ACC.also names of months in - ber: as, October (cf. Sect: 66).
ABL.
NOTE 1.--This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes used for both genders: as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, funebris, illustris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these are declined like levis (Sect: 116).
NOTE 2.-- Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in - e.
SECTION:#116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined:
There will be a masculine and a Neuter form, only. But the forms of some are doubtful.
Like acer are declined the following stems in ri-:
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, silvester, terrester, volucer. So also names of months in - ber: as, October (cf. Sect: 66).
NOTE 1.--This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes used for both genders: as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, funebris, illustris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these are declined like levis (Sect: 116).
NOTE 2.-- Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in - e.
levis, leve, light, STEM levi-
MASC./FEM ----------------------NEUTER
SINGULAR
NOM. levis ----------------leve
GEN. levis ---------------levis
DAT. levi ----------------levi
ACC. levem ---------------leve
ABL. levi ----------------levi
PLURAL
NOM. leves ---------------levia
GEN. levium ---------------levium
DAT. levibus ---------------levibus
ACC. levis (- es) ----------levia
ABL. levibus ----------------levibus
NOTE.--Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in - e in poetry, rarely in prose.
Adjectives of One Termination
SECTION:#117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Consonant stems; but most of them, except Comparatives, have the following forms of i-stems:
- i in the ablative singular (but often - e)
-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter
ium in the genitive plural
- is (as well as - es) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.
In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.
These adjectives, except stems in l- or r-, form the nominative singular from the stem by adding s: as, atrox (stem atroc- + s), egens (stem egent- + s).
Here belong the present participles in -ns (stem nt-): as, amans, monens. They are declined like egens (but cf. Sect: 121).
SECTION:#118. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows:
atrox, fierce, STEM atroc- egens, needy, STEM egent-
SINGULAR
M. N. M. N.
NOM. atrox atrox ---------------egens egens
GEN. atroc is atroc is ------------egent is egent is
DAT. atroc i atroc i -------------egent i egent i
ACC. atroc em atrox ---------------egent em egens
ABL. atroc i(-e) atroc i (- e)--------egent i (-e) egent i(- )
PLURAL
NOM. atroc es atrocia ------------egent es egentia
GEN. atrocium atrocium ------------gentium egentium
DAT. atrocibus atrocibus ----------egentibus egentibus
ACC. atrocis(-es) atrocia ------------egent is(-es) egentia
ABL. atrocibus atrocibus ----------egentibus egentibus
SECTION:#119. Other examples are the following:
concors, harmonious STEM concord- praeceps, headlong STEM praecipit-
............SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N.
NOM. concors concors ----------praeceps praeceps
GEN. concord is concord is -------praecipit is praecipit is
DAT. concord i concord i --------praecipit i praecipit i
ACC. concord em concors ----------praecipit em praeceps
ABL. concord i concord i ---------praecipit i praecipit i
............PLURAL
NOM. concord es concordia -------praecipit es praecipitia
GEN. concordium concordium ------[ praecipitium]
DAT. concordibus concordibus -----praecipitibus praecipitibus
ACC. concord is/-es concordia -------0raecipit is/ es praecipitia
ABL. concordibus concordibus -----praecipitibus praecipitibus
iens, going STEM eunt- par, equal STEM par- dives, rich STEM divit-
SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N. M., F. N.
NOM. iens iens -------------par par ------------dives dives
GEN. eunt is eunt is -------par is par is -------divit is divit is
DAT. eunt i eunt i ---------par i par i-------- divit i divit i
ACC. eunt em iens ---------par em par----------divit em dives
ABL. eunt e/-i eunt e/-i-- -par i par i --------divit e divit e
PLURAL
NOM. eunt es euntia ---------par es paria -----------divit es [ditia]
GEN. euntium euntium ---------parium parium ---------divitum d ivitum
DAT. euntibus euntibus -------paribus paribus -------divitibus divitibus
ACC. eunt is/-es euntia ------par is/-es paria ------divit is /-es [divites]
ABL. euntibus euntibus -------paribus paribus-------- divitibus divitibus
uber, fertile STEM uber- vetus, old STEM veter-
SINGULAR
NOM. uber uber -------------------vetus vetus
GEN. uber is uber is -------------veter is veter is
DAT. uber i uber i ----------------veter i veter i
ACC. uber em uber -----------------veter em vetus
ABL. uber iuber i -----------------veter e (- i) veter e (- i)
PLURAL
NOM. uber es uber a --------------veter es veter a
GEN. uberum uberum ---------------veterum veterum
DAT. uberibus uberibus -----------veteribus veteribus
ACC. uber es uber a-------------- veter es veter a
ABL. uberibus uberibus-- ---------veteribus veteribus
NOTE.--Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded self into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for *bi-corpos), degener (for de-genes).
.Comparatives: Declension
SECTION:#120. Comparatives are declined as follows:
melior, better STEM melior- for melios------ plus, more STEM plur- for plus- There is a Masc./Fem. and a separate Neuter for melius. But plus has just one form
SINGULAR
NOM. melior melius --------------plus
GEN. melior is melior is -----------plur is
DAT. melior i melior i ------------pluri
ACC. melior em melius --------------plus
ABL. melior e (- i) melior e (- i) ------plur e
PLURAL
NOM. melior es melior a plur es --------------plur a
GEN. meliorum meliorum ----------------------plurium plurum
DAT. melioribus melioribus pluribus ----------pluribus
ACC. melior es(-is) melior a plur es (- is) ------plur a
ABL. melioribus melioribus pluribus ----------pluribus
All comparatives except plus are declined like melior.
The stem of comparatives properly ended in long/short-s-; but this became or in the nominative masculine and feminine, and or- in all other cases except the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and short -o- is changed to u (cf. honor, - oris; corpus, -oris). Thus comparatives appear to have two terminations.
The neuter sing ular plus is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. Sect: 417). The dative is not found in classic use. The compound complures, several, has sometimes neuter plural compluria.
Case-Forms of Consonant Stems
SECTION:#121. In adjectives of Consonant stems:
The Ablative Singular commonly ends in - i, but sometimes - e.
1. Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have - e.
2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute, Sect: 419), or as nouns, regularly have - e; but participles used as adjectives have regularly - i:
domino imperante, at the master's command; ab amante, by a lover; ab amanti muliere, by a loving woman.
3. The following have regularly - i: amens, anceps, concors (and other compounds of cor), consors (but as a substantive, - e), degener, hebes, ingens, inops, memor (and compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.
4. The following have regularly - e: caeles, compos, [*deses], dives, hospes, particeps, pauper, princeps, sospes, superstes. So also patrials (see Sect: 71. 5) and stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives.
The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -um in the following:
1. Always in compos, dives, inops, particeps, praepes, princeps, supplex, and compounds of nouns which have -um: as, quadru-pes, bi-color.
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns: as, silentum concilium, a council of the silent shades (Aen. 6.432).
The Accusative Plural regularly ends in - is, but comparatives commonly have - es.
Vetus (gen. -eris) and pubes (gen. -eris) regularly have - e in the ablative singular, - a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -um in the genitive plural. For uber, see Sect: 119.
A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine form in - a: as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iuno Sospita.
Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives
SECTION:#122. The following special points require notice:
Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-orus).
A few adjectives are indeclinable: as, damnas, frugi (really a dative of service, see Sect: 382. 1. N. 2), nequam (originally an adverb), necesse, and the pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an indeclinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.
Several adjectives are defective: as, exspes (only nom.), exlex ( exlegem) (only nom. and acc. sing.), pernox ( pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.); and primoris, semineci, etc., which lack the nominative singular.
Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender.
Such are adulescens, youthful; [ deses], -idis, slothful; inops, - opis, poor; sospes, - itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, are sometimes called masculine adjectives.
For Adjectives used as Nouns, see Sect: 288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see Sect: 321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see Sect: 214; for Adverbs used as Adjectives, see Sect: 321. d.
.COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
SECTION:#123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of comparison: the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
SECTION:#124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neuter - ius),the Superlative by adding -issimus (- a, -um), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel:
carus, dear (stem ca ro-); carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest.
levis, light (stem levi-); levior, lighter; levissimus, lightest.
felix, happy (stem felic-); felecior, happier; felecissimus, happiest.
hebes, dull (stem hebet-); hebetior, duller; hebetissimus, dullest.
NOTE.--A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comparatives: as, grandius- culus, a little larger (see Sect: 243).
Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared:
patiens, patient; patientior, patientissimus.
apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus.
SECTION:#125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative. The comparative is regular:
acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus.
miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus.
So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form veter; and maturus, besides its regular superlative ( maturissimus), has a rare form maturrimus.
For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used.
SECTION:#126. Six adjectives in - lis form the Superlative by adding - limus to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis.
facilis (stem facili-), easy; facilior, facil limus.
SECTION:#127. Compounds in -dicus (saying) and -volus (willing) take in their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dicens and volens, which were anciently used as adjectives:
maledicus, slanderous; maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus.
So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus:
magni ficus, grand; magnificentior, magnificentissimus.
SECTION:#128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs magis, more, and maxime, most.
So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i:
idoneus, fit; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus.
NOTE.--But pius has piissimus in the superlative,--a form condemned by Cicero, but common in inscriptions; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus.
.Irregular Comparison
SECTION:#129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular forms:
bonus, good----- melior, better----- optimus, best.
malus, bad----- peiior, worse----- pes simus, worst.
magnus, great----- maior, greater----- maximus, greatest.
parvus, small----- minor, less----- min imus, least.
multus, much----- plus (Sect:120), more----- plurimus, most.
multi, many----- plures, more----- pluri mi, most.
nequam (indecl.Sect:122b), worthless----- nequior----- nequissimus.
frugi (indecl., Sect:122b), useful, worthy----- frugalior----- fruga lissimus.
dexter, on the right, handy----- dexterior----- dextimus.
NOTE.--These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf. Sect: 127). Thus frugalior and frugalissimus are formed from the stem frugali-, but are used as the comparative and superlative of the indeclinable frugi.
Defective Comparison
SECTION:#130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a Positive:
ocior, swifter----- ocissimus, swiftest.
potior, preferable-----potissimus, most important.
The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives:--
cis, citra (adv., on this side): citerior, hither----- citimus, hithermost.
de (prep., down): deterior, worse----- deterrimus, worst.
in, intra (prep., in, within): interior, inner----- intimus, inmost.
prae, pro (prep., before): prior, former----- primus, first.
prope (adv., near): propior, nearer----- proximus, next.
ultra (adv., beyond): ulterior, farther----- ultimus, farthest.
Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as nouns (generally in the plural):
exterus, outward----- exterior, outer----- extremus ( extimus), outmost
inforus, below (see Sect: 111. b)----- inferior, lower----- infimus ( imus), lowest.
posterus, following----- posterior, latter----- postremus (postumus), last.
superus, above----- superior, higher----- supremus or summus, highest
But the plurals, exteri, foreigners----- inferi, the gods below----- posteri, posterity, superi, the heavenly gods, are common.
NOTE.--The superlative postumus has the special sense of last-born, and was a well known surname.
SECTION:#131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superlative:
The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following:
bellus, inclutus (or inclitus), novus,
caesius, invictus, pius,
falsus, invitus, sacer,
fidus (with its compounds), meritus, vafer.
The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or - bilis (as, agilis, probabilis), and in the following:
actuosus exilis proclivis surdus
agrestis ingens propinquus taciturnus
alacer ieiunus satur tempestivus
arcanus longinquus segnis teres
caecus obliquus serus vicinus
diuturnus opimus supinus
From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. Sect: 122. d), are formed the comparatives iunior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor natu and maior natu are sometimes used ( natu being often omitted).
The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with or without natu.
NOTE.--In these phrases natu is ablative of specification (see Sect: 418).
Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable of comparison.
NOTE.--But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger, glossy black. and candidus, shining white, are compared; but not ater or albus, meaning absolute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior).
1 For details see Sect: 121.
Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s
Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s
An ablative in - e is very rare.
6 Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others.
7 The comparative suffix (earlier -ios) is akin to the Greek - i?n, or the Sanskrit -iyans. That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form of uncertain origin. It appears to contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in h
8 The old positive potis occurs in the sense of able, possible.
9 The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are comparatives of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comparative in -er). The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison; those in -mus like imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms like extremus are superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an accumulation of endings, as children say furtherer and furtherest.
.NUMERALS
SECTION:#132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows:
I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES:
1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, unus, one; duo, two, etc.
2. Ordinal Numbers,adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardinals, and answering the question which in order? as, primus, first; secundus, second, etc.
3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singuli, one at a time; bini, two by two, etc.
II. NUMERAL ADVERBS, answering the question how often? as, semel, once; bis, twice, etc.
Cardinals and Ordinals
SECTION:#133. These two series are as follows:
CARDINAL ---------------- ORDINAL ROMAN NUMERALS
1. unus, una, unum, one ---primus, -a, -um, first I
2. duo, duae, duo, two ----secundus ( alter), second II
3. tres, tria, three -----tertius, third III
4. quattuor ----quartus IIII or IV
5. quinque ----quintus V
6. sex -----sextus VI
7. septem ----septimus VII
8. octo -----octavus VIII
9. novem -----nonus VIIII or IX
10. decem ----decimus X
11. undecim ----undecimus XI
12. duodecim --duodecimus XII
13. tredecim ( decem ( et) tres) -----tertius decimus ( decimus ( et) tertius) XIII
14. quattuordecim -----quartus decimus XIIII or XIV
15. quindecim ----quintus decimus XV
16. sedecim sextus ----decimus XVI
17. septendecim septimus -----decimus XVII
18. duodeviginti (octodecim)------ duodevicensimus ( octavus decimus) XVIII
19. undeviginti (novendecim) undevicensimus(nonus decimus) XVIIII or XIX
20. viginti vicensimus (vigensimus) XX
21. viginti unus (or unus et viginti, etc.) vicensimus primus ( unus et vicensimus, etc.) XXI
30. triginta tricensimus XXX
40. quadraginta quadrag ensimus XXXX or XL
50. quinquaginta quinquagensimus ‰ " or L
60. sexaginta sexagensimus LX
70. septuaginta septuag ensimus LXX
80. octoginta octogensimus LXXX
90. nonaginta nonagensimus LXXXX or XC
100. centum centensimus C
101. centum ( et) unus, etc. centensimus primus, etc. CI
200. ducenti, -ae, -a ducentensimus CC
300. trecenti trecentensimus CCC
400. quadringenti quadringentensimus CCCC
500. quingenti quingentensimus D
600. sescenti sescentensimus DC
700. septingenti septingentensimus DCC
800. octingenti octingentensimus DCCC
900. nongenti nongentensimus DCCCC
1000. mille millensimus [oolig] (CI‰ a ) or M
5000. quinque milia (millia) quinquiens millensimus I‰ a ‰ a
10,000. decem milia (millia) deciens millensimus CCI‰ a ‰ a
100,000. centum milia (millia) centiens millensimus CCCI‰ a ‰ a ‰ a
NOTE 1.--The forms in -ensimus are often written without the n: as, vicesimus, etc.
NOTE 2.--The forms octodecim, novendecim are rare, duodeviginti (two from twenty), undeviginti (one from twenty), being used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may be expressed either by the subtraction of two and one or by the addition of eight and nine respectively.
.Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals
SECTION:#134. Of the Cardinals only unus, duo, tres, the hundreds above one hundred, and mille when used as a noun, are declinable.
For the declension of unus, see Sect: 113. It often has the meaning of same or only. The plural is used in this sense; but also, as a simple numeral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, una castra, one camp (cf. Sect: 137. b). The plural occurs also in the phrase uni et alteri, one party and the other (the ones and the others).
Duo,two, and tres, three, are thus declined:
M. F. N. M., F. N.
NOM. du o duae duo -------tr es tria
GEN. du orum du arum du orum -------trium trium
DAT. duobus duabus duobus -----tribus tribus
ACC. du os (du o) duas du o -----tr es (tr is) tria
ABL. duobus duabus duobus -----tribus tribus
NOTE.-- Ambo, both, is declined like duo.
The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.
Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective:
mille modis, in a thousand ways.
cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men.
mille trahens varios colores (Aen. 4.701) , drawing out a thousand various colors.
In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural of sedile (Sect: 69): milia, milium, milibus, etc.
NOTE.--The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and accusative: as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand (of) men; in the other cases rarely, except in connection with the same case of milia: as, cum octo milibus peditum, mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.
The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are regularly declined like bonus.
SECTION:#135 . Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses:
In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted: duo et viginti; otherwise et is omitted: viginti duo.
In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or stands between the two highest denominations: mille ( et) septingenti sexaginta quattuor, 1764.
NOTE.--Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives:
unus et viginti milites, or viginti milites ( et) unus, 21 soldiers.
duo milia quingenti milites, or duo milia militum et quingenti, 2500 soldiers.
milites mille ducenti triginta unus, 1231 soldiers.
After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive:
duo milia hominum, two thousand men.
cum tribus milibus militum, with three thousand soldiers.
milia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).
For million, billion, trillion, etc., the Romans had no special words, out these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. Sect: 138. a).
Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree with pars expressed or understood: two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partes); three-eighths, tres octavae (sc. partes).
One-half is dimidia pars or dimidium.
NOTE 1.--When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: onethird, tertia pars; one-fourth, quarta pars.
NOTE 2.--When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the numerator only is given: two-thirds, duae partes; three-fourths, tres partes, etc.
NOTE 3.--Fractions are also expressed by special words derived from as, a pound: as, triens, a third; bes, two-thirds. See Sect: 637.
Distributives
SECTION:#136. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of bonus.
NOTE.--These answer to the interrogative quoteni, how many of each? or how many at a time?
1. singuli, one by one 18. octoni deni or duodeviceni 100. centeni
2. bini, two by two 200. duceni
3. terni, trini 19. noveni deni or undeviceni 300. treceni
4. quaterni 400. quadringeni
5. quini 20. viceni 500. quingeni
6. seni 21. viceni singuli, etc. 600. sesceni
7. septeni 30. triceni 700. septingeni
8. octoni 40. quadrageni 800. octingeni
9. noveni 50. quinquageni 900. nongeni
10. deni 60. sexageni 1000. milleni
11. undeni 70. septuageni 2000. bina milia
12. duodeni 80. octogeni 10,000. dena milia
13. terni deni, etc. 90. nonageni 100,000. centena milia
SECTION:#137. Distributives are used as follows:
In the sense of so many apiece or on each side: as, singula singulis, one apiece (one each to each one); agri septena iugera plebi divisa sunt, i.e. seven jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc.
Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense: as, bina castra, two camps ( duo castra would mean two forts). With such nouns trini, not terni, is used for three: as, trina (not terna) castra, three camps; terna castra means camps in threes.
In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two; ter septenis diebus, in thrice seven days.
By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (two in a set).
Numeral Adverbs
SECTION:#138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiens ( quoties), how many times? how often?
1. semel, once
2. bis, twice
3. ter, thrice
4. quater
5. quinquiens (-es)
6. sexiens
7. septiens
8. octiens
9. noviens
10. deciens
11. undeciens
12. duodeciens
13. terdeciens
14. quaterdeciens
15. quindeciens
16. sedeciens
17. septiesdeciens
18. duodeviciens
19. undeviciens
20. viciens
21. semel viciens,etc.
30. triciens
40. quadragie ns
50. quinquagiens
60. sexagiens
70. septuagi ens
80. octogiens
90. nonagiens
100. centiens
200. ducentiens
300. trecentiens
1000. miliens
10,000. deciens miliens
Numeral Adverbs are used with mille to express the higher numbers:
ter et triciens ( centena milia) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces (three and thirty times a hundred thousand sesterces).
vicies ac septies milies ( centena milia) sestertium, 2,700,000,000 sesterces (twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).
NOTE.--These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money, and centena milia is regularly omitted (see Sect: 634).
Other Numerals
SECTION:#139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives:
simplex, single; duplex, double, twofold; triplex, triple, threefold; quadruplex, quinquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sesquiplex (1 1/2), multiplex (manifold).
Proportionals are: duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, etc., twice as great, thrice as great, etc.
Temporals: bimus, trimus, of two or three years' age; biennis, triennis, lasting two or three years; bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months; biduum, a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years.
Partitives: binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts.
Other derivatives are: unio, unity; binio, the two (of dice); primanus of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; denarius, a sum of 10 asses binus (distributive), double, etc.
1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus, nonus) are formed by means of suffixes related to those used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus, decimus (compare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten; primus is a superlative of a stem akin to pro; the forms in -tus ( quartus, quintus, sextus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -tos, and with superlatives in -is-to-s, while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to - simus). Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor; alter is a comparative form (compare -teros in Greek), and nonus is contracted from novenos. The cardinal multiples of ten are compounds of -gint- ‰Û÷ten‰Ûª (a fragment of a derivative from decem).
2 The form in - o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. So in ambo, both, which preserves - o (cf. du? and Sect: 629. b).
3 Or, in poetry, bis mille homines, twice a thousand men.
4 Forms in -ns are often written without the n.
5 Also written viciens et semel or viciens semel, etc.
.PRONOUNS
SECTION:#140. Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are divided into the following seven classes:
1. Personal Pronouns: as, ego, I.
2. Reflexive Pronouns: as, se, himself.
3. Possessive Pronouns: as, meus, my.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hic, this; ille, that.
5. Relative Pronouns: as, qui, who.
6. Interrogative Pronouns: as, quis, who?
7. Indefinite Pronouns: as, aliquis, some one.
SECTION:#141. Pronouns have special forms of declension.
NOTE.--These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of declension differing from that of nouns.
.Personal Pronouns
SECTION:#142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, I, nos, we; of the second person, tu, thou or you, vos, ye or you. The personal pronouns of the third person--he, she, it, they--are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.
SECTION:#143. Ego and tu are declined as follows:
FIRST PERSON
Singular ------------------------Plural
NOM. ego, I --------------------nos, we
GEN. mei, of me --------------------nostrum, nostri, of us
DAT. mihi ( mi), to me --------------------nobis, to us
ACC. me, me --------------------nos, us
ABL. me, by me --------------------nobis, by us
SECOND PERSON
NOM tu, thou or you --------------------vos, ye or you
GEN. tui, of thee or you --------------------vestrum, vestri; vostrum (-tri)
DAT. tibi --------------------vobis
ACC. te --------------------vos
ABL. te --------------------vobis
The plural nos is often used for the singular ego; the plural vos is never so used for the singular tu.
NOTE.--Old forms are genitive mis, tis; accusative and ablative med, ted (cf. Sect: 43. N. 1).
The forms nostrum, vestrum, etc., are used partitively:
unusquisque nostrum, each one of us.
vestrum omnium, of all of you.
NOTE.--The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives of the possessives: mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, genitive singular neuter: nostrum, vestrum, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find una vestrarum, one of you (women).
The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are chiefly used objectively (Sect: 347):
memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me).
me tui pudet, I am ashamed of you.
Emphatic forms of tu are tute and tutemet (tutimet). The other cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made emphatic by adding - met: as, egomet, vosmet.
NOTE.--Early emphatic forms are mepte and tepte.
Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singular: as, meme, tete.
The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative: as, tecum loquitur, he talks with you.
.Reflexive Pronouns
SECTION:#144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see Sect: 299): as, se amat, he loves himself.
In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pronouns are used as Reflexives: as, me video, I see myself; te laudas, you praise yourself; nobis persuademus, we persuade ourselves.
The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus declined:
GEN. sui, of himself, herself, itself, themselves
DAT. sibi, to himself, herself, itself, themselves
ACC. se ( sese), himself, herself, itself, themselves
ABL. se ( sese), [by] himself, herself, itself, themselves
NOTE 1.--Emphatic and reduplicated forms of se are made as in the personals (see Sect: 143. d, e). The preposition cum is added enclitically: as, secum, with himself. etc.
NOTE 2.--An old form sed occurs in the accusative and ablative.
Possessive Pronouns
SECTION:#145. The Possessive pronouns are:
FIRST PERSON. meus, my --------------------noster, our
SECOND PERSON. tuus, thy, --------------------your vester, your
THIRD PERSON. suus, his, her, its --------------------suus, their
These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are so declined (see Sect: 110-112). But meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in the vocative singular masculine.
NOTE.-- Suus is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, he killed his (own) father; but patrem eiius occidit, he killed his (somebody else's) father.
Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular: suopte.
A rare possessive cuius ( quuius), - a, -um, whose, is formed from the genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun ( qui, quis). It may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation, but is usually the former.
The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter se or alter ... alterum:
alter alterius ova frangit, they break each other's eggs (one ... of the other).
inter se amant, they love one another (they love among themselves).
.Demonstrative Pronouns
SECTION:#146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are: hic, this; is, ille, iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same;and are thus declined:
hic, this
SINGULAR --------------------------------PLURAL
M. F. N. --------------------------------M. F. N.
NOM. hic haec hoc -------hi hae haec
GEN. huius huius huius -------horum harum horum
DAT. huic huic huic -------his his his
ACC. hunc hanc hoc -------hos has haec
ABL. hoc hac hoc -------his his his
NOTE 1.-- Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce. In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. But in these latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis: as, huius- ce, his- ce. In early Latin -c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). The vowel in hic, hoc, was originally short, and perhaps this quantity was always retained. Ille and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic: illic, illaec, illuc; also illoc. See a, p. 67.
NOTE 2.--For the dative and ablative plural of hic the old form hibus is sometimes found; haec occurs (rarely) for hae.
1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly distinguishable.
NOTE 1.-- Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce. In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. But in these latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis: as, huius- ce, his- ce. In early Latin -c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). The vowel in hic, hoc, was originally short, and perhaps this quantity was always retained. Ille and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic: illic, illaec, illuc; also illoc. See a, p. 67.
NOTE 2.--For the dative and ablative plural of hic the old form hibus is sometimes found; haec occurs (rarely) for hae.
is = that
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
NOM. is ea id ---------ei, ii ( i) eae ea
GEN. eiius eiius eiius ---------eorum earum eorum
DAT. ei ei ei eis,--------- iis ( is) eis, iis ( is) eis, iis ( is)
ACC. eum eam id ---------eos eas ea
ABL. eo ea eo eis, ---------iis ( is) eis, iis ( is) eis, iis ( is)
NOTE 3.--Obsolete forms are eae ( dat. fem.), and eabus or ibus ( dat. plur.). For dative ei are found also eii and ei (monosyllabic); ei, eos, etc., also occur in the plural.
ille, that
SINGULAR ---------------------------PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
NOM. ille illa illud ---------illi illae illa
GEN. illius illius illius ---------illorum illarum illorum
DAT. illi illi illi ---------illis illis illis
ACC. illum illam illud ---------illos illas illa
ABL. illo illa illo ---------illis illis illi
Iste, ista, istud = that (yonder), is declined like ille.
NOTE 4.-- Ille replaces an earlier ollus ( olle), of which several forms occur.
NOTE 5.-- Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The first syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry.
NOTE 6.--The forms illi, isti (gen.), and illae, istae ( dat.), are sometimes found; also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). See a, p. 67.
ipse, self
SINGULAR ---------------------------PLURAL
M. F. N.--------- M. F. N.
NOM. ipse ipsa ipsum ---------ipsi ipsae ipsa
GEN. ipsius ipsius ipsius ---------ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum
DAT. ipsi ipsi ipsi ipsis ---------ipsis ipsis
ACC. ipsum ipsam ipsum ---------ipsos ipsas ipsa
ABL. ipso ipsa ipso ipsis ---------ipsis ipsis
NOTE 7.-- Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of uncertain origin: cf. Sect: 145. a), meaning self. The former part was originally declined, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with superlative ipsissimus, own self, used for comic effect.
NOTE 8.--The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), eumpse, eampse, eopse, eapse (ablative).
idem = the same
SINGULAR ---------------------------PLURAL
M. F. N. ---------------------------M. F. N.
NOM. idem eadem e idem ------idem (ee) eaedem eadem
GEN. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem ---------eorundem earundem eorundem
DAT. eidem eidem eidem--------- eisdem or isdem
ACC. eundem eandem idem ---------eosdem easdem eadem
ABL. eodem eadem eodem ---------eisdem or &1acute;sdem
NOTE 9.--I dem is the demonstrative is with the indeclinable suffix - dem. The mas<
>uline idem is for isdem; the neuter idem, however, is not for *iddem, but is a relic of an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d: as, eundem for eumdem, etc. The plural forms idem, isdem, are often written iidem, iisdem.
Ille and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c, shortened from - ce, in the following forms:
SINGULAR
M. F. N.--------------------------- M. F. N.
NOM. illic illaec illuc ( illoc) ---------istic istaec istuc ( istoc)
ACC. illunc illanc illuc ( illoc) ---------istunc istanc istuc ( istoc)
ABL. illoc illac illoc ---------istoc istac istoc
PLURAL
N., ACC. illaec --------------- istaec
NOTE 1.--The appended - ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations: as, huiusce, hunce, horunce, harunce, hosce, hisce (cf. Sect: 146. N. 1), illiusce, isce; also with the interrogative - ne, in hocine, hoscine, istucine, illicine, etc.
NOTE 2.--By composition with ecce or em, behold! are formed eccum (for ecce eum), eccam, eccos, eccas; eccillum (for ecce illum); ellum (for em illum), ellam, ellos, ellas; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial.
The combinations huiusmodi (huiuscemodi), eiiusmodi, etc., are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such: as, res eiiusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort: cf. Sect: 345. a).
For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see Sect: 296 ff.
.Relative Pronouns
SECTION:#147. The Relative Pronoun qui, who, which, is thus declined:
SINGULAR ---------------------------PLURAL
M. F. N. ---------------------------M. F. N.
NOM. qui quae quod ---------qui quae quae
GEN. cuius cuius cuius ---------quorum quarum quorum
DAT. cui cui cui ---------quibus quibus quibus
ACC. quem quam quod ---------quos quas quae
ABL. quo qua quo quibus ---------quibus quibus
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
SECTION:#148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, who? quid, what? is declined in the Singular as follows:
M., F.
.Interrogative Pronouns
M.F ---------------------N.
NOM. quis --------quid
GEN. cuius --------cuius
DAT. cui-------- cui
ACC. quem --------quid
ABL. quo --------quo
The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, qui, quae, quae.
The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender, but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.
The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, what kind of? what? which? is declined throughout like the Relative:
.SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE
quis vocat, who calls? qui homo vocat, what man calls?
quid vides, what do you see? quod templum vides, what temple do you see?
NOTE.--But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis is very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person: as, qui nominat me? who calls my name? quis dies fuit? what day was it? quis homo? what man? but often qui homo? what kind of man? nescio qui sis, I know not who you are.
Quisnam, pray, who? is an emphatic interrogative. It has both substantive and adjective forms like quis, qui.
SECTION:#149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any one, and qui, any, are declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is commonly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine:
SUBSTANTIVE: quis, any one; quid, anything.
ADJECTIVE: qui, qua ( quae), quod, any.
The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively.
The indefinites quis and qui are rare except after si, nisi, ne, and num, and in compounds (see Sect: 310. a, b).
NOTE.--After these particles qui is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjective (cf. Sect: 148. b. N.).
Case-Forms of qui and quis
SECTION:#150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same (compare Sect: 147 with Sect: 148). The stem has two forms in the masculine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, qua-. The interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.
Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quoius, quoi.
The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combination quicum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.
A nominative plural ques (stem qui-) occurs in early Latin. A dative and ablative plural quis (stem quo-) is found even in classic Latin.
The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the ablative, as with the personal pronouns (Sect: 143. f): as, quo cum, quicum, quibuscum.
NOTE.--But occasionally cum precedes: as, cum quo (Iuv. 4.9) .
Compounds of quis and qui
SECTION:#151. The pronouns quis and qui appear in various combinations.
The adverb - cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the relative makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word: as, quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever; cuiuscumque, etc.
NOTE.--This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as, qualiscumque, of whatever sort; quandocumque (also rarely quandoque), whenever; ubicumque, wherever.
In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in common use are quisquis, quidquid ( quicquid) and quoquo.
NOTE 1.--Rare forms are quemquem and quibusquibus; an ablative quiqui is sometimes found in early Latin; the ablative feminine quaqua is both late and rare. Cuicui occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modi, of whatever kind. Other cases are cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine.
NOTE 2.-- Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative quoquo, which is more commonly an adjective.
The indefinite pronouns quidam, a certain (one); quivis, quilibet, any you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part is declined like the relative qui, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive) and quod- (adjective):
quidam quaedam quiddam ( quoddam)
quivis quaevis quidvis ( quodvi s)
Quidam changes m to n before d in the accusative singular ( quendam, M.; quandam, F.) and the genitive plural (quorundam, M., N.; quarundam, F.).
The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at all, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quaepiam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective); the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine; the neuter is quidquam ( quicquam), substantive only; there is no plural. ?»llus, - a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam.
The Indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliqui (adjective), some, is declined like quis and qui, but aliqua is used instead of aliquae except in the nominative plural feminine:
SINGULAR
M. F. ------------------------N.
NOM. aliquis ( aliqui) --------aliqua --------aliquid ( aliquod)
GEN. alicuius-------- alicuius --------alicuius
DAT. alicui --------alicui-------- alicui
ACC. aliquem --------aliquam --------aliquid ( aliquod)
ABL. aliquo --------aliqua --------aliquo
PLURAL
NOM. aliqui --------aliquae --------aliqua
GEN. aliquorum --------aliquarum --------aliquorum
DAT. aliquibus --------aliquibus --------aliquibus
ACC. aliquos --------aliquas --------aliqua
ABL. aliquibus --------aliquibus --------aliquibus
NOTE.: Aliqui is sometimes used substantively and aliquis as an adjective.
The indefinite pronoun ecquis (substantive), whether any one, ecqui (adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis, but has either ecquae or ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form.
NOTE.-- Ecquis ( ecqui) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in the nominative and accusative only.
The enclitic particle - que added to the interrogative gives a universal: as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined
like the interrogative quis, qui: substantive, quisque, quidque; adjective, quique, quaeque, quodque.
In the compound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined (genitive uniuscuiusque), and they are sometimes written separately and even separated by other words:
ne in uno quidem quoque (Lael. 92) , not even in a single one.
The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective cuius (- a, -um), older quoius, whose; and a patrial cuias (cuiat-), of what country.
Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding respectively to the demonstratives tantus, talis (Sect: 152). Indefinite compounds are quantuscumque and qualiscumque (see Sect: 151. a).
.Correlatives
SECTION:#152. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives. They are shown in the following table:
DEMON. REL.-------- INTERROG. INDEF.-------- REL. INDEF.
is qui quis?-------- quisquis --------aliquis
ÊÊÊthat who who? whoever some one
tantus quantus quantus? quantuscumque aliquantus
ÊÊÊso great how (as) great how great? however great some
talis qualis qualis? qualiscumque
ÊÊÊsuch as of what sort? of whatever kind
ibi ubi ubi? ubiubi alicubi
ÊÊÊthere where where? wherever somewhere
eo quo quo? quoquo aliquo
ÊÊÊthither whither whither? whithersoever (to) somewhere
ea qua qua? quaqua aliqua
ÊÊÊthat way which way which way? whithersoever somewhere
inde unde unde? undecumque alicunde
ÊÊÊthence whence whence? whencesoever from somewhere
tum cum quando? quandocumque aliquando
ÊÊÊthen when when? whenever at some time
tot quot quot? quotquot aliquot
ÊÊÊso many as how many? however many some, several
totiens quotiens quotiens? quotienscumque aliquotiens
ÊÊÊso often as how often? however often at several times
VERBS: CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
SECTION:#153. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.
Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number
SECTION:#154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, and Number.
The Voices are two: Active and Passive.
The Moods are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.
NOTE.--The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite Moods in distinction from the Infinitive.
The Tenses are six, viz.:
1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.
The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.
The Numbers are two: Singular and Plural.
.PARTICIPLES as Noun and Adjective Forms
SECTION:#155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the Latin Verb:
Four Participles,viz.:
Active: the Present and Future Participles.
Passive: the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.
The Gerund: this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension, used only in the oblique cases of the singular.
The Supine: this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension in the accusative (-um) and dative or ablative (-u)singular.
1 The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of the verb (Sect: 451).
2 The Participles are adjectives in inflection and meaning, but have the power of verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.
3 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity, duty, etc. (Sect: 158. d). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle.
SGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB
.Voices
SECTION:#156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally correspond to the active and passive in English; but:
The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning:
ferro accingor, I gird myself with my sword.
Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns (himself).
induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes.
NOTE.--This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubtless a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2).
Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning. These are called Deponents (Sect: 190):as, hortor, I exhort; sequor, I follow.
Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect tenses; these are called Semi-Deponents: as, audeo, audere, ausus sum, dare.
.Moods
SECTION:#157. The Moods are used as follows:
The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interrogations: as,-- valesne? valeo, are you well? I am well.
The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, conditions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should;sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic examples of its use are the following:
eamus, let us go; ne abeat, let him not depart.
adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).
tu ne quaesieris, do not thou inquire.
beatus sis, may you be blessed.
quid morer, why should I delay?
nescio quid scribam, I know not what to write.
si moneam, audiat, if I should warn, he would hear.
The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; but the Subjunctive is often used instead (Sect: 439, 450):
liber esto, he shall be free.
ne ossa legito, do not gather the bones.
The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or complement of another verb (Sect: 452, 456. N.). In special constructions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in English (see Indirect Discourse, Sect. 580 ff.).
NOTE.--For the Syntax of the Moods, see Sect: 436 ff.
.Participles
SECTION:#158. The Participles are used as follows:
The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same meaning and use as the English participle in -ing; as, vocans, calling; legentes, reading. (For its inflection, see egens, Sect: 118.)
The Future Participle (ending in -urus) is oftenest used to express what is likely or about to happen: as, recturus, about to rule; auditurus, about to hear.
NOTE.--With the tenses of esse, to be, it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation (see Sect: 195): as, urbs est casura, the city is about to fall; mansurus eram, I was going to stay.
The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, - sus) has two uses:
1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle: as, tectus, sheltered; acceptus, accepted; ictus, having been struck; and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus, acceptable.
2. It is used with the verb to be ( esse) to form certain tenses of the passive: as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called.
NOTE.--There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For substitutes see Sect: 492, 493.
The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses:
1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or propriety (ought or must): as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
NOTE.--When thus used with the tenses of the verb to be ( esse) it forms the Second Periphrastic Conjugation: deligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen (Sect: 196).
2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning as the Gerund (cf. Sect: 159. a), though its construction is different. (For examples, see Sect: 503 ff.)
.Gerund and Supine
SECTION:#159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows:
The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English verbal noun in -ing (Sect: 502): as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking.
NOTE.--The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is useful; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing.
The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (Sect: 94. b), found only in the accusative ending in - tum, - sum, and the dative or ablative ending in - tu, -su.
The Supine in -um is used after verbs and the Supine in -u after adjectives (Sect: 509, 510):
venit spectatum, he came to see; mirabile dictu, wonderful to tell.
.Tenses of the Finite Verb
SECTION:#160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in English:
Of continued action,
1. PRESENT: scribo, I write, I am writing, I do write.
2. IMPERFECT: scribebam, I wrote, I was writing, I did write.
3. FUTURE: scribam, I shall write.
Of completed action,
4. PERFECT: scripsi, I have written, I wrote.
5. PLUPERFECT: scripseram, I had written.
6. FUTURE PERFECT: scripsero, I shall have written.
SECTION:#161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses,--the Perfect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).
1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have: as, scripsi, I have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scripsit, he wrote.
SECTION:#162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in dependent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses; but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).
For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see Sect: 448, 449.
1 That is, verbs which have laid aside ( deponere) the passive meaning.
2 The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite meaning. Thus, I may write is often not scribam (subjunctive), but licet mihi scribere; I can write is possum scribere; I would write is scribam, scriberem, or scribere velim ( vellem); I should write, (if, etc.), scriberem ( si) ..., or (implying duty) oportet me scribere.
.PERSONAL ENDINGS
SYNOPSIS OF THE ENDINGS
SECTION:#163. Verbs have regular terminationsfor each of the three Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive.These are:
(cont'd) ./AG/
Singular ----- PRESENT PASSIVE--------- Plural
2. - re: ama- re, be thou loved. ------- mini: ama- mini, be ye loved.
Singular------FUTURE PASSIVE-----Plural
2. -tor: ama-tor, thou shalt be loved.
3. -tor: ama-tor, he shall be loved.-------- -ntor: ama-ntor, they shall be loved.
FORMS OF THE VERB
The Three Stems
SECTION:#164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems, called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem.
1. On the Present stem are formed:
The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive.
The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.
The Imperative, Active and Passive.
The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.
The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund.
2. On the Perfect stem are formed:
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active.
The Perfect Infinitive Active.
3. On the Supine stem are formed:
The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the verb sum, be, to make:
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make the Future Active Infinitive.
The Supine in -um and -u. The Supine in -um combines with iri to make the Future Passive Infinitive (Sect: 203. a).
NOTE.--The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive (as, amatus fore). For fore ( futurum esse) ut with the subjunctive, see Sect: 569. 3. a.
.VERB-ENDINGS
SECTION:#165. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:
1. The STEM (see Sect. 24). This is either the root or a modification or development of it.
2. The ENDING, consisting of--
1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see Sect: 168, 169).
2. the Personal Ending (see Sect: 163).
Thus in the verb voca-ba- s, you were calling, the root is VOC, modified into the verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of the ending - bas becomes the imperfect tense vocabas; and this ending consists of the tense-sign ba- and the personal ending (- s) of the second person singular.
SECTION:#166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and tense combined with personal endings, are:
Verb Endings
SECTION:#167. A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings -m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur): as, ame- t (for older ame- t), habe- t (for habe- t), mone- nt, mone- ntur.
SECTION:#168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Present Stem as follows:
In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to the present stem. Thus,--present stem ara-: ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis.
In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, - bas, etc. (originally a complete verb) is added to the present stem: as, ara-bam, ara-bas, ara-bamus.
NOTE.--The form bam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root BHU (cf. fui, futurus, phu?, English be, been), and meant I was. This was added to a complete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in I was a-seeing; hence vide- bam. The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (Sect: 167).
In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar suffix, - bo, - bis, etc., is added to the present stem: as, ara-bo, ara-bis, mone- bo.
NOTE.--The form -bo was probably a present tense of the root BHU, with a future meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in b. N.
In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the terminations -am, - es, etc. (as, teg- am, teg- es, audi- am, audi- es) are really subjunctive endings used in a future sense (see e). The vowel was originally long throughout. For shortening, see Sect: 167.
In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a form of the present stem ending in e- or a-, which was shortened in certain forms (Sect: 167). Thus, ame-m, ame- s, tega- mus, tega- nt.
NOTE 1.--The vowel e (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-es) is an inherited subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (Sect: 174. 1) lengthened. The a of the other conjugations (mone-a- s, reg-a- s, audi-a- s) is of uncertain origin.
NOTE 2.--In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, - is, etc. occurs: as, sim, sis, simus, velim, velis, etc. This is an old optative, i being a form of the IndoEuropean optative mood-sign ye- (cf. siem, sies, siet, Sect: 170. b. N.). The vowel has been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.
In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, - res, etc. is added to the present stem: as, ama- rem, ama- res, mone- rem, tege- rem, audi- rem.
NOTE.--The stem element - re- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf. es-se- m, es-se- s) changed to r between two vowels (Sect: 15. 4). The e is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e).
SECTION:#169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are made from the Perfect Stem as follows:
In the Perfect Indicative the endings - i, - isti, etc. are added directly to the perfect stem: as, amav- isti, tex- istis.
In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix - eram, - eras, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amav- eram, monu- eras, tex- erat.
NOTE.--This seems to represent an older -is-am etc. formed on the analogy of the Future Perfect in - ero (older -is-o: see c below) and influenced by eram (imperfect of sum) in comparison with ero (future of sum).
In the Future Perfect the suffix - ero, - eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amav- ero, monu- eris, tex- erit.
NOTE.--This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending probably in -is-o. The - is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of the perfect indicative (vid-is- ti), in the perfect infinitive (vid-is- se), and in the pluperfect subjunctive (vid-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem vowel.
In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, - eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amav- erim, monu- eris, tex- erit.
NOTE.--This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older - is-, as in the future perfect, see c above). The i after r is the optative mood-sign i shortened (see Sect: 168. e. N.2). Forms in - is, - it, - imus, - itis, are sometimes found. The shortening in -is, -imus, -itis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.
In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix - issem, - isses, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amav- issem, monu- isses, tex- isset.
NOTE.--Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indicative in -is-am (later -er-am, see b), and influenced by essem (earlier -essem) in its relation to eram (earlier -esam).
.SUM: to be. The Verb Sum Esse
SECTION:#170. The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its importance for the inflection of other verbs.
The verb SUM
For essem, esses, etc., forem, fores, foret, forent, are often used; so fore for futurus esse.
The Present Participle, which would regularly be sons,appears in the adjective in-sons, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sens, prae- sens. The simple form e ns is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being; entia, things which are.
NOTE.--Old forms are: Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoative present, see Sect: 263. 1).
Subjunctive: Present, siem, sies, siet, sient; fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant; Perfect, fuvimus; Pluperfect, fuvisset.
The root of the verb sum is ES, which in the imperfect is changed to ER (see Sect: 15. 4), and in many forms is shortened to S. Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table,-- the Sanskrit syam corresponding to the Latin sim (siem):
=
.SANSKRIT---- GREEK----- LATIN ---LITHUANIAN
as-mi syam (optative) ---- emmi (old form) ---- s- um sim (siem) ---- es-mi
as- i---- sy as essi (old form) ----es sis (sies) ----es-i
as-ti syat---- esti ----es- t sit (siet) ----es-ti
s-mas ----syama esmen---- s- umus simus es-me
s-tha ----syata este---- es- tis sitis---- es- te
s-anti---- syus ----enti (old form) ----s- unt sint (sient) ----es-ti
The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, are kindred with the Greek ephu, and with Nhe English be.
1 Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem (cf. Sect: 36). But the ending - mini in the second person plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek -menos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The personal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominative -ns).
2 The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages, and of uncertain origin.
3 Of these terminations - i is not a personal ending, but appears to represent an Indo-European tense-sign - ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-ti and -is-tis, -ti and -tis are personal endings; for - is-, see Sect: 169. c. N. In -i-t and -i-mus, -t and -mus are personal endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both - erunt and - ere are also of doubtful origin, but the former contains the personal ending -nt.
4 The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see Sect: 15. 5). Hence these forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tura, etc., see Sect: 238. b. N.1), were felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with the Supine Stem. Thus, from pingo, we have pictum, pictus, picturus, pictor, pictura; from rideo, risum (for red-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), risurus, risio, risor, risibilis.
5 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see Sect: 171).
6 The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, gradually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent speech; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or of the Latin language itself.
7 The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of composition; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imitation of such processes. Thus videbamus is made by adding to vide-, originally a significant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form bamus, not by inserting -ba- between vide- and - mus (Sect: 168. b).
8 All translations of the Subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given; see Sect: 157. b.
9 Compare Sankrit sant, Greek -on.
SECTION:#171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before - re in the Present Infinitive Active:
.CONJUGATION : INFINITIVE ENDING STEM
First ------------- are (am are) a
Second -------------- ere (mon ere) e
Third --------------ere (regere) e
Fourth -------------- ire (aud ire) i
The Principal Parts
SECTION:#172. The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems which determine its conjugation throughout, are:
1. The Present Indicative (as, amo) 2. The Present Infinitive (as, ama- re) showing the Present Stem.
3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amav- i), showing the Perfect Stem.
4. The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amat- um), or, if that form is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amat- urus), showing the Supine Stem.
SECTION:#173. The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in the following:
First Conjugation:
Active, amo, amare, amavi, amatum, love.
Passive, amor, amari, amatus.
Present Stem ama-, Perfect Stem amav-, Supine Stem amat-.
Second Conjugation:
Active, deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, blot out.
Passive, deleor, deleri, deletus.
Present Stem dele-, Perfect Stem delev-, Supine Stem delet-.
In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic e- rarely appears in the perfect and perfect participle. The common type is, therefore:
Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum, warn.
Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus.
Present Stem mone-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-.
Third Conjugation:
Active, tego, tegere, texi, tectum, cover.
Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus.
Present Stem tege-, Perfect Stem tex-, Supine Stem tect-.
Fourth Conjugation:
Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum, hear.
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus.
Present Stem audi-, Perfect Stem audiv-, Supine Stem audit-.
In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or more different conjugations (cf. Sect: 189):
1, 2, domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue.
2, 3, maneo, manere, mansi, mansum, remain.
3, 4, peto, pete ¥re, petivi, petitum, seek.
4, 3, vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind.
Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present sten conforms.
.Present Stem
SECTION:#174. The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main classes of verbs:
1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel ( e/ o, in Latin i/u) appeared between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for *leg-e-tes), leg-u- nt (for *leg-o-nti).
2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root: as, es- t, es- tis (root ES), dea -mus (do, root DA), fer- t ( fero, root FER).
Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been forced into one of the four "regular"conjugations. Even the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type.
Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two classes:
1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or u) before the personal endings.--These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed in various ways (Sect: 176), but always ends in a short vowel e/o (Latin i/u). Examples are tego (stem ( tege/o-), sternimus (stem ( sterne/o-) for *ster-no-mos, plectunt (stem ( plecte/o-) for *plec-to-nti. So nosco (stem (gnosce/o-) for gno-sc-o. Verbs like nosco became the type for a large number of verbs in -sco, called inceptives (Sect: 263. 1).
2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffix ye/o-, which already contained the thematic vowel e/o.--Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except u) came in contact with the suffix ye/o- suffered contraction so as to present a long vowel a-, e-, i-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic e/o disappeared. These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively. In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and
adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make verbs: as, macadamize, modernize.
Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact with the suffix ye/o- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth, and some have forms of both. Examples are: (con) spicio (-spicere) for ‰ *spekyo; venio ( venire) for -(g) vem-yo; cupio, cupe ¥re, but cupivi; orior, oritur, but oriri. Note, however, pluo ( pluere) for plu-yo; and hence, by analogy, acuo ( acuere) for acu-yo.
In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which is practically represented in Sect: 175, 176.
SECTION:#175. The Present Stem may be found by dropping - re in the Present Infinitive:
ama- re, stem ama-; mone-re, stem mone-; tege ¥-re, stem tege-; audi-re, stem audi-.
SECTION:#176. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regular verbs in one of the following ways:
In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long vowel (a-, e-, i-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, voca-re (VOC), mone- re (MEN, cf. memini), sopi-re (SOP).
NOTE.--Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from nounstems on the pattern of older formations (see Sect: 174).
In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel e/oto the root. In Latin this e/o usually appears as i/u, but e is preserved in some forms. Thus, tegi- s (root TEG), ali-tis (AL), regu-nt (REG); but tege-ris (tege-re), ale-ris.
1. The stem-vowel e/o ( i/u) may be preceded by n, t, or sc:as, tem-ni-tis, tem-nu-nt, tem-ne-ris (TEM); plec-ti-s (PLEC); cre-sci-tis (CRE).
2. Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation (as, capio, capere) show in some forms an i before the final vowel of the stem: as, cap-i- unt (CAP), fug-i-unt (FUG).
The root may be changed:
1. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication): as, gi-gn-e-re (GEN).
2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n): as, find-e-re (FID), tang-e- re (TAG).
In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u-, as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re (aestu- s); cf. acuo, acuere.
NOTE 1.--A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer- re, fer- t; es- se; vel- le, vul- t. These are counted as irregular.
NOTE 2.--In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stemvowel: as, pell-i-tis (PEL), mitt-i-tis (MIT).
Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem is generally identical with the root: as, da- mus (DA), fle-mus (stem fle-, root form unknown).But others, as rui-mus (RU), are formed with an additional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d.
NOTE.--Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (STA, cf. stare).
1 Cf. leg-e- te, leg-o- men; Doric leg-o- nti.
2 Cf. es- ti, es- te (see p. 83, note).
3 Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by adding the suffix -ye/o- to a noun-stem. The a of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending of the noun (as, planta- re, from planta-, stem of planta). The e of the Second and the i of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem with the ending -ye/o-. Thus albere is from albo/e-, stem of albus; finire is from fini-, stem of finis. Some verbs of these classes, however, come from roots ending in a vowel.
4 This is the so-called "thematic vowel.?
5 In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -ne/o-, -te/o<
>
6 These are either old formations in -ye/o-in which the y has disappeared after the u (as, statuo for statu-yo) or later imitations of such forms.
7 In some of the verbs of this class the present stem was originally identical with the root; in others the ending -ye/o- was added, but has been absorbed by contraction.
.Perfect Stem
SECTION:#177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows:
The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem: as, voca-v-i, audi-v- i; or to the root: as, son-u- i (sona-re, root SON), mon-u- i (mone- re, MON treated as a root).
NOTE.--In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as, stra-v- i ( sterno, STAR), spre -v- i ( sperno, SPAR).
The suffix s is added to the root: as, carp-s- i (CARP), tex- i (for teg-s-i, TEG).
NOTE.--The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect: as, finx- i (FIG, present stem finge-), sanx-i (SAC, present stem sanci-).
The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant--generally with e ¥, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-i ( cado, CAD), to-tond- i ( tondeo, TOND).
NOTE.--In fid- i (for fe-fid-i , find- o), scid-e (for sci-scid-i, scindo), the reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root.
The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change: as, leg- i (leg-o), em- i (em- o), vid- i (vid-e-o), fug- i (fug-i-o), eg- i (ea g-o).
Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in the present tense: as, vert- i (vert- o), solv- i (solv- o).
Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem: as, pet i-v- i (as if from peti-o, peti-re, PET).
1 The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin.
2 The s-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dix-i (for dics-i) corresponds to the Greek aorist e-deix- a (for e-deiks-a).
.Supine Stem
SECTION:#178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s):
To the present stem: as, ama-t- um, dele-t- um, audi-t- um.
To the root, with or without i: as, cap-t- um ( capio, CAP), moni-t- um ( moneo, MON used as root), cas- um (for cad-t-um, CAD), lec-t-um (LEG).
NOTE 1.--By phonetic change dt and tt become s ( defensum, versum for de-fendt-um, vert-t-um); bt becomes pt (scrip-t- um for scrib-t-um); gt becomes ct (rec-t-um for reg-t-um).
NOTE 2.--The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine: as, tinc-t-um ( tingo, TIG), ten-s-um for tend-t-um (ten-d- o, TEN).
NOTE 3.--The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem: as, peti-t- um (as if from peti-o, peti-re, PET).
NOTE 4.--A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d and t: as, fal-s- um ( fallo), pul-s- um ( pello).
.Forms of Conjugation
SECTION:#179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by adding the verb-endings in Sect: 166, all the moods and tenses can be made are as follows:
The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to the root to form the present stem:as, ama-re; with a few whose root ends in a (for, fa- ri; flo, fla- re; no, na- re; sto, sta- re).
1. The stem-vowel a- is lost before -o: as, amo = ama-(y)o; and in the present subjunctive it is changed to e: as, ame- s, ame- mus.
2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present stem: as, ama-v- i, ama-t- um. For exceptions, see Sect: 209. a.
The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add e- to the root to form the present stem: as, mone- re; with a few whose root ends in e; as, fle- o, fle- re; ne- o, ne- re; re- or, re- ri (cf. Sect: 176. e).
1. In the present subjunctive a is added to the verb-stem: as, mone-a- s, mone-a- mus (cf. Sect: 168. e).
2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine stem by adding t, to the present stem: as, dele-v- i, dele-t- um. But most form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in e -: as, mon-u- i, moni-t-um. For lists, see Sect: 210.
The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see Sect: 197) which add e- to the root to form the present stem: as, tegere, cape-re; with a few whose root ends in e: as, se-re-re for se-se-re (reduplicated from SE, cf. sea tum).
1. The stem-vowel eis regularly lost before - o, and becomes ubefore -nt and e - before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as, teg- o, tegi- t, tegu- nt; in the imperfect indicative it becomes e: as, tegebam, tege- bas, etc.; in the future, e: as, tege- s (except in the first person singular, tega- m, tega- r); in the present subjunctive, a: as, tega- s.
Verbs in -io lose the i before a consonant and also before i, i , and e(except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). Thus,--capi- at, capi- unt, capi-ebat, capi- es, capi- et, capi-ent; but, cap- it (not *capi-it), cap- eret.
2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjugation. See lists, Sect: 211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem, but from the root.
The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i- to the root to form the present stem: as, aude -re.In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem: as, audi-v- i, audit- um.Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive: as, audi- unt, audi- ebat, audi- etis, audi- at, the i being regularly short before a vowel.
The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the same as the present stem: as, ama, mone, tege ¥, audi. But verbs in -io of the third conjugation omit i: as, cape(not capie).
The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regularly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in Sect: 166) to the perfect stem: as, amav- i, amav- eram, amav- ero, amav- erim, amav- issem, amav- isse.
The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of continued action of the verb esse: as, perfect amatus sum; pluperfect amatus eram, etc.
SECTION:180
.Synopsis of the Verb
Synopsis of the Verb
.Peculiarities of Conjugation
SECTION:#181. In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two vowels is often lost and contraction takes place.
Perfects in - avi, - evi, - ovi, often contract the two vowels into a, e, o, respectively: as, amasse for amavisse; amarim for amaverim; amassem for amavissem; consuerat for consueverat; flestis for flevistis; nosse for novisse. So in perfects in - vi, where the v is a part of the present stem: as, commorat for commoverat.
NOTE.--The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amavi) is never contracted, the third very rarely.
Perfects in - ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels except before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect:
audieram for audiveram; audisse for audivisse; audisti for audivisti; abiit for abivit; abierunt for abiverunt.
NOTE 1.--The forms siris, sirit, sire tis, sirint, for siveris etc. (from sivero or siverim), are archaic.
NOTE 2.--In many forms from the perfect stem is, iss, sis, are lost in like manner, when s would be repeated if they were retained: as, dixti for dixisti (x = cs); traxe for traxisse; evasti for evasisti; vixet for vixisset; erepsemus for erepsissemus; decesse for decessisse. These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.
SECTION:#182. Four verbs,-- dico, duco, facio, fero,--with their compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making dic, duc, fe a c, fer; but compounds in -ficio retain it, as, confice.
NOTE.--The imperative forms dice, duce, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.
For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always used in the singular, and scitote usually in the plural.
SECTION:#183. The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry:
1. In the fourth conjugation, - ibam, - ibo, for -iebam, - iam (future). These forms are regular in eo, go (Sect: 203).
2. In the present subjunctive, -im: as in duim, perduim, retained in religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and volo and their compounds (Sect: 170, 199).
3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, - sim, -so: as, faxim, faxo, iusso, recepso (= fecerim etc.); ausim (= ausus sim).
4. In the passive infinitive, -ier: as, vocarier for vocari; agier for agi.
5. A form in - asso, - assere is found used as a future perfect: as, amassis. from amo; levasso, from levo; impetrassere, from impetro; iudicassit, from iudico (cf. Sect: 263. 2. b. N.).
.FIRST CONJUGATION (a-STEMS)--ACTIVE VOICE
SECTION:#184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in a-. The verb amo, love, is conjugated as follows:
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative amo, Present Infinitive amare, Perfect Indicative amavi, Supine amatum.
First Conjugation Active
First Conjugation Pasiive
.SECOND CONJUGATION (e-STEMS)
SECTION:#185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add e- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in e-. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum; Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus sum.
Second Conjugation Active
.THIRD CONJUGATION (e-STEMS)
SECTION:#186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see Sect: 197) which add e- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in e-. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, tego, tege ¥re, texi, tectum; Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum.
Third Conjugation
.FOURTH CONJUGATION (i-STEMS)
SECTION:#187. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i- to the root to form the present stem. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum; Passive, audior, audiri, auditus sum.
Fourth Conjugation
VERBS IN -io OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION
SECTION:#188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -io have certain forms of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the i of the stem before a consonant and also before i, i, and e(except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). 21 Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows: PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, capio, cape ¥re, cepi, captum; Passive, capior, capi, captus sum.
PRESENT STEM capie- (cape-) PERFECT STEM cep- SUPINE STEM capt-
Third Conjugation in -io (capio)
Parallel Forms
SECTION:#189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic use:
lavo, lavare or lave ¥re, wash (see Sect: 211. e).
scateo, scatere or scate ¥re, gush forth.
ludifico, - are, or ludificor, - ari, mock.
fulgo, fulgere, or fulgeo, fulgere, shine.
.DEPONENT VERBS
SECTION:#190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice, with an active or reflexive signification:
PRINCIPAL PARTS First conjugation: miror, mirari, miratus, ------admire.
PRINCIPAL PARTS Second conjugation: vereor, vereri, veritus, -----fear.
PRINCIPAL PARTS Third conjugation: sequor, sequi, secutus, -----follow.
PRINCIPAL PARTS Fourth conjugation: partior, partiri, partitus, -----share.
DEPONENT VERBS
Deponents have the participles of both voices:
sequens, following. secuturus, about to follow.
secutus, having followed. sequendus, to be followed.
The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs otherwise deponent it is often passive: as, mercatus, bought; adeptus, gained (or having gained).
The future infinitive is always in the active form: thus, sequor has secuturus (- a, -um) esse (not secutum iri).
The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally:
hoc confitendum est, this must be acknowledged.
moriendum est omnibus, all must die.
Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, corresponding to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (Sect: 156. a. N.).
Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense: as, criminor, I accuse, or I am accused.
About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and passive forms: as, mereo or mereor, I deserve.
SECTION:#191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents are irregular:
adsentior, - iri, adsensus, assent.
apiscor, (-ip-), - i, aptus (-eptus), get.
defetiscor, - i, - fessus, faint.
expergiscor, - i, - perrectus, rouse.
experior, - iri, expertus, try.
fateor, - eri, fassus, confess.
fruor, - i, fructus (fruitus), enjoy.
fungor, - i, functus, fulfil.
gradior (-gredior), - i, gressus, step.
irascor, - i, iratus, be angry.
labor, - i, lapsus, fall.
loquor, - i, locutus, speak.
metior, - iri, mensus, measure.
-miniscor, - i, -mentus, think.
morior, - i (- iri), mortuus ( moriturus), die.
nanciscor, - i, nactus ( nanctus), find.
nascor, - i, natus, be born.
nitor, - i, nisus ( nixus), strive.
obliviscor, - i, oblitus, forget.
opperior, - iri, oppertus, await.
ordior, - iri, orsus, begin.
orior, - iri, ortus (oritu rus), rise (3d conjugation in most forms).
paciscor, - i, pactus, bargain.
patior (-petior), - i, passus (- pessus), suffer.
- plector, - i, - plexus, clasp.
proficiscor, - i, profectus, set out.
queror, - i, questus, complain.
reor, reri, ratus, think.
revertor, - i, reversus, return.
ringor, - i, rictus, snarl.
sequor, - i, secutus, follow.
tueor, - eri, tuitus ( tutus), defend.
ulciscor, - i, ultus, avenge.
utor, - i, usus, use, employ.
NOTE.--The deponent comperior, - iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio, - ire. Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect system, reverti. reverteram, etc.
The following deponents have no supine stem:
devertor, -ti, turn aside (to lodge). medeor, - eri, heal.
diffiteor, - eri, deny. reminiscor, - i, call to mind.
fatiscor, - i, gape. vescor, - i, feed upon.
liquor, - i, melt ( intrans.).
NOTE.--Deponents are really passive (or middle) verbs whose active voice has disappeared. There is hardly one that does not show signs of having been used in the active at some period of the language.
SECTION:#192. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents. These are called Semi-deponents. They are:
audeo, audere, ausus, dare. gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice.
fido, fide ¥re, fisus, trust. soleo, solere, solitus, be wont.
From audeo there is an old perfect subjunctive ausim. The form sodes (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere.
The active forms vapulo, vapulare, be flogged, and veneo, venire, be sold (contracted from venum ire, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri, to be made (Sect: 204), and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile); cf. accedere, to be added.
NOTE.--The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iuro, iurare. iuratus, swear; nubo, nubere, nupta, marry; placeo, placere, placitus, please.
.THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS
SECTION:#193. A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a "roundabout way of speaking."In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Periphrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect Participle with sum is included in the regular conjugation ( amatus sum, eram, etc.). Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases consisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with sum.
NOTE.--The Future Passive Infinitive, as amatum iri, formed from the infinitive passive of eo, go, used impersonally with the supine in -um, may also be classed as a periphrastic form (Sect: 203. a).
SECTION:#194. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respectively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).
The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active Participle with the forms of sum, and denotes a future or intended action.
The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with the forms of sum, and denotes obligation, necessity, or propriety.
The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indicative and Subjunctive and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive.
.The First Periphrastic Conjugation:
SECTION:#195.
INDICATIVE
PRESENT amaturus sum, I am about to love
IMPERFECT amaturus eram, I was about to love
FUTURE amaturus ero, I shall be about to love
PERFECT amaturus fui, I have been, was, about to love
PLUPERFECT amaturus fueram, I had been about to love
FUTURE PERFECT amaturus fuero, I shall have been about to love
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT amaturus sim
IMPERFECT amaturus essem
PERFECT amaturus fuerim
PLUPERFECT amaturus fuissem
.INFINITIVE
PRESENT amaturus esse, to be about to love
PERFECT amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love
So in the other conjugations:
Second: moniturus sum, I am about to advise.
Third: tecturus sum, I am about to cover.
Fourth: auditurus sum, I am about to hear.
Third (in -io): capturus sum, I am about to take.
.The Second Periphrastic Conjugation
SECTION:#196. :
INDICATIVE
PRESENT amandus sum, I am to be, must be, loved
IMPERFECT amandus eram, I was to be, had to be, loved
FUTURE amandus ero, I shall have to be loved
PERFECT amandus fui, I was to be, had to be, loved
PLUPERFECT amandus fueram, I had had to be loved
FUTURE PERFECT amandus fuero, I shall have had to be loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT amandus sim
IMPERFECT amandus essem
PERFECT amandus fuerim
PLUPERFECT amandus fuissem
INFINITIVE
PRESENT amandus esse, to have to be loved
PERFECT amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved
So in the other conjugations:
Second: monendus sum, I am to be, must be, advised.
Third: tegendus sum, I am to be, must be, covered.
Fourth: audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard.
Third (in -io): capiendus sum, I am to be, must be, taken.
.IRREGULAR VERBS
SECTION:#197. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the present system directly to the root, 21 or combine two verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are sum, volo, fero, edo, do, eo, queo, fio, and their compounds.
Sum has already been inflected in Sect: 170.
SECTION:#198. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with the prepositions ab, ad, de, in, inter, ob, prae, pro (earlier form prod), sub, super.
In the compound prosum (help), pro retains its original d before e: PRINCIPAL PARTS: prosum, prodesse, profui, profuturus
SECTION:#199. volo, nolo, malo
PRINCIPAL PARTS: volo, velle, volui,--, be willing, will, wish nolo, nolle, nolui,--, be unwilling, will not malo, malle, malui,--, be more willing, prefer
SECTION:#200. Fero, bear, carry, endure 26 PRINCIPAL PARTS: fero, ferre, 27 tuli, latum
The verbs POSSUM VOLO
cont'd ...VOLO FERO
....FERO
NOTE.--Nolo and malo are compounds of volo. Nolo is for ne-volo, and malo for mavolo from mage-volo.
NOTE.--The forms sis for si vis, sultis for si vultis, and the forms nevis (ne-vis), nevolt, mavolo, ma volunt, mavelim, mavellem, etc., occur in early writers.
The compounds of fero, conjugated like the simple verb, are the following:
ad- adfero adferre attuli allatum
au-, ab- aufero auferre abstuli ablatum
con- c onfero conferre contuli collatum
dis-, di- differo differre distuli dilatum
ex-, e- effero efferre extuli elatum
in- i nfero inferre intuli illatum
ob- offero offerre obtuli oblatum
re- refero referre rettuli relatum
sub- suffero sufferre sustuli2 sublatum /p>
NOTE.--In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially to be noted. ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning.
SECTION:#201. Edo, edere, edi, esum, eat, is regular of the third conjugation, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alternative forms directly from the root (ED), without the thematic vowel. These are in full-faced type.
Irregular verb EDO
ACTIVE
In the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third person singular: Present Indicative estur, Imperfect Subjunctive essetur.
.DO DARE: Irregular Verbal forms
SECTION:#202. The irregular verb do, give, is conjugated as follows:
PRINCIPAL PARTS: do, dea re, dedi, datum
Irregular verb DO
ACTIVE
For compounds of do, see Sect: 209. a. N.
.EO IRE Irregular forms
SECTION:#203. Eo, go. PRINCIPAL PARTS: eo, ire, ii ( ivi), itum
Irregular verb EO
Thus inflected, the forms of eo are used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive: as, itum est (Sect: 208. d). The infinitive iri is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive (Sect: 193. N.). The verb veneo, be sold (i.e. venum eo, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive.
In the perfect system of eo the forms with v are very rare in the simple verb and unusual in the compounds.
ii before s is regularly contracted to i: as, isse.
The compound ambio is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative.
Pro with eo retains its original d: as, prodeo, prodis, prodit.
.FACIO --- FIO
SECTION:#204. Facio, facere, feci, factum, make, is regular. But it has imperative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future perfect faxo, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of facio is--
fio, fieri, factus sum, be made or become.
The present system of fio is regular of the fourth conjugation, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fieri.
NOTE.--The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.
INDICATIVE ----------------------------------SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. Sg.----fio, fis, fit ----------------------fiam, fias, fiat
Pres. Pl.[ fimus], [ fitis], fiunt -------------fiamus, fiatis, fiant
IMPERFECT fiebam, fiebas, etc.----------------- fierem, fieres, etc.
FUTURE fiam, fies, etc.
PERFECT factus sum ----------------------factus sim
PLUPERFECT factus eram -------------------------factus essem
FUTURE PERFECT factus ero
IMPERATIVE [ fi, fite, fito, --]
INFINITIVE PRESENT fieri ------PERFECT factus esse --------FUTURE factum iri
PARTICIPLES: PERFECT factus -------GERUNDIVE faciendus
Most compounds of facio with prepositions weaken ea to i in the present stem and to ein the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -io:
conficio, confice ¥re, confeci, confectum, finish.
conficior, confici, confectus.
Other compounds retain a, and have - fio in the passive: as, benefacio, - facere, - feci, - factum; passive benefio, - fieri, - factus, benefit. These retain the accent of the simple verb: as, bene-fea 'cis (Sect: 12. a, Exc.).
A few isolated forms of fio occur in other compounds:
confit, it happens, confiunt; confiat; confieret, confierent; confieri.
defit, it lacks, defiunt; defiet; defiat; defieri.
effieri, to be effected.
infio, begin (to speak), infit.
interfiat, let him perish; interfieri, to perish.
superfit, it remains over; superfiat, superfieri.
DEFECTIVE VERBS
SECTION:#205. Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly. These are:
coepi, began ----odi, hate ----memini, remember
INDICATIVE
PERFECT coepi odi memini
PLUPERFECT coeperam oderam memineram
FUTURE PERFECT coepero odero meminero
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT coeperim oderim meminerim
PLUPERFECT coepissem odissem meminissem
IMPERATIVE
memento
mementote
INFINITIVE
PERFECT coepisse odisse meminisse
FUTURE coepturus esse osurus esse
PARTICIPLES
PERFECT coeptus, begun ----osus, hating or hated
FUTURE coepturus .about to begin-------osurus, likely to hate
The passive of coepi is often used with the passive infinitive: as, coeptus sum vocari, I began to be called, but coepi vocare, I began to call. For the present system incipio is used.
NOTE.--Early and rare forms are coepio, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of odi and memini have the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively:
odi, I hate; oderam, I hated (was hating); odero, I shall hate.
NOTE 1.--A present participle meminens is early and late.
NOTE 2.-- Novi and consuevi (usually referred to nosco and consuesco) are often used in the sense of I know (have learned) and I am accustomed (have become accustomed) as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see 476. N.).
SECTION:#206. Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such are maereo, - ere, be sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad); ferio, - ire, strike.
In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts occur in its compounds: as, vado, vadere, in-vasi, in-vasum.
Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms:
aio, I say:
INDIC. PRES. aio, ais, ait; ........ aiunt
IMPF. aiebam, aiebas, etc.
SUBJV. PRES. , aias, aiat ......... aiant
IMPER. ai (rare)
PART. aiens
The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a- is, a- it) except sometimes in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see Sect: 6. c): thus aio was pronounced ai-yo and was sometimes written aiio.
Inquam, I say, except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations (cf. the English quoth).
INDIC. PRES. inquam, inquis, inquit; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt
IMPF. inquiebat;
FUT. , inquies, inquiet;
PERF. inquii, inquisti,
IMPER. PRES. inque
FUT. inquito
The only common forms are inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the future inquies, inquiet.
The deponent fari, to speak, has the following forms:
INDIC. PRES. fatur; fantur
FUT. fabor fabitur;
PERF. fatus est; fati sunt
PLUP. fatus eram fatus erat;
IMPER. PRES. fare
INFIN. PRES. fari
PART. PRES. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular)
PERF. fatus (having spoken)
GER. fandus (to be spoken of)
GERUND, gen. fandi, abl. fando SUPINE fatu
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter, occur: as, praefatur, praefamur, affari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The compound infans is regularly used as a noun (child). infandus, nefandus, are used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable.
Queo, I can, nequeo, I cannot, are conjugated like eo. They are rarely used except in the present. Queo is regularly accompanied by a negative. The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose. The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting.
INDICATIVE------------------------SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
queo queam / nequeo ( non queo) --------------------nequeam
quis queas nequis -----------------------------nequeas
quit queat nequit---------------------------- nequeat
quimus queamus nequimus ------------------------nequeamus
nequitis -------------------------------------nequeratis
queunt queant nequeunt ------------------------nequeant
IMPERFECT
que bam ------------------------------------- nequirem
quibat qui ret nequibat -----------------------nequiret
quirent nequibant ----------------------------nequirent
FUTURE
quibo nequibit
quibunt nequibunt
PERFECT
quivi nequivi --------------------------nequeverim
nequisti
quivit quiverit (-ierit) nequivit ( nequiit) nequiverit
quiverunt (- ere) quierint nequiverunt (-quiere) nequiverint
PLUPERFECT
nequiverat (-ierat) -----------------------nequivisset (- quisset)
quivissent nequiverant -----------------------(-ierant) nequissent
INFINITIVE
quire quisse nequire nequivisse (-quisse)
PARTICIPLES
quiens nequiens, nequeuntes
NOTE.--A few passive forms are used with passive infinitives: as, quitur, queuntur, quitus sum, queatur, queantur, nequitur, nequitum; but none of these occurs in classic prose.
Quaeso, I ask, beg (original form of quaero), has:
INDIC. PRES. quaeso, quaes? -mus
NOTE.--Other forms of quaeso are found occasionally in early Latin. For the perfect system ( quaesivi, etc.), see quaero (Sect: 211. d).
Ovare, to triumph, has the following:
INDIC. PRES. ovas, ovat
SUBJV. PRES. ovet
IMPF. ovaret
PART. ovans, ovaturus, ovatus
GER. ovandi
A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative:
PRES. singular salve, plural salvete, FUT. salveto, hail! (from salvus, safe and sound). An infinitive salvere and the indicative forms salveo, salvetis, salvebis, are rare.
PRES. singular ave (or have), plural avete, FUT. aveto, hail or farewell. An infinitive avere also occurs.
PRES. singular cedo, plural cedite ( cette), give, tell.
PRES. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word).
.IMPERSONAL VERBS
SECTION:#207. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject. 40 The passive of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.
act. I----II ---III-----IV --------- pass
(it is plain; it is allowed; it chances; it results ; it is fought)
PR:constat licet accidit evenit pugnatur
IMPF: constabat licebat accidebat eveniebat pugnabatur
FUT: constabit licebit accidet eveniet pugnabitur
PERF:constitit licuit, -itum est accidit evenit pugnatum est
PLUP: constiterat licuerat acciderat evenerat pugnatum erat
FUT PF:constiterit licuerit acciderit evenerit pugnatum erit
PR SUB;constet liceat accidat eveniat pugnetur
IMPF SUBJ:constaret liceret accideret eveniret pugnaretur
FUT PF SUBJ:constiterit licuerit acciderit evenerit pugnatum sit
PLUP SUBJ:constitisset licuisset accidisset evenisset pugnatum esset
PR INF:constare licere accidere evenire pugnari
PF INF: constitisse licuisse accidisse evenisse pugnatum esse
FUT INF:-staturum esse -iturum esse -turum esse pugnatum iri
SECTION:#208. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows:
Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day:
vesperascit (inceptive, Sect: 263. 1), it grows late.------ ningit, it snows.
luciscit hoc, it is getting light. -------fulgurat, it lightens.
grandinat, it hails. ------tonat, it thunders.
pluit, it rains. ------rorat, the dew falls.
NOTE.--In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the verb is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject: as, Iuppiter tonat, Jupiter thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones.
Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb (Sect: 354. b):
miseret, it grieves. -----paenitet (poenitet), it repents.
piget, it disgusts. -----pudet, it shames.
taedet, it wearies. ----miseret me, I pity (it distresses me); -----pudet me, I am ashamed.
NOTE.--Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, I pity (am moved to pity); and occasionally other parts: as, paeniturus (as from paenio), paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est.
Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. Sect: 454, 569.2):
accidit, contingit, evenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, -----it happens.
libet, it pleases. -----delectat, iuvat, it delights.
licet, it is permitted. -----oportet, it is fitting, ought.
certum est, it is resolved.----- necesse est, it is needful.
constat, it is clear.----- praestat, it is better.
placet, it seems good (pleases). -----interest, refert, it concerns.
videtur, it seems, seems good.----- vacat, there is leisure.
decet, it is becoming. -----restat, superest, it remains.
NOTE.--Many of these verbs may be used personally; as, vaco, I have leisure. Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum ( licitum) est etc. The participles libens and licens are used as adjectives.
The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally (see synopsis in Sect: 207):
ventum est, they came (there was coming).
pugnatur, there is fighting (it is fought).
itur, some one goes (it is gone).
parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see Sect: 372).
NOTE.--The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or middle) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French cela se fait).
.VERBS: CLASSIFIED LISTS
First Conjugation
SECTION:#209. There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjugation, most of them formed directly on a noun-or adjective-stem:
armo, arm ( arma, arms); caeco, to blind ( caecus, blind); exsulo, be an exile (exsul, an exile) (Sect: 259).
Their conjugation is usually regular, like amo; though of many only a few forms are found in use.
The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly. Those marked have also regular forms.
crepo, crepui (- crepavi), -crepit-, resound.
plico, -plicit-, fold.
cubo, cubui, - cubit-, lie down.
poto, potavi,pot-, drink.
do, dea re, dedi, dea t-, give (DA).
seco, secui, sect-, cut.
domo, domui, domit-, subdue.
sono, sonui, sonit-,1 sound.
frico, fricui,frict-, rub.
sto , steti, - stat- (-stit-), stand.
iuvo (ad- iuvo), iuvi, iut-,help.
tono, tonui,-tonit-, thunder.
mico, micui glitter.
veto, vetui, vetit-, forbid.
neco, necui, necat- (-nect-), kill.
NOTE.--Compounds of these verbs have the following forms: crepo: con- crepui, dis- crepui or - crepavi; in- crepui or - crepavi. do: circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, venum-do, - dedi, - dat-, of the first conjugation. Other compounds belong to the root DHA, put, and are of the third conjugation: as, condo, condere, condidi, conditum. mico: di- micavi, -micat-; e-micui, -micat-. plico: re-, sub- (sup-), multi- plico, -plicavi, -plicat-; ex-plico (unfold), - ui, -it-; (explain), -avi, -at-; im-plico, - avi (- ui), -atum (- itum). sto: con- sto, - stiti, (- staturus); ad, re- sto, - stiti, ; ante- (anti-), inter-, supersto, - steti, ; circum-sto, - steti (- stiti), ; prae- sto, - stiti, - stit- (- stat-); di- sto, ex-sto, no perfect or supine (future participle ex-staturus).
1 Future Participle also in -aturus (either in the simple verb or in composition).
2 Neco has regularly neca vi, necatum, except in composition.
Second Conjugation
SECTION:#210. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -sco (Sect: 263. 1):
caleo, be warm; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calesco, grow warm.
timeo, fear; timor, fear; timidus, timid; per- timesco, to take fright.
Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moneo, but many lack the supine (as, arceo, ward off; careo, lack; egeo, need; timeo, fear), and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, maereo, be sad).
The following keep e in all the systems:
deleo, destroy delere delevi deletum
fleo, weep flere flevi fletum
neo, sew nere nevi [ netum]
vieo, plait viere [vievi] vietum
com- pleo, fill up- plere -plevi -pletum
The following show special irregularities:
algeo, alsi, be cold.
mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe.
ardeo, arsi, arsurus, burn.
mulgeo, mulsi, muls-, milk.
audeo, ausus sum, dare.
(co) niveo, - nivi (- nixi) wink.
augeo, auxi, auct-, increase.
(ab)ole o, -olevi, -olit-, destroy.
caveo, cavi, caut-, care.
pendeo, pependi, -pens-, hang.
censeo, censui, cens-, value.
prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine.
cieo, civi, cit-, excite.
rideo, risi, - ris-, laugh.
doceo, docui, doct-, teach.
sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit.
faveo, favi, faut-, favor.
soleo, solitus sum, be wont.
ferveo, fervi (ferbui) glow.
sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi) suck.
foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish.
spondeo, spopondi, spons-, pledge.
fulgeo, fulsi shine.
strideo, stridi whiz.
gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice.
suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge.
haereo, haesi, haes-, cling.
teneo (-tineo), tenui, -tent-, hold.
indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, indulge. vtergeo , tersi, ters-, wipe.
iubeo, iussi, iuss-, order.
tondeo, - totondi (-tondi), tons-, shear.
liqueo, licui ( liqui) melt.
torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist.
luceo, luxi shine.
torreo, torrui, tost-, roast.
lugeo, luxi mourn.
turgeo, tursi swell.
maneo, mansi, mans-, wait.
urgeo, ursi urge.
misceo, - cui, mixt- (mist-), mix.
video, vidi, vis-, see.
mordeo, momordi, mors-, bite.
voveo, vovi, vot-, vow.
moveo , movi, mot-, move.
Third Conjugation
SECTION:#211. The following lists include most simple verbs of the Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Perfect Stem:
Forming the perfect stem in s (x) (Sect: 177. b and note):
ango, anxi choke.
claudo, clausi, claus-, shut.
carpo, carpsi, carpt-, pluck.
como, compsi, compt-, comb, deck.
cedo, cessi, cess-, yield.
coquo, coxi, coct-, cook.
cingo, cinxi, cinct-, bind.
-cutio, -cussi , -cuss-, shake.
demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away.
quatio , (-cussi), quass-, shake.
dico, dixi, dict-, say.
rado, rasi, ras-, scrape.
divido, divisi, divis-,
divide. rego, rexi, rect-, rule.
duco, duxi, duct-, guide.
repo, repsi creep.
emungo, -munxi, -munct-, clean out.
rodo, rosi, ros-, gnaw.
figo, fixi, fix-, fix.
scalpo, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape.
fingo [FIG], finxi, fict-, fashion.
scribo, scripsi, script-, write.
flecto, flexi, flex-, bend.
sculpo, sculpsi, sculpt-, carve.
-fligo, -flixi, -flict- smite.
serpo, serpsi crawl.
fluo, fluxi, flux-, flow.
spargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter.
frendo fres- (fress-), gnash.
-spicio, - spexi, -spect-, view.
frigo, frixi, frict-, fry.
-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, quench.
gero, gessi, gest-, carry.
stringo, strinxi, strict-, bind.
iungo, iunxi, iunct-, join.
struo, struxi, struct-, build.
laedo, laesi, laes-, hurt.
sugo, suxi, suct-, suck.
-licio, - lexi, -lect-, entice ( elicui, -licit-).
sumo, sumpsi, sumpt-, take.
lu do, lusi, lus-, play.
surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise.
merg o, mersi, mers-, plunge.
tego, texi, tect-, shelter.
mitto, misi, miss-, send.
temno, -tempsi, -tempt-, despise.
necto [NEC], nexi ( nexui), nex-, weave.
tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe.
nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry. vtingo, tinxi, tinct-, stain.
pecto, pexi, pex-, comb.
traho, traxi, tract-, drag.
pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on.
trudo, trusi, trus-, thrust.
pingo [PIG], pinxi, pict-, paint.
unguo ( ungo), unxi, unct-, anoint.
plango [PLAG], planxi, planct-, beat.
uro, ussi, ust-, burn.
plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud.
vado, - vasi, - vas-, go.
plecto, plexi, plex-, braid.
veho, vexi, vect-, draw.
premo, pressi, press-, press.
vivo, vixi, vict-, live.
promo, -mpsi, -mpt-, bring out.
Reduplicated in the perfect (Sect: 177. c):
cado, cecidi, cas-, fall. pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), bring forth.
caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut.
cano, cecini sing.
pello, pepuli, puls-, drive.
curro, cucurri, curs-, run.
pendo , pependi, pens-, weigh.
disco [DIC], didici learn. posco, poposci demand.
- do [DHA], -didi, -dit- (as in ab- do, etc., with credo, vendo), put. pungo [PUG], pupugi (-punxi), punct-, prick.
fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive.
sisto [STA], stiti, stat-, stop.
pango [PAG], pepigi (-pegi), pact-, fasten, fix, bargain.
tango [TAG], tetigi, tact-, touch.
tendo[TEN], tetendi (- tendi), tent-, stretch.
parco, peperci (parsi), (parsurus), spare.
tundo [TUD], tutudi, tuns- (-tus-), beat.
Adding u (v) to the verb-root (Sect: 177. a):
alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. compesco, compescui restrain.
cerno, crevi, - cret-, decree.
consulo, - lui, consult-, consult.
colo, colui, cult-, dwell, till.
cresco, crevi, cret-, increase.
-cumbo [CUB], - cubui, - cubit-, lie down.
rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize.
depso, depsui, depst-, knead.
scisco, scivi, scit-, decree.
fremo, fremui, roar.
sero, sevi, sat-, sow.
gemo, gemui groan.
sero, serui, sert-, entwine.
gigno [GEN], genui, genit-, beget.
sino, sivi, sit-, permit.
meto, messui, -mess-, reap.
sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn.
molo, molui, molit-, grind.
sterno, stravi, strat-, strew.
occulo, occului, occult-, hide.
sterto, - stertui snore.
( ad)olesco, - evi, -ult-, grow up.
strepo, strepui sound.
pasco, pavi, past-, feed.
suesco, suevi, suet-, be wont.
percello, - culi, -culs-, upset.
texo, texui, text-, weave.
pono [POS], posui, posit-, put.
tremo, tremui tremble.
quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest.
vomo, vomui vomit.
Adding iv to the verb-root (Sect: 177. f):
arcesso,- ivi, arcessit-, summon.
peto, petivi, petit-, seek.
capesso, capessivi undertake.
quaero, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek.
cupio, cupivi, cupit-, desire.
rudo, rudivi bray.
incesso, incessivi attack.
sapio, sapivi be wise.
lacesso, lacessivi, lacessi t-, provoke.
tero, trivi, trit-, rub.
Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. Sect: 177. d):
ago, egi, act-, drive.
lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wash (also regular of first conjugation).
capio, cepi, capt-, take.
edo, edi, esum, eat (see Sect: 201).
lego,legi, lect-, gather.
emo, emi, empt-, buy.
lino , levi (livi), lit-, smear.
facio, feci, fact-, make (see Sect: 204).
linquo [LIC], - liqui, -lict-, leave.
fodio, fodi, foss-, dig.
nosco [GNO], novi, not- ((co-gnit-, a-gnit-, ad-gnit-), know.
frango [FRAG], fregi, fract-, break.
fugio, fugi, ( fugiturus), flee.
rumpo [RUP], rupi, rupt-, burst.
fundo [FUD], fudi, fus-, pour.
scabo, scabi scratch.
facio, ieci, iact-, throw (-icio, -iect-).
vinco [VIC], vici, vict-, conquer.
Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. Sect: 177. e):
acuo, - ui, - ut-, sharpen.
imbuo, - ui, - ut-, give a taste of.
arguo, - ui, - ut-, accuse.
luo, lui, -lut-, wash.
bibo, bibi, ( potus), drink.
mando, mandi, mans-, chew.
-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, kindle.
metuo, - ui, - ut, fear.
(con) gruo, - ui agree.
minuo, - ui, - ut-, lessen.
cudo, - cudi, - cus-, forge.
-nuo, -nui nod.
facesso, - ii ( facessi), facessit-, execute
pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), open.
-fendo, - fendi, -fens-, ward off.
pinso, - si, pins- (pinst-, pist-), bruise.
findo [FID], fidi,fiss-, split.
prehendo, -hendi, -hens-, seize.
ico, ici, ict-, hit.
ruo, rui, rut- (ruiturus), fall.
scando, -scendi, -scensus, climb.
suo, sui, sut-, sew.
scindo [SCID], scidi,sciss-, tear.
(ex) uo, - ui, - ut-, put off.
sido, sidi (- sedi), -sess-, settle.
tribuo, - ui, - ut-, assign.
solvo, solvi, solut-, loose, pay.
vello, velli (- vulsi), vuls-, pluck.
spuo, - ui spit.
verro, - verri, vers-, sweep.
statuo, - ui, - ut-, establish.
verto, verti, vers-, turn.
sternuo, - ui sneeze.
viso [VID], visi, vis-, visit.
strido, stridi whiz.
volvo, volvi, volut-, turn.
NOTE.--Several have no perfect or supine: as, claudo, limp; fatisco, gape; hisco, yawn; tollo ( sustuli, sublatum, supplied from suffero), raise; vergo, incline.
2 The following compounds of lego have - lexi: diligo, intellego, neglego.
Fourth Conjugation
SECTION:#212. There are--besides a few deponents and some regular derivatives in -?-rio, as, esurio, be hungry (cf. Sect: 263. 4)--about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being descriptive verbs: like--
crocio, croak; mugio, bellow; tinnio, tinkle.
Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like audio, though a number lack the supine.
The following verbs show special peculiarities:
amicio, amixi (- cui), amict-, clothe. saepio, saepsi, saept-, hedge in.
aperio, aperui, apert-, open. salio (-silio), salui ( salii), [salt- (-sult-)], leap.
comperio, - peri, compert-, find.
farcio, farsi, fartum, stuff. sancio [SAC], sanxi, sanct-, sanction.
ferio , strike. sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch.
fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop. sentio, sensi, sens-, feel.
naurio, hausi, haust- (hausurus), drain. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.
operio, operui, opert-, cover. venio, veni, vent-, come.
reperio, repperi, repert-, find. vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind.
For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff.
PARTICLES
SECTION:#213. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are called Particles.
In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are either (1) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and phrases.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions (Sect: 219 and 222).
.ADVERBS
SECTION:#214. Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows:
From adjectives of the first and second declensions by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to - e: as, care, dearly, from carus, dear (stem caro-); amice, like a friend, from amicus, friendly (stem amico-).
NOTE.--The ending -e is a relic of an old ablative in -ed (cf. Sect: 43. N. 1).
From adjectives of the third declension by adding - ter to the stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems:
fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave.
acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem acri-), eager.
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-).
prudenter, prudently, from prudens (stem prudent-).
aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).
NOTE.--This suffix is perhaps the same as - ter in the Greek -teros and in uter, alter. If so, these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (cf.d) or masculine nominatives.
Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of both forms (- e and - ter). Thus durus, hard, has both dure and duriter; miser, wretched, has both misere and miseriter.
The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb: as, multum, much; facile, easily; quid, why.
This is the origin of the ending - ius in the comparative degree of adverbs (Sect: 218): as, acrius, more keenly (positive acriter); facilius, more easily (positive facile).
NOTE.--These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (Sect: 390).
The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives, pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially: as, falso, falsely; cito,
quickly (with shortened o); recta ( via), straight (straightway); crebro, frequently; volgo, commonly; fort e, by chance; sponte, of one's own accord.
NOTE.--Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abunde, plentifully (as if from abundus; cf. abundo, abound); saepe, often (as if from saepis, dense, close-packed; cf. saepes, hedge, and saepio, hedge in).
SECTION:#215. Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below. In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.
1. Neuter Accusative forms: non (for ne-oinom, later unum), not; iterum (comparative of i-, stem of is), a second time; demum (superlative of de, down), at last.
2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least (generally saltem), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular adverbial termination; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an accusative in -tim: as, separatim, separately, from separatus, separate. Some adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental: as, palam, openly; perperam, wrongly; tam, so; quam, as.
3. Plural Accusatives: as, alias, elsewhere; foras, out of doors (as end of motion). So perhaps quia, because.
4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: qua, where; intra, within; extra, outside; qui, how; aliqui, somehow; foris, out of doors; quo, whither; adeo, to that degree; ultro, beyond; citro, this side (as end of motion); retro, back; illoc (for illo-ce), weakened to illuc, thither. Those in -tro are from comparative stems (cf. uls, cis, re-).
5. Locative forms: ibi, there; ubi, where; illi, illi- c, there; peregri (peregre), abroad; hic (for hi-ce), here. Also the compounds hodie (probably for hodie), to-day; perendie, day after to-morrow.
6. Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i), with an ablative meaning: as, funditus, from the bottom, utterly; divinitus, from above, providentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in - dem, - dam, - do: as, quidem, indeed; quondam, once; quando (cf. donec), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of time), while; iam, now.
SECTION:#216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together into an adverb (cf. notwithstanding, nevertheless, besides):
postmodo, presently (a short time after).
denuo (for de novo), anew.
videlicet (for vide licet), to wit (see, you may).
nihilominus, nevertheless (by nothing the less).
NOTE.--Other examples are: antea, old antidea, before ( ante ea, probably ablative or instrumental); ilico ( in loco), on the spot, immediately; prorsus, absolutely ( pro vorsus, straight ahead); rursus (re- vorsus), again; quotannis, yearly ( quot annis, as many years as there are); quam-ob- rem, wherefore; cominus, hand to hand (con manus); eminus, at long range ( ex manus); nimirum, without doubt ( ni mirum); ob- viam (as in ire obviam, to go to meet); pridem (cf. prae and - dem in i- dem), for some time; forsan ( fors an), perhaps (it's a chance whether); forsitan ( fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance whether); scilicet (sci, licet), that is to say (know, you may; cf. i- licet, you may go); actutum ( actu, on the act, and tum, then).
.DERIVATION OF ADVERBS
SECTION:#217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows:
a. Adverbs of Place
hic, here. huc, hither. hinc, hence. hac, by this way.
ibi, there. eo, thither. inde, thence. ea, by that way.
istic, there. istuc, thither. istinc, thence. ista, by that way.
illic, there. illuc, thither. illinc, thence. illa ( illac), by that way.
ubi, where. quo, whither. unde, whence. qua, by what way.
alicubi, somewhere. aliquo, somewhither, alicunde, from some- aliqua, by some way.
(to) somewhere. where.
ibidem, in the same eodem, to the same indidem, from the eadem, by the same
place. place. same place. way.
alibi, elsewhere, in alio, elsewhere, to aliunde, from an- alia, in another
another place. another place. other place. way.
abiubi, wherever. quoquo, whitherso- undecunque, whence- quaqua, in whatever
ever. soever. way.
ubivis, anywhere, quovis, anywhere, undique, from every quavis, by whatever
where you will. whither you will. quarter. way.
sicubi, if anywhere. siquo, if anywhere sicunde, if from any- siqua, if anywhere.
(anywhither). where.
where. whither. anywhere. where.
NOTE.--The demonstrative adverbs hic, ibi, istic, illic, and their correlatives, correspond in signification with the pronouns hic, is, iste, ille (see Sect: 146), and are often equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition: as, inde = ab eo, etc. So the relative or mterrogative ubi corresponds with qui ( quis), ali- cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis, si-cubi with siquis (see Sect: 147-151, with the table of correlatives in Sect: 152).
usque, all the way to; usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; citro, to this side; intro, inwardly; ultro, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required); porro, further on.
quorsum (for quo vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? horsum, this way; prorsum, forward ( prorsus, utterly); introrsum, inwardly; retrorsum, backward; sursum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, another way.
b. Adverbs of Time
quando, when? (interrogative); cum ( quom), when (relative); ut, when, as; nunc, now; tunc ( tum), then; mox, presently; iam, already; dum, while; iam diu, iam dudum, iam pridem, long ago, long since.
primum ( primo), first; deinde ( postea), next after; postremum ( postremo), finally; posteaquam, postquam, when (after that, as soon as).
umquam (unquam), ever; numquam ( nunquam), never; semper, always.
aliquando, at some time, at length; quandoque ( quandocumque), whenever; denique, at last.
quotiens ( quoties), how often; totiens, so often; aliquotiens, a number of times.
cotidie, every day; hodie, to-day; heri, yesterday; cras, to-morrow; pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; in dies, from day to day.
nondum, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam primum, as soon as possible; saepe, often; crebro, frequently; iam non, no longer.
c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause
quam, how, as; tam, so; quamvis, however much, although; paene, almost; magis, more; valde, greatly; vix, hardly.
cur, quare, why; ideo, idcirco, propterea, on this account, because; eo, therefore; ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore.
ita, sic, so; ut ( uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however.
d. Interrogative Particles
an, - ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether.
nonne, annon, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all.
On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see Sect: 332, 335.
Negative Particles
non, not (in simple denial); haud, minime, not (in contradiction); ne, not (in prohibition); neve, neu, nor; nedum, much less.
ne, lest; neque, nec, nor; ne ... quidem, not even.
non modo ... verum ( sed) etiam, not only ... but also.
non modo ... sed ne ... quidem, not only NOT ... but not even.
si minus, if not; quo minus (quominus), so as not.
quin (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not?
ne, nec (in composition), not; so in nescio, I know not; nego, I say no ( aio, I say yes); negotium, business (*nec-otium); nemo (ne- and hemo, old form of homo), no one; ne quis, lest any one; neque enim, for ... not.
For the use of Negative Particles, see Sect: 325 ff.
For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see Sect: 320 ff.
.COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
SECTION:#218. The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of the comparative of the corresponding adjective; the Superlative is the Adverb in - e formed regularly from the superlative of the Adjective:
car e, dearly (from carus, dear); car ius, carissime.
miser e (miser iter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched); miser ius, miserrime.
levi ter (from levis, light); lev ius, levissime.
audacter (audac iter) (from audax, bold); audac ius, audacissime.
bene, well (from bonus, good); mel ius, op time.
male ¥, ill (from malus, bad); pei ius, pes sime.
he following are irregular or defective:
diu, long (in time); diut ius, diutissime.
potius, rather; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all.
saepe, often; saep ius, oftener, again; saepissime.
satis, enough; sat ius, preferable.
secus, otherwise; set ius, worse.
multum ( multo), mag is, maxime, much, more, most.
parum, not enough; minus, less; min ime, least.
nuper, newly; nuperrime.
tempere, seasonably; temperius.
NOTE.--In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis.
.PREPOSITIONS
SECTION:#219. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened, adverbs were used for greater precision (cf. Sect: 338). These adverbs, from their habitual association with particular cases, became Prepositions; but many retained also their independent function as adverbs.
Most prepositions are true case-forms: as, the comparative ablatives extra, infra, supra (for extera, infera, supera), and the accusatives circum, coram, cum (cf. Sect: 215). Circiter is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. Sect: 214. b. N.); praeter is the comparative of prae, propter of prope.Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle of verto); adversus is a compound of versus; trans is probably an old present participle (cf. in-tra- re); while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, de, ex, ob, is obscure and doubtful.
SECTION:#220. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative.
The following prepositions are used with the Accusative:
ad, to. circiter, about. intra, inside.
adversus, against. cis, citra, this side. iuxta, near.
adversum, towards. contra, against. ob, on account of.
ante, before. erga, towards. penes, in the power of.
apud, at, near. extra, outside. per, through.
circa, around. infra, below. pone, behind.
circum, around. inter, among. post, after.
praeter, beyond. secundum, next to. ultra, on the further side.
prope, near. supra, above. versus, towards.
propter, on account of. trans, across.
The following prepositions are used with the Ablative:
a, ea b, abs, away from, by. e, ex, out of.
absque, without, but for. prae, in comparison with.
coram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for.
cum, with. sine, without.
de, from. tenus, up to, as far as.
The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Ablative, but with a difference in meaning:
in, into, in. sub, under.
subter, beneath. super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by the ablative, rest in, a place:
venit in aedis, he came into the house; erat in aedibus, he was in the house.
disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam translata esse existimatur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain and thence brought over to Gaul.
sub ilice consederat, he had seated himself under an ilex.
sub leges mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under laws).
SECTION:#221. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows:
1. a, ab, away from,from, off from, with the ablative.
a. Of place: as,-- ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city.
b. Of time: (1) from: as,-- ab hora tertia ad vesperam, from the third hour till evening; (2) just after: as,-- ab eo magistratu, after [holding] that office.
c. Idiomatic uses: a reliquis differunt, they differ from the others; a parvulis, from early childhood; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city; liberare ab, to set free from; occisus ab hoste ( periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; ab hac parte, on this side; ab re eiius, to his advantage; a re publica, for the interest of the state.
2. Ad, to, towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, into).
a. Of place: as,-- ad urbem venit, he came to the city; ad meridiem, towards the south; ad exercitum, to the army; ad hostem, toward the enemy; ad urbem, near the city.
b. Of time: as,-- ad nonam horam, till the ninth hour.
c. With persons: as,-- ad eum venit, he came to him.
d. Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia descendunt, they resort to punishment; ad haec respondit, to this he answered; ad tempus, at the [fit] time; adire ad rem publicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace; ad latera, on the flank; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc modum, in this way; quem ad modum, how, as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad hoc, besides; omnes ad unum, all to a man; ad diem, on the day.
3. Ante, in front of, before, with the accusative (cf. post, after).
a. Of place: as,-- ante portam, in front of the gate; ante exercitum, in advance of the army.
b. Of time: as,-- ante bellum, before the war.
c. Idiomatic uses: ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante diem quintum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends; ante quadriennium, four years before or ago; ante tempus, too soon (before the time).
4. Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative.
a. Of place (rare and archaic): as,-- apud forum, at the forum (in the marketplace).
b. With reference to persons or communities: as,-- apud Helvetios, among the Helvetians; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud se, at home or in his senses; apud Ciceronem, in [the works of] Cicero.
5. Circa, about, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter).
a. Of place: templa circa forum, the temples about the forum; circa se habet, he has with him (of persons).
b. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers): circa eandem horam, about the same hour; circa idus Octobris, about the fifteenth of October; circa decem milia, about ten thousand.
c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. de): circa quem pugna est, with regard to whom, etc.; circa deos neglegentior, rather neglectful of (i.e. in worshipping) the gods.
6. Circiter, about, with the accusative.
a. Of time or number: circiter idus Novembris, about the thirteenth of November; circiter meridiem, about noon.
7. Circum, about, around, with the accusative.
a. Of place: circum haec loca, hereabout; circum Capuam, round Capua; circum illum, with him; legatio circum insulas missa, an embassy sent to the islands round about; circum amicos, to his friends round about.
8. Contra, opposite, against, with the accusative.
contra Italiam, over against Italy; contra haec, in answer to this.
a. Often as adverb: as,-- haec contra, this in reply; contra autem, but on the other hand; quod contra, whereas, on the other hand.
9. Cum, with, together with, with the ablative.
a. Of place: as,--vade mecum, go with me; cum omnibus impedimentis, with all [their] baggage.
b. Of time: as,--prima cum luce, at early dawn (with first light).
c. Idiomatic uses: magno cum dolore, with great sorrow; communicare aliquid cum aliquo, share something with some one; cum malo suo, to his own hurt; confligere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy; esse cum telo, to go armed; cum silentio, in silence.
10. De, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from; ex, out of).
a. Of place: as,-- de caelo demissus, sent down from heaven; de navibus desilire, to jump down from the ships.
b. Figuratively, concerning, about, of:as,-- cognoscit de Clodi caede, he learns of the murder of Clodius; consilia de bello, plans of war.
c. In a partitive sense (compare ex), out of, of: as,-- unus de plebe, one of the people.
d. Idiomatic uses: multis de causis, for many reasons; qua de causa, for which reason; de improviso, of a sudden; de industria, on purpose; de integro, anew; de tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at the third watch); de mense Decembri navigare, to sail as early as December.
11. Ex, e, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of, with the ablative (cf. ab and de).
a. Of place: as,-- ex omnibus partibus silvae evolaverunt, they flew out from all parts of the forest; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain.
b. Of time: as,-- ex eo die quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after); ex hoc die, from this day forth.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: ex consulatu, right after his consulship: ex eiius sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequo, justly; ex improviso, unexpectedly; ex tua re, to your advantage; magna ex parte, in a great degree; ex equo pugnare, to fight on horseback; ex usu, expedient; e regione, opposite; quaerere ex aliquo, to ask of some one; ex senatus consulto, according to the decree of the senate; ex fuga, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it); unus e filiis, one of the sons.
12. In, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex).
a. Of place: as,--in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy.
b. Of time, till, until: as,--in lucem, till daylight.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, towards the south; amor in ( erga, adversus) patrem, love for his father; in aram confugit, he fled to the altar (on the steps, or merely to); in dies, from day to day; in longitudinem, lengthwise; in latitudinem patebat, extended in width; in haec verba iurare, to swear to these words; hunc in modum, in this way; oratio in Catilinam, a speech against
Catiline; in perpetuum, forever; in peiius, for the worse; in diem vivere, to live from hand to mouth (for the day).
2. With the ablative, in, on, among.
In very various connections: as,--in castris, in the camp (cf. ad castra, to, at, or near the camp); in mari, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore, in season; in scribendo, while writing; est mihi in animo, I have it in mind, I intend; in ancoris, at anchor; in hoc homine, in the case of this man; in dubio esse, to be in doubt.
13. Infra, below, with the accusative.
a. Of place: as,-- ad mare infra oppidum, by the sea below the town; infra caelum, under the sky.
b. Figuratively or less exactly: as,--infra Homerum, later than Homer; infra tres pedes, less than three feet; infra elephantos, smaller than elephants; i nfra infimos omnis, the lowest of the low.
14. Inter, between, among, with the accusative.
inter me et Scipionem, between myself and Scipio; inter os et offam, between the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel); inter hostium tela, amid the weapons of the enemy; inter omnis primus, first of all; inter bibendum, while drinking; inter se loquuntur, they talk together.
15. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative.
a. Literally: (1) of motion (archaic): as,-- ob Romam, towards Rome ( Ennius); ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place in which, before, in a few phrases: as,-- ob oculos, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account, balancing one thing against another): as,-- ob mulierem, in pay for the woman; ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of (a similar mercantile idea), for: as,-- ob eam causam, for that reason; quam ob rem ( quamobrem), wherefore, why.
16. Per, through, over, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as,--per urbem ire, to go through the city; per muros, over the walls.
b. Of time: as,--per hiemem, throughout the winter.
c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments: as,--per homines idoneos, through the instrumentality of suitable persons; licet per me, you (etc.) may for all me. Hence, stat per me, it is through my instrumentality; so, per se, in and of itself.
d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions: as,--per iocum, in jest; per speciem, in show, ostentatiously.
17. Prae, in front of, with the ablative.
a. Literally, of place (in a few connections): as,-- prae se portare, to carry in one's arms; prae se ferre, to carry before one, (hence figuratively) exhibit, proclaim ostentatiously, make known.
b. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English for): as,-- prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy.
c. Of comparison: as,-- prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison with their own great size.
18. Praeter, along by, by, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as,-- praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of); praeter oculos, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except: as,-- praeter spem, beyond hope; praeter alios, more than others; praeter paucos, with the exception of a few.
19. Pro, in front of, with the ablative.
sedens pro aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor; pro populo, in presence of the people. So pro rostris, on [the front of] the rostra; pro contione, before the assembly (in a speech).
a. In various idiomatic uses: pro lege, in defence of the law; pro vitula, instead of a heifer; pro centum milibus, as good as a hundred thousand; pro rata parte, in due proportion; pro hac vice, for this once; pro consule, in place of consul; pro viribus, considering his strength; pro virili parte, to the best of one's ability; pro tua prudentia, in accordance with your wisdom.
20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative.
propter te sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of): as,-- propter metum, through fear.
21. Secundum,just behind, following, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as,-- ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum litus, near the shore; secundum flumen, along the stream (cf. secundo flumine, down stream).
b. Figuratively, according to: as,-- secundum naturam, according to nature.
22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. Of motion, with the accusative: as,-- sub montem succedere, to come close to the hill.
a. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night; sub lucem, near daylight; sub haec dicta, at (following) these words.
2. Of rest, with the ablative: as,-- sub Iove, in the open air (under the heaven, personified as Jove); sub monte, at the foot of the hill.
a. Idiomatically: sub eodem tempore, about the same time (just after it).
23. Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry, the ablative).
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but,-- subter litore (Catull.), below the shore.
24. Super,with the accusative or the ablative.
1. With the accusative, above, over, on, beyond, upon.
a. Of place: super vallum praecipitari (Iug. 58) , to be hurled over the rampart; super lateres coria inducuntur (B.C. 2.10) , hides are drawn over the bricks; super terrae tumulum statui (Legg. 2.65) , to be placed on the mound of earth; super Numidiam (Iug. 19) , beyond Numidia.
b. Idiomatically or less exactly: vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; super vinum (Q. C. 8.4) , over his wine.
2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in prose).
hac super re, concerning this thing; super tali re, about such an affair; litteras super tanta re exspectare, to wait for a letter in a matter of such importance.
a. Poetically, in other senses: ligna super foco large reponens (Hor. Od. 1.9.5) , piling logs generously on the fire; nocte super media ( Aen. 9.61), after midnight.
25. Supra, on top of, above, with the accusative.
supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively: as,--supra hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supra morem, more than usual; supra quod, besides.
26. Tenus (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the ablative, sometimes with the genitive (cf. Sect: 359. b).
1. With the ablative: Tauro tenus, as far as Taurus; capulo tenus, up to the hilt.
2. With the genitive: Cumarum tenus ( Fam. 8.1.2), as far as Cumae.
NOTE 1.--Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun, making an adverbial phrase: as, hactenus, hitherto; quatenus, so far as; de hac re hactenus, so much for that (about this matter so far).
NOTE 2.--Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusative (Sect: 397. a).
27. Trans, across, over, through, by, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as,-- trans mare currunt, they run across the sea; trans flumen ferre, to carry over a river; trans aethera, through the sky; trans caput iace, throw over your head.
b. Of rest: as,-- trans Rhenum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.
28. Ultra beyond (on the further side), with the accusative.
cis Padum ultraque, on this side of the Po and beyond; ultra eum numerum, more than that number; ultra fidem, incredible; ultra modum, immoderate.
NOTE.--Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intus, insuper (see Sect: 219).
For Prepositions in Compounds, see Sect: 267.
.CONJUNCTIONS
SECTION:#222. Conjunctions, like prepositions (cf. Sect: 219), are closely related to adverbs, and are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, quod, an old accusative; dum, probably an old accusative (cf. tum, cum); vero, an old neuter ablative of verus; nihilominus, none the less; proinde, lit. forward from there. Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which cannot always be referred to their original case-forms.
SECTION:#223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They are of two classes, Co-ordinate and Subordinate:
Coordinate, connecting coordinate or similar constructions (see Sect: 278. 2. a). These are:
1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought as well as of words: as, et, and; aut, or; neque, nor.
2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought: as, sed, but.
3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for.
4. Illative, denoting an inference: as, igitur, therefore.
Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with that on which it depends (see Sect: 278. 2. b). These are:
1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, if; nisi, unless.
2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition: as, ac si, as if.
3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission: as, quamquam, although (lit. however much it may be true that, etc.).
4. Temporal: as, postquam, after.
5. Consecutive, expressing result: as, ut, so that.
6. Final, expressing purpose: as, ut, in order that; ne, that not.
7. Causal, expressing cause: as, quia, because.
SECTION:#224. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list includes the common conjunctionsand conjunctive phrases:
COORDINATE
1 All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms in -bi and -ic are locative, those in - o and -uc, - a and - ac, ablative (see Sect: 215); those in -inc are from -im (of uncertain origin) with the particle - ce added (thus illim, illin- c).
2 The case-form of these prepositions in - ter is doubtful.
3 For palam etc., see Sect: 432.
4 Ab signifies direction from the object, but often towards the speaker; compare de, down from, and ex, out of.
5 Of originally meant from (cf. off).
6 Old participle of sequor.
7 Comparative of sub.
8 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list of Correlatives. Sect: 152.
SECTION:#225. Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others are derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for eme, take); age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in hercle, pol (from Pollux), etc. Many Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euhoe, etc.
SECTION:#226. The following list comprises most of the Interjections in common use:
o, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment).
io, evae, evoe, euhoe (of joy).
heu, eè÷heu, vae, alas (of sorrow).
heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling); st, hist.
eiia, euge (of praise).
pro (of attestation): as, pro pudor, shame!
.COMPOUNDS and.FORMATION OF WORDS
SECTION:#227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea-nymph, seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which were neither, because they were in fact both; for the distinction between noun-stems and verb-stems had not yet been made.
After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose. Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.
In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns.
Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of which the Primitive is lost.
Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed.
.ROOTS AND STEMS
SECTION:#228. Rootsare of two kinds:
1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena).
2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction.
From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain particles derived from pronominal roots.
SECTION:#229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them. They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-stems) and (2) Verb-stems.
NOTE.--Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded; but in general they were treated as distinct.
SECTION:#230. Words are formed by inflection: (1) from roots inflected as stems; (2) from derived stems (see Sect: 232).
SECTION:#231. A root used as a stem may appear:
With a short vowel: as, duc- is ( dux), DUC; nec-is (nex); i-s, i- d. So in verbs: as, es- t, fer- t (cf. Sect: 174. 2).
With a long vowel: as, luc-is ( lux), LUC; pac- is ( pax). So in verbs: duc- o, i-s for *eis, from eo, ire; fatur from fari.
With reduplication: as, fur-fur, mar- mor, mur-mur. So in verbs: as, gi- gno (root GEN), si- sto (root STA).
.DERIVED .STEMS AND .SUFFIXES
SECTION:#232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems by means of suffixes. These are:
1. Primary: added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verbstems.
2. Secondary: added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem.
Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal roots (Sect: 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
NOTE 1.--The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being original (see Sect: 227), is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in hosticus ( hosti + cus) the suffix - cus, originally ko- (see Sect: 234. 2.12) primary, as in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but in pudicus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary suffix (tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable; -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddlesome, venturesome.
NOTE 2.--It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given.
1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems. see Sect: 24. 25.
2 The difference in vowel-quantity in the same root (as D?»è÷C) depends on inherited variations (see Sect: 17. a).
SECTION:#233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by means of Primary Suffixes, are few. For:
1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-some-ish. meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.
2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus,--
A word like mens, mentis, by the suffix o n- (nom. - o), gave mentio, and this, being divided into men + tio, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -tio: as, lega- tio, embassy.
A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. - ius), gave rise to adjectives like auditor-ius, of which the neuter ( auditorium) is used to denote the place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence torio- (nom. -torium), N., becomes a regular noun-suffix (Sect: 250. a).
So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is made starvation, though there is no such word as starvate.
.SUFFIXES
SECTION:#234. Examples of primary stem-suffixes are:
I. Vowel suffixes:
1. o- (M., N.), a - (F.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declensions: as, sonus, ludus, vagus, toga (root TEG).
2. i-, as in ovis, avis; in Latin frequently changed, as in r upes, or lost, as in scobs ( scobis, root SCAB).
3. u-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for suadvis, instead of sua-dus, cf. h
II. Suffixes with a consonant:
1. to- (M., N.), ta- (F.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus, tectum; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus; and found in a few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf. purus), altus ( alo).
2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens. But in many the i is lost.
3. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actus, luctus.
4. no- (M., N.), na- (F.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus, plenus, regnum.
5. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, segnis.
6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pinus, cornu.
7. mo- (ma-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma.
8. vo- (va-) (commonly uo-, ua-), with an active or passive meaning, as in equus ( equos), arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus ( vacuus).
9. ro- (ra-), as in ager (stem (ag-ro-), integer (cf. intactus), sacer, pleri- que (cf. plenus, pletus).
10. lo- (la-), as in caelum (for caed-lum), chisel, exemplum, sella (for *sedla).
11. yo- (ya-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies.
12. ko- (ka-), sometimes primary, as in pauc i (cf. pauros), locus (for stlocus). In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem: as, apex, cortex, loquax.
13. en- (on-, en-, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as, aspergo, compage (-i nis), gero (-onis).
14. men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself: as, agmen flumen, fulmen.
15. ter- (tor-, ter-, tor-, tr-), forming nouns of agency: as, pater (i.e. protector), frater (i.e. supporter), orator.
16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum ( CLAUD), mulctrum (MULG).
17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes: as, genus (generis), tempus (see Sect: 15. 4). The infinitive in - ere (as in reg- ere) is a locative of this stem ((--er- e for -es- i).
18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles: as, legens, with some adjectives from roots unknown: as, frequens, recens.
The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the Latin.
1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems. see Sect: 24. 25.
2 The difference in vowel-quantity in the same root (as D?»è÷C) depends on inherited variations (see Sect: 17. a).
.Primary Suffixes
SECTION:#235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called Significant Endings.
They form: (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (including Names of Actions); (3) Adjectives (active or passive).
NOTE.--There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as nouns (Sect: 20. b. N. 2).
.DERIVATION OF NOUNS
.Nouns of .Agent
SECTION:#236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.
Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots or verb-stems by means of the suffixes:
-tor (-sor), M.; -trix, F.
can-tor, can- trix, singer; can- ere (root CAN), to sing.
vic-tor, vic- trix, conqueror (victorious); vinc- ere (VIC), to conquer.
ton- sor (for *tond-tor), tons- trix (for
tond-trix), hair-cutter; tond- ere (TOND as root), to shear.
peti- tor, candidate; pet-ere (PET; peti- as stem), to seek
By analogy - tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs: as, via- tor, traveller, from via, way (but cf. the verb invio).
NOTE 1.--The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine ending - tum (- sum), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending. The stem-ending is tor- (Sect: 234. 2.15), which is shortened in the nominative.
NOTE 2.--The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor ( expultrix) and tonsor ( tonstrix).
-t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in - es (- itis, - etis; stem it-, et-) descriptive of a character:
prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stem from root STA, stare, stand), guardian.
teges, - etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover), a coverer, a mat.
pedes, - itis ( pes, ped- is, foot, and I, root of ire, go), foot-soldier.
- o (genitive -onis, stem on)-, M., added to verb-stemsindicates a person employed in some specific art or trade:
com- bibo (BIB as root in bibo, bibere, drink), a pot-companion.
gero, -onis (GES in gero, gerere, carry), a carrier.
NOTE.--This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal characteristics (cf. Sect: 255).
1 So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems.
.Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns
SECTION:#237. Names of Actions are confused, through their terminations, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities), and with concrete nouns denoting means and instrument.
They are also used to express the concrete result of an action (as often in English).
Thus legio is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body of soldiers collected); cf. levy in English.
SECTION:#238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from roots and verb-stems by means of the endings:
Added to roots or forms conceived as roots:
NOM. -or, M. - es, F. -us, N.
GEN. - oris - is - eris or - oris
STEM or- (earlier os-) i- er- (earlier (e/os-)
tim-or, fear; timere, to fear.
am- or, love; amare, to love.
sed- es, seat; sedere, to sit.
caed- es, slaughter; caedere, to kill.
genus, birth, race; GEN, to be born (root of gigno, bear).
NOTE.--Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots: as facinus from a supposed root FACIN.
Apparently added to roots or verb-stems:
NOM. -io, F. -tio (-sio), F. -tura (- sura), F. -tus, M.
GEN. -ionis -tionis (-sionis) -turae (- surae) -tus (- sus)
STEM ion- tion- (sion-) tura- (sura-) tu- (su-)
leg-io, a collecting (levy), a legion; legere, to collect.
reg- io, a direction, a region; regere, to direct.
voca- tio, a calling; vocare, to call.
moli- tio, a toiling; moliri, to toil.
scrip- tura, a writing; scribere, to write.
sen- sus (for *sent-tus), feeling; sentire, to feel.
NOTE 1.---tio, -tura, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the same phonetic change (cf. Sect: 236. a. N. 1). Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see Sect: 178). They sometimes form nouns when there is no corresponding verb in use: as, senatus, senate (cf. senex); mentio, mention (cf. mens); fetura, offspring (cf. fetus); litteratura, literature (cf. litterae); consulatus, consulship (cf. consul).
NOTE 2.--Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. Sect: 234. 2.3.); -io is a compound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i): as, dicio (cf. -dicus and dicis); -tio is a compound formed by adding on- to stems in ti-: as, gradatio (cf. gradatim); -tura is formed by adding -ra, feminine of - rus, to stems in tu-: as, natura from natus; statura from status (cf. figura, of like meaning, from a simple u-stem, *figu-s; and maturus, Matuta).
SECTION:#239. Nouns denoting acts, or means and results of acts, are formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes:
-men, N.; -mentum, N.; -monium, N.; -monia, F.
ag- men, line of march, band; AG, root of agere, to lead.
regi- men, rule; regi- mentum, rule; regi- (rege-), stem of regere, to direct.
certa- men, contest, battle; certa-, stem of certare, to contend.
colu- men, pillar; mo- men, movement; no- men, name; flu- men, stream.
testi- monium, testimony; testari, to witness.
queri- monia, complaint; queri, to complain.
-monium and -monia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other nouns and from adjectives: as, sancti- monia, sanctity ( sanctus, holy); matrimonium, marriage ( mater, mother.)
NOTE.--Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. Sect: 234. 2.14); - mentum is a compound of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men: as, momen, movement (Lucr.); momentum (later). So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men. -monium and -monia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed from mon- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-. Thus almus
(stem almo-), fostering; Almon, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last was formed directly from alo when -monia had become established as a supposed primary suffix.
SECTION:#240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter suffixes:
-bulum, - culum, -brum, - crum, -trum
pa- bulum, fodder; pascere, to feed.
sta- bulum, stall; stare, to stand.
vehi- culum, wagon; vehere, to carry.
candela- brum, candlestick; candela, candle (a secondary formation).
sepul- crum, tomb; sepelire, to bury.
claus- trum (*claud-trum), bar; claudere, to shut.
ara- trum, plough; arare, to plough.
NOTE.---trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (Sect: 234. 2.15), with the stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related; -culum is the same as - clum; -bulum contains lo- (Sect: 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related.
A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns and adjectives:
fa- bula, tale; fari, to speak.
ridi- culus, laughable; ridere, to laugh.
fa- ber, smith; facere, to make.
late- bra, hiding-place; latere, to hide.
tere- bra, auger; terere, to bore.
mulc- tra, milk-pail; mulgere, to milk.
SECTION:#241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suffixes:
-ia (-ies), -tia (-ties), -tas, -tus, -tudo
audac- ia, boldness; audax, bold.
pauper- ies, poverty; pauper, poor.
tristi- tia, sadness; tristis, sad.
segni-ties, laziness; segnis, lazy.
boni- tas, goodness; bonus, good.
senec- tus, age; senex, old.
magni- tudo, greatness; magnus, great.
1. In stems ending in o- or a- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb- ia) and appears as i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as in boni- tas, above).
2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tas: as, loquax (stem loquac-), loquaci-tas; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old adjectives in - es), uber-tas, volup- tas. o after i is changed to e: as, pius (stem pio-), pie-tas; socius, socie-tas.
In like manner - do and -go (F.) form abstract nouns, but are associated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems:
cupi- do, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupi-).
dulce-do, sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem dulce-, cf. dulce-sco.
lumba-go , lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from ‰ Û*lumbo, - are.
NOTE.--Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. Sect: 234. 2.11). -tia is formed by adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix: as, militia, from miles (stem milit-); molestia from molestus; clementia from clemens; whence by analogy, mali- tia, avari- tia. -tas is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense: as, senecta from senex; semen- tis from semen. -tus is tu- + ti-, cf. servitu-do. - do and -go appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy; but - do is do- + on-: as, cupidus, cupido; gravidus, gravedo (cf. grave- sco); albidus, albedo (cf. albesco); formidus, hot, formido (cf. formidulosus), (hot flash?) fear; -go is possibly co- + on-; cf. vorax, vorago, but cf. Cethegus. -tudo is compounded of - do with tu-stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volumen, from volvo): as, consuet u- do, valetu- do, habitu-do; whence servitudo (cf. servitus, tutis).
Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by means of the suffixes:
-ium, -tium
hospit- ium, hospitality, an inn;hospes (gen. hospit- is), a guest.
colleg- ium, colleagueship, a college; collega, a colleague.
auspic- ium, soothsaying, an omen; auspex (gen. auspic- is), a soothsayer.
gaud- ium, joy; gaudere, to rejoice.
effug- ium, escape; effugere, to escape.
benefic- ium, a kindness; benefacere, to benefit; cf. beneficus.
desider- ium, longing; desiderare, to miss, from de- sides, out of place, of missing soldiers.
adverb-um, adverb; ad verbum, [added] to a verb.
interlun-um, time of new moon; inter lunas, between moons.
regifug-ium, flight of the kings; regis fuga, flight of a king.
servi-ium, slavery, the slave class; servus, a slave.
Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium: as, colleg-ium, from collega.
NOTE.---ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -us. It is an inherited primary suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary. -tium is formed like -tia, by adding -ium to stems with t: as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf. exitus, equites); so, by analogy, calvitium, servitium (from calvus, servus).
Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the suffixes--
-nia, F.; -nium, -lium, -cinium, N.
pecu- nia, money (chattels); pecu, cattle.
contici- nium, the hush of night; conticescere, to become still.
auxi- lium, help; augere, to increase.
latro- cinium, robbery; latro, robber (cf. latrocinor, rob, implying an adjective latrocinus).
For Diminutives and Patronymics, see Sect: 243, 244.
.DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES
SECTION:#242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems).
1 The abstract meaning is put first.
Nominal Adjectives
SECTION:#243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gender, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns.
They are formed by means of the suffixes:
-ulus (- a, -um), -olus (after a vowel), - culus, -ellus, -illus
riv- ulus, a streamlet; rivus, a brook.
gladi- olus, a small sword; gladius, a sword.
fili- olus, a little son; filius, a son.
fili- ola, a little daughter; filia, a daughter.
atri- olum, a little hall; atrium, a hall.
homun- culus, a dwarf; homo, a man.
auri- cula, a little ear; auris, an ear.
munus- culum, a little gift; munus, N., a gift.
codic- illi, writing-tablets; codex, a block.
mis- ellus, rather wretched; miser, wretched.
lib- ellus, a little book; liber, a book.
aure- olus (- a, -um), golden; aureus (- a, -um), golden.
parv- olus (later parv- ulus), very small; parvus (- a, -um), little.
maius- culus, somewhat larger; maior (old maios), greater.
NOTE 1.--These diminutive endings are all formed by adding - lus to various stems. The formation is the same as that of -ulus in Sect: 251. But these words became settled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish, - culus comes from - lus added to adjectives in - cus formed from stems in n- and s-: as, iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Aurunculeiius), pris-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the termination, and the whole ending (- culus) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s- stems, in accordance with its origin.
NOTE 2.--Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as, deliciolae, little pet; muliercula, a poor (weak) woman; Graeculus, a miserable Greek.
- cio, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used with masculines only: as, homun-cio, a dwarf (from homo, a man).
SECTION:#244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed by adding to proper names the suffixes--
- ades, -ides, - ides, -eus, M.; -as, - is, - eis, F.
These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns in Latin:
Atlas: Atlanti- ades, Mercury; Atlant-ides (Gr. plur.), the Pleiads.
Scipio: Scipi- ades, son of Scipio.
Tyndareus: Tyndar-ides, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus; Tyndar- is, Helen, daughter of Tyndarus.
Anchises: Anchisi- ades, Aeeas, son of Anchises.
th eseus: Thes- ides, son of Theseus.
Tydeus: Tyd-ides, Diomedes, son of Tydeus.
Oileus: Aiax Oil-eus, son of Oileus.
Cisseus: Cisse- is, Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus.
Thaumas: Thaumant- ias, Iris, daughter of Thaumas.
Hesperus: Hesper- ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of Hesperus, the Hesperides.
SECTION:#245. Adjectives meaning full of, prone to, are formed from nounstems with the suffixes:
-osus, -lens, -lentus
fluctu- osus, billowy; fluctus, a billow.
form- osus, beautiful; forma, beauty.
pericul- osus, dangerous; periculum, danger.
pesti-lens, pesti- lentus, pestilent; pestis, pest.
vino-lentus, vin-osus, given to drink; vinum, wine.
SECTION:#246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns by means of the regular participial endings:
-tus, -atus, -itus, -utus
funes- tus, deadly; funus (st. funer-, older (fune/os-), death.
hones-tus, honorable; honor, honor.
faus- tus (for *faves-tus), favorable; favor, favor.
barb- atus, bearded; barba, a beard.
turr- itus, turreted; turris, a tower.
corn- utus, horned; cornu, a horn.
NOTE.---atus, - itus, -utus, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem: -tus is added directly to nouns without any such reference.
SECTION:#247. Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in general made of or belonging to, are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes:
-eus, -ius, -aceus, -i cius, -aneus (-neus), -ticus
aur- eus, golden; aurum, gold.
patr- ius, paternal; pater, a father.
uxor- ius, uxorious; uxor, a wife.
ros- aceus, of roses; rosa, a rose.
later- icius, of brick; later, a brick.
praesent- aneus, operating instantly; praesens, present.
extr- aneus, external; extra, without.
subterr- aneus, subterranean; sub terra, underground.
salig- neus, of willow; salix, willow.
vola- ticus, winged ( volatus, a flight); volare, to fly.
domes- ticus, of the house, domestic; domus, a house.
silva- ticus, sylvan; silva, a wood.
NOTE.--- ius is originally primitive (Sect: 234. 2.11); -eus corresponds to Greek -eios, eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf. yo-, Sect: 234. 2.11); -icius and -aceus are formed by adding - ius and -eus to stems in i-c-, a-c- (suffix ko-, Sect: 234. 2.12); -neus is no- + -eus (Sect: 234. 2.4); -aneus is formed by adding -neus to a-stems; -ticus is a formation with - cus (cf. hosti- cus with silva- ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial stems in to- (nominative - tus).
SECTION:#248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from nounstems with the suffixes\:
-alis, -aris, -elis, -ilis, -ulis
natur- alis, natural; natura, nature.
popul- aris, fellow-countryman; populus, a people.
patru- elis, cousin; patruus, uncle.
host- ilis, hostile; hostis, an enemy.
cur- ulis, curule; currus, a chariot.
NOTE.--The suffixes arise from adding - lis (stem li-) to various vowel stems. The long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf. vita-lis, from vita-, with reg-alis), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf. Aprilis ( aperire), edulis ( edere), with senilis ( senex). - ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations - aris arises by differentiation for - alis in words containing an(as milit- aris).
SECTION:#249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by means of the suffixes--
- anus, -enus, - inus; -as, - ensis; - cus, - acus (- acus), -icus; -eus, - eiius, -icius
1. So from common nouns:
mont- anus, of the mountains; mons (stem monti-), mountain.
veter-anus, veteran; vetus (stem veter-), old.
anteluc-anus, before daylight; ante lucem, before light.
terr- enus, earthly; terra, earth.
ser- enus, calm (of evening stillness); serus, late.
coll- inus, of a hill; collis, hill.
div- inus, aivine; divus, god.
libert- inus, of the class of freedmen; libertus, one's freedman.
cui- as, of what country? quis, who?
infim- as, of the lowest rank; infimus, lowest.
for- ensis, of a market-place, or the Forum; forum, a market-place. civi- cus, civic, of a citizen; civis, a citizen.
fullon- icus, of a fuller; fullo, a fuller.
mer- acus, pure; merum, pure wine.
femin- eus, of a woman, feminine; femina, a woman.
lact- eus, milky; lac, milk (stem lacti-).
pleb-eius, of the commons, plebeian; plebes, the commons.
patr- icius, patrician; pater, father.
2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from:
Rom- anus, Roman; Roma, Rome.
Sull- ani, Sulla's veterans; Sulla.
Cyzic-eni, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus; Cyzicus.
Ligur- inus, of Liguria; Liguria.
Arpin- as, of Arpinum; Arpinum.
Sicili- ensis, Sicilian; Sicilia, Sicily.
Ili-acus, Trojan (a Greek form); Ilium, Troy.
Platon- icus, Platonic; Plato.
Aquil-eiius, a Roman name; Aquil-eiia, a town in Italy; Aquila.
Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become nouns:
Silv-anus, M., a god of the woods; silva, a wood.
membr-ana, F., skin; membrum, limb.
Aemili- anus, M., name of Scipio Africanus; Aemilia ( gens).
lani-ena, F., a butcher's stall; lanius, butcher.
Aufidi-enus, M., a Roman name; Aufidius ( Aufidus).
inquil-inus, M., a lodger; incola, an inhabitant.
Caec- ina, used as M., a Roman name; caecus, blind.
ru-ina, F., a fall; ruo, fall (no noun existing).
doctr- ina, F., learning; doctor, teacher.
NOTE.--Of these terminations, - anus, -enus, - inus are compounded from - nus added to a stem-vowel: as, arca, arcanus; collis, collinus. The long vowels come from a confusion with verb-stems (as in ple- nus, fini- tus, tribu- tus), and from the noun-stem in a-. as, arcanus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in o- and u-: as, colonus ( colo, cf. incola), patronus (cf. patro, - are), tribunus (cf. tribuo, tribus), Portunus (cf. portus), Vacuna (cf. vaco, vacuus).
SECTION:#250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to (especially of places and times) are formed with the suffixes--
ter (-tris), - ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -ernus, -urnus, -ternus (-turnus)
palus-ter, of the marshes; palus, a marsh.
pedes-ter, of the foot-soldiers; pedes, a footman.
semes- tris, lasting six months; sex menses, six months.
silv- ester, silv- estris, woody; silva, a wood.
fini- timus, neighboring, on the borders; finis, an end.
mari- timus, of the sea; mare, sea.
ver-nus, vernal; ver, spring.
hodi- ernus, of to-day; hodie, to-day.
di- urnus, daily; dies, day.
hes- ternus, of yesterday; heri (old hesi ), yesterday.
diu- turnus, lasting; diu, long (in time).
NOTE.--Of these, - ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, Sect: 234. 2.16) to stems in t- or d-. Thus pedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy. -nus is an inherited suffix (Sect: 234. 2.4). -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding - nus to s-stems: as, diur-nus (for dius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus ( hodie). By an extension of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like paternus and nocturnus.
Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes:
-arius, -torius (-sorius)
ordin- arius, regular; ordo, rank, order.
argent- arius, of silver or money; argentum, silver.
extr- arius, stranger; extra, outside.
meri- torius, profitable; meritus, earned.
devor-sorius, of an inn (cf. Sect: 254. 5); devorsus, turned aside.
NOTE 1.--Here - ius (Sect: 234. 2.11) is added to shorter forms in - aris and -or: as, peculiarius (from peculiaris), bellatorius (from bellator).
NOTE 2.--These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see Sect: 254).
Verbal Adjectives
SECTION:#251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the suffixes:
-ax, -idus, - ulus, -vus (-uus, -ivus, -tivus)
-ax denotes a faulty or aggressive tendency; -tivus is oftener passive.
pugn- ax, pugnacious; pugnare, to fight.
aud- ax, bold; audere, to dare.
cup- idus, eager; cupere, to desire.
bib- ulus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.); bibere, to drink.
proter- vus, violent, wanton; proterere, to trample.
noc- uus (noc- ivus), hurtful, injurious; nocere, to do harm.
recid- ivus, restored; recidere, to fall back.
cap- tivus, captive; M., a prisoner of war; capere, to take.
NOTE.--Of these, -ax is a reduction of - acus (stem-vowel a- + - cus), become independent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -ex, -ox, -ix, and -ux are found or employed in derivatives: as, imbrex, M., a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from seni- s); ferox, fierce (from ferus); atrox, savage (from ater, black); celox, F., a yacht (cf. cello); felix, happy, originally fertile (cf. felo, suck); fiducia, F., confidence (as from fidux); cf. also victrix (from victor). So manducus, chewing (from mando).
-idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb); tumidus, swollen (cf. tumu- lus, hill; tumul- tus, uproar); callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum, tough flesh); mucidus, slimy (cf. mucus, slime); tabidus, wasting (cf. tabes, wasting disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems.
-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf. aemulus, rivalling (cf. imitor and imago); sedulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. domi- seda, homestaying, and sedo, set, settle, hence calm); pendulus, hanging (cf. pondo, ablative, in weight; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, an addition); stragulus, covering (cf. strages); legulus, a picker (cf. sacri- legus, a picker up of things sacred).
- vus seems originally primary (cf. Sect: 234. 2.8), but -ivus and -tivus have become secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestivus, of summer (from aestus, heat); tempestivus, timely (from tempus); cf. domes-ticus (from domus).
SECTION:#252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities, but occasionally active, are formed by means of the suffixes:
-ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis (-silis)
frag- ilis, frail; frangere (FRAG), to break.
no- bilis, well known, famous; noscere (GNO), to know.
exim- ius, choice, rare (cf. e-greg- ius); eximere, to take out, select.
ag- ilis, active; agere, to drive.
hab- ilis, handy; habere, to hold.
al- tilis, fattened (see note); alere, to nourish.
NOTE.--Of these, - ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf. Sect: 241. b. N.). -ilis is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like, cf. homos, homalos, English same); - bilis is in some way related to -bulum and -brum (Sect: 240. N.); in -tilis and - silis, - lis is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle: as, fossilis, dug up (from fossus, dug); volatilis, winged (from volatus, flight).
SECTION:#253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are formed with the suffixes:
-ndus, -bundus, -cundus
-ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflexive adjectives:
secu- ndus, second (the following), favorable; sequi, to follow.
rotu- ndus, round (whirling); rotare, to whirl.
-bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed by the verb:
vita-bundus, avoiding; vitare, to shun.
treme- bundus, trembling; tremere, to tremble.
mori- bundus, dying, at the point of death; moriri, to die.
fa- cundus, eloquent; fari, to speak.
fe- cundus, fruitful; root Fe, nourish.
ira- cundus, irascible; cf. irasci, to be angry.
NOTE.--These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red bush; rubidus (but no *rubicus), ruddy; Rubicon, Red River (cf. Minio, a river of Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicundus (as in averruncus, homun- culus). So turba, commotion; turbo, a top; turbidus, roily, etc. Cf. apexabo, longabo, gravedo, dulcedo.
Here belong also the participial suffixes - minus, -mnus (cf. Greek -menos), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is still discernible:
fe- mina, woman (the nourisher); root Fe, nourish.
alu- mnus, a foster-child, nursling; alere, to nourish.
1 Cf. volvendis mensibus (Aen. 1.269) , in the revolving months; cf. oriundi ab Sabinis (Liv. 1.17) , sprung from the Sabines, where oriundi= orti.
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes
SECTION:#254. Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men tioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regularly used in particular senses:
1. -arius, person employed about anything:
argent- arius, M., silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver.
Corinthi-arius, M., worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus), from ( aes) Corinthium, Corinthian bronze.
centon-arius, M., ragman, from cento, patchwork.
2. -aria, thing connected with something:
argent-aria, F., bank, from argentum, silver.
aren-ariae, F. plural, sandpits, from arena, sand.
Asin-aria, F., name of a play, from asinus, ass.
3. -arium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning):
aer-arium, N., treasury, from aes, copper.
tepid- arium, N., warm bath, from tepidus, warm.
sud-arium, N., a towel, cf. sudo, - are, sweat.
sal-a rium, N., salt money, salary, from sal, salt.
calendarium, N., a note-book, from calendae, calends.
4. -toria (-soria):
Agita-toria, F., a play of Plautus, The Carter, from agitator.
vor-soria, F., a tack (nautical), from vorsus, a turn.
5. -torium (-sorium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning):
devor-sorium, N., an inn, as from devorto, turn aside.
audi-torium, N., a lecture-room, as from audio, hear.
ten-torium, N., a tent, as from tendo, stretch.
tec-torium, N., plaster, as from tego, tectus, cover.
por-torium, N., toll, cf. porto, carry, and portus, harbor.
6. -ile, animal-stall:
bov-ile, N., cattle-stall, from bos, bovis, ox, cow.
ov-ile, N., sheepfold, from ovis, stem ovi-, sheep.
7. -al for - ale, thing connected with the primitive:
capit-al, N., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head.
penetr- ale (especially in plural), N., inner apartment, cf. penetro, enter.
Saturn- alia, N. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat urn, from Saturnus.
8. - etum, N. (cf. -atus, -utus, see Sect: 246. N.), - tum, place of a thing, especially with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow:
querc-etum, N., oak grove, from quercus, oak.
oliv-etum, N., olive grove, from oliva, an olive tree.
salic-tum, N., a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree.
Argil-etum, N., The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay.
9. - cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -icus, in any one of the genders, with various meanings:
vili-cus, M., a steward, vili-ca, F., a stewardess, from villa, farm-house.
fabr-ica, F., a workshop, from faber, workman.
am- icus, M., am-ica, F., friend, cf. amare, to love.
bubul-cus, M., ox-tender, from bub- ulus, diminutive, cf. bos, ox.
cant-icum, N., song, from cantus, act of singing.
rubr-ica, F., red paint, from ruber, red.
10. -eus, - ea, - eum, with various meanings:
alv-eus, M., a trough, from alvus, the belly.
capr-ea, F., a wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat.
flamm-eum, N., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color.
11. - ter (stem tri-), -aster, - ester:
eques-ter, M., knight, for equet-ter.
sequ-ester, M., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow.
ole-aster, M., wild olive, from olea, an olive tree.
IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES
SECTION:#255. The suffix - o (genitive -onis, stem on-), usually added to verb-stems (see Sect: 236. c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to form nouns denoting possessed of. These were originally adjectives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as proper names:
epulae, a feast; epul- o, a feaster.
nasus, a nose; nas- o, with a large nose (also as a proper name).
volus (in bene- volus), wishing; vol- ones (plural), volunteers.
frons, forehead; front- o, big-head (also as a proper name).
curia, a curia; curi- o, head of a curia (also as a proper name).
restis, a rope; resti- o, a rope-maker.
Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used in their compound form:
ad-verb- ium, adverb; ad, to, and verbum, verb, but without the intervening adverbus.
lati-fund- ium, large estate; latus, wide, fundus, estate, but without the inter vening latifundus.
su-ove-taur- ilia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull; sus, swine, ovis, sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin, though such formations are common in Sanskrit.
.DERIVATION OF VERBS
SECTION:#256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.
1. Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech.
2. Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin as a separate language.
SECTION:#257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes:
1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.
2. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs
.Denominative Verbs
SECTION:#258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun-stem and adjective-stem.
SECTION:#259.
1. Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly from a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, fuga, flight; fugare, put to flight.
2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o- stems, changing the o- into a-. These are more commonly transitive:
stimulo, - are, to incite, from stimulus, a good (stem stimulo-).
aequo, - are, to make even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-).
hiberno, - are, to pass the winter, from hibernus, of the winter (stem hiberno-).
albo, - are, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-).
pio, - are, to expiate, from pius, pure (stem pio-).
novo, -are, to renew, from novus, new (stem novo-).
armo, - are, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).
damno, - are, to injure, from damnum, injury (stem damno-).
3. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy from consonant and i- or u-stems, adding a to the stem:
vigilo, - are, to watch, from vigil, awake.
exsulo, - are, to be in exile, from exsul, an exile.
auspicor, - ari, to take the auspices, from auspex (stem auspic-), augur.
pulvero, - are, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pulver- for pulvis-), dust.
aestuo, - are, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething
levo, - are, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), light.
SECTION:#260. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems; but most are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost:
albeo, - ere, to be white, from albus (stem ( albo/e-), white.
caneo, - ere, to be hoary, from canus (stem ( cano/e-), hoary.
clareo, - ere, to shine, from clarus, bright.
claudeo, - ere, to be lame, from claudus, lame.
algeo, - ere, to be cold, cf. algidus, cold.
SECTION:#261. Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in - uo, - uere, are formed from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i:
statu o (for statu-yo), - ere, to set up, from status, position.
metuo, - ere, to fear, from metus, fear.
acuo, - ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle.
arguo, - ere, to clear up, from inherited stem argu-, bright (cf. arguros).
NOTE.--Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u: as, fluo, fluere, flow; so- lvo (for se-luo, cf. lu?), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic u: as, loquor, locutus, speak.
SECTION:#262. Many i-verbs or verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from i-stems:
molior, - iri, to toil, from moles (- is), mass.
finio, - ire, to bound, from finis, end.
sitio, - ire, to thirst, from sitis, thirst.
stabilio, - ire, to establish, from stabilis, stable.
Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems:
bullio, - ire, to boil, from bulla (stem bulla-), bubble.
condio, - ire, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper.
insanio, - ire, to rave, from insanus (stem insano-), mad.
gestio, - ire, to show wild longing, from gestus (stem gestu-), gesture.
NOTE.--Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, ordior, begin, cf. ordo and exordium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -io of the third conjugation (p. 102).
Some are formed with -io from consonant stems:
custodio, - ire, to guard, from custos (stem custod-), guardian.
fulgurio, - ire, to lighten, from fulgur, lightning.
NOTE.--Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in - urio (see Sect: 263. 4. N.).
1 The type of all or most of the denominative formations in Sect: 259-262 was inherited, but the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language.
.Verbs from Other Verbs
SECTION:#263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with their terminations.
NOTE.--These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the formations had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.
1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -scoto the present stem of verbs. They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjugation. Of some there is no simple verb in existence:
cale- sco, grow warm, from caleo, be warm.
laba- sco, begin to totter, from labo, totter.
sci- sco, determine, from scio, know.
con-cupi- sco, conceive a desire for, from cupio, desire.
ale- sco, grow, from alo, feed.
So ira- scor, get angry; cf. ira- tus.
iuvene- sco, grow young; cf. iuvenis, young man.
mite- sco, grow mild; cf. mitis, mild.
vespera-scit, it is getting late; cf. vesper, evening.
NOTE.--Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect and supine systems of simple verbs: as, calesco, grow warm, calui; ardesco, blaze forth, arsi; proficiscor, set out, profectus.
2. Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end in-to or - ito (rarely -so). They denote a forcible or repeated action, but this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in - ito (not -ato).
iac- to, hurl, from iacio, throw.
dormi- to, be sleepy, from dormio, sleep.
vol- ito, flit, from volo, fly.
vendi- to, try to sell, from vendo, sell.
quas- so, shatter, from quatio, shake.
They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.
Compound suffixes -tito, - sito, are formed with a few verbs. These are probably derived from other Iteratives; thus, cantito may come from canto, iterative of cano, sing.
Another form of Intensives--sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs of practice--ends in -esso (rarely -isso). These denote a certain energy or eagerness of action rather than its repetition:
cap- esso, lay hold on, from capio, take.
fac- esso, do (with energy), from facio, do.
pet-esso, pet-isso, seek (eagerly), from peto, seek.
These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and supine of the fourth:
arcesso, arcesse ¥re, arcessivi, arcessitum, summon.
lacesso, lacesse ¥re, lacessivi, lacessitum, provoke.
NOTE.--The verbs in -esso, -isso, show the same formation as levasso, impetrassere, iudicassit, etc. (Sect: 183. 5), but its origin is not fully explained.
3. Diminutives end in - illo, and denote a feeble or petty action:
cav- illor, jest, cf. cavilla, raillery.
cant- illo, chirp or warble, from canto, sing.
NOTE.--Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns.
4. Desideratives end in - turio (- surio), and express longing or wishing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in common use:
par- turio, be in labor, from pario, bring forth.
e- surio (for *ed-turio), be hungry, from edo, eat.
Others are used by the dramatists.
NOTE.--Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, empturio, wish to buy, from emptor, buyer. Viso, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of a different formation.
.COMPOUND WORDS
SECTION:#264. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two or more simple stems.
A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually disappears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant. Only the second member receives inflection.
Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however, often becomes attached to a verb.
SECTION:#265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways:
1. The second part is simply added to the first:
su-ove- taurilia ( sus, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull (cf. Sect: 255. a).
septen-decim ( septem, decem), seventeen.
2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb (Determinative Compounds):
lati- fundium ( latus, fundus), a large landed estate.
omni- potens ( omnis, potens), omnipotent.
3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal force (Objective Compounds):
agri- cola ( ager, field, * cola akin to colo, cultivate), a farmer.
armi-ger ( arma, arms, *ger akin to gero, carry), armor-bearer.
corni-cen ( cornu, horn, * cen akin to cano, sing), horn-blower.
carni-fex ( caro, flesh, *fex akin to facio, make), executioner.
Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun, may become adjectives, meaning possessed of the quality denoted:
ali-pes ( ala, wing, pes, foot), wing-footed.
magn- animus ( magnus, great, animus, soul), great-souled.
an- ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, head), double.
NOTE.--Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin.
Syntactic Compounds
SECTION:#266. In many apparent compounds, complete words--not stems--have grown together in speech. These are not strictly compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntactic Compounds. Examples are:
Compounds of facio, facto, with an actual or formerly existing nounstem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are causative in force.
consue-facio, habituate (cf. consue- sco, become accustomed).
cale-facio, cale- facto, to heat (cf. cale- sco, grow warm).
An adverb or noun combined with a verb:
bene- dico ( bene, well, dico, speak), to bless.
satis-facio ( satis, enough, facio, do), to do enough (for).
Many apparent compounds of stems:
fide-iubeo ( fide, surety, iubeo, command), to give surety.
man- suetus ( manui, to the hand, suetus, accustomed), tame.
Marci- por ( Marci puer), slave of Marcus.
Iuppiter ( Iu old vocative, and pater), father Jove.
anim- adverto ( animum adverto), attend to, punish.
A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns:
pro-consul, proconsul (for pro consule, instead of a consul).
trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virorum).
septen-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triones, the Seven Plough-Oxen).
In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.
SECTION:#267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a Particle to some other part of speech.
Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the prepositions retain their original adverbial sense:
a, ab, AWAY: a- mittere, to send away.
ad, TO, TOWARDS: af- ferre (ad- fero), to bring.
ante, BEFORE: ante- ferre, to prefer; ante- cellere, to excel.
circum, AROUND: circum- munire, to fortify completely.
com-, con- (cum), TOGETHER or FORCIBLY: con- ferre, to bring together; collocare, to set firm.
de, DOWN, UTTERLY: de- spicere, despise; de- struere, destroy.
e, ex, OUT: ef- ferre (ec-fero), to carry forth, uplift.
in (with verbs), IN, ON, AGAINST: in- ferre, to bear against.
inter, BETWEEN, TO PIECES: inter- rumpere, to interrupt.
ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET: of- ferre, to offer; ob-venire, to meet.
sub, UNDER, UP FROM UNDER: sub- struere, to build beneath; sub- ducere, to lead up
super, UPON, OVER AND ABOVE: super- fluere, to overflow.
NOTE 1.--In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their crdinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circum, trans, and govern the case of a noun: as, transire flumen, to cross a river (see Sect: 388. b).
NOTE 2.--Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before two: as, facio, conficio, confectus; iacio, eicio, eiectus. But long a is retained: as, peractus.
VERBS are also compounded with the following inseparable particles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin:
amb- (am-, an-), AROUND: amb-ire, to go about (cf. amphi, about).
dis-, di-, ASUNDER, APART: dis-ce dere, to depart (cf. duo, two); di-vide ¥re, to divide.
por-, FORWARD: por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porro, forth).
red-, re-, BACK, AGAIN: red-ire, to return; re- cludere, to open (from claudo, shut); re- ficere, to repair (make again).
sed-, se-, APART: se-cerno, to separate; cf. sed- itio, a going apart, secession ( eo, ire, to go).
Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the verbs to which they correspond:
per- fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugio.
tra-dux, vine-branch; cf. tra- duco (trans- duco).
ad- vena, stranger; cf. ad-venio.
con- iux (con- iunx), spouse; cf. con-iungo.
in-dex, pointer out; cf. in-dico.
prae-ses, guardian; cf. prae-sideo.
com- bibo, boon companion; cf. com-bibo, -ere.
An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix.
1. Of these, per- (less commonly prae-), very; sub-, somewhat; in-, not, ar regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives:
per-magnus, very large. in- nocuus, harmless.
per- pauci, very few. in- imicus, unfriendly.
sub- rusticus, rather clownish. in-sanus, insane.
sub-fuscus, darkish. in- finitus, boundless.
prae- longus, very long. im- purus, impure.
NOTE.--Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs: as, per- terreo, terrify; sub-rideo, smile. In ignosco, pardon, in- appears to be the negative prefix.
2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective that does not occur alone:
in-ermis, unarmed (cf. arma, arms).
im- bellis, unwarlike (cf. bellum, war).
im- punis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishment).
in- teger, untouched, whole (cf. tango, to touch, root TAG).
in- vitus, unwilling (probably from root seen in vi- s, thou wishest).
END OF PART ONE
Part Two - Syntax[edit | edit source]
SECTION: #268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of thought. A form of words--like o puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful boy--expresses a thought and might even be called a sentence; though it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.
At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language,--just as to a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary form of proposition: as a child might say fire bright; horse run. With this began the first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there was no distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a later stage forms were differentiated in function and--by various processes of composition which cannot be fully traced--Inflections were developed. These served to express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts of Speech.
Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sentences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in conjunctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination). In this way, through various stages of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea I beseech you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaeso and ignoscas were used side by side, quaeso ignoscas; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression in a conjunction, quaeso ut ignoscas, forming a complex sentence. The results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax.
1 The second part generally has its usual inflection; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen, - cinis; lucifer, - feri; iudex, - dicis), from stems not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as, animus, exanimis; norma, abnormis (see Sect: 73). In composition, stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, igni- spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and a-stems the final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in ali-pes (from ala, stem ala-); and i- is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, flori-comus, flower-crowned (from flos, flor-is, and coma, hair).
SECTION: #269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.
A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative Sentence: as,-- canis currit, the dog runs.
A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interrogative Sentence: as,-- canisne currit? does the dog run?
A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence: as,-- quam celeriter currit canis! how fast the dog runs!
A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence: as,--i, curre per Alpis, go, run across the Alps; currat canis, let the dog run.
.Subject and .Predicate
SECTION: #270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.
The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of. The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.
Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.
SECTION: #271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun, or some word or group of words used as a Noun:
equites ad Caesarem venerunt, the cavalry came to Caesar.
humanum est errare, to err is human.
quaeritur num mors malum sit. the question is whether death is an evil.
But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of the verb:
sede-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he.
SECTION: #272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in Caesar consul erat, Caesar was consul).
Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective, and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective).
Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, consul the predicate noun, and erat the copula (see Sect: 283).
.Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
SECTION: #273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.
1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete its sense (see Sect: 274): as,-- fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother.
2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete its sense:
cado, I fall (or am falling). sol lucet, the sun shines (or is shining).
NOTE 1.--Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus mensam fecit, he made a table (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from mensam percussit, he struck a table (which already existed).
NOTE 2.--A transitive verb may often be used absolutely, i.e. without any object expressed: as,-- arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding,-- quid, what? agrum suum, his land.
NOTE 3.--Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter Verbs respectively.
.Object
SECTION: #274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of a verb is called the Direct Object.
A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb is called the Indirect Object.
Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs (Sect: 362, 366):
pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son.
mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me a field.
mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.
NOTE.--The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (Sect: 388. a).
With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct object (Objective):
hominem video, I see the man (Accusative).
homini servio, I serve the man (Dative, see Sect: 367).
hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see Sect: 354. a).
homine amico utor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see Sect: 410).
Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by an intransitive verb with a preposition:
petit aprum, he aims at the boar.
laudem affectat, he strives after praise.
curat valetudinem, he takes care of his health.
meum casum doluerunt, they grieved at my misfortune.
ridet nostram amentiam (Quinct. 55) , he laughs at our stupidity.
SECTION: #275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in the Nominative case:
Active: pater filium vocat, the father calls his son.
Passive: filius a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father.
Active: lunam et stellas videmus, we see the moon and the stars.
Passive: luna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).
.Modification
SECTION: #276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause).
The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in the same way.
A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive (Sect: 282), or the oblique case of a noun.
Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently, the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter, patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.
The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs.
Thus in the sentence pueri patrem video, I see the boy's father, the genitive pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).
SECTION: #277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.
Thus in the sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, he was a man of the highest nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the adjective nobilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective Phrase.
So in the sentence magna celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrime, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase.
.Clauses and Sentences
SECTION: #278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.
1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple Sentence.
2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called a Clause.
If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate Conjunction (Sect: 223. a); but this is sometimes omitted:
divide et impera, divide and control. But,--
veni, vidi, vici, I came, I saw, I conquered.
If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called the Main Clause.
This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a Subordinate Conjunction (Sect: 223. b) or a Relative:
oderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear.
servum misit quem secum habebat, he sent the slave whom he had with him.
A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is sometimes called Complex.
NOTE.--A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.
SECTION: #279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.
A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb is called a Relative Clause:
Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego, qui est in finibus Lingonum (B. G. 4.10) , the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the Lingones.
For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sentences, see Sect: 308. f.
A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Temporal Clause:
cum tacent, clamant (Cat. 1.21) , while they are silent, they cry aloud.
homines aegri morbo gravi, cum iactantur aestu febrique, si aquam gelidam biberint, primo relevari videntur ( id. 1.31), men suffering with a severe sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold water, seem at first to be relieved.
A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if (or some equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, primo relevari videntur (in b, above) is a Conditional Sentence, and si ... biberint is a Conditional Clause.
A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final Clause:
edo ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live).
misit legatos qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say).
A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Consecutive Clause:
tam longe aberam ut non viderem, I was too far away to see (so far away that I did not see).
.AGREEMENT
SECTION: #280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.
The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords:
1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (Sect: 281-284).
2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (Sect: 286).
3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (Sect: 305).
4. The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (Sect: 316).
A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied in that word.
This use is called Synesis, or constructio ad sensum (construction according to sense).
.AGREEMENT OF NOUNS
SECTION: #281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case.
The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (Sect: 282) or a Predicate noun (Sect: 283).
Apposition
SECTION: #282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Appositive, and is said to be in apposition:
externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungebat animos (Liv. 2.39) , fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts. [Here the appositive belongs to the subject.]
quattuor hic primum omen equos vidi; ( Aen. 3.537), I saw here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.]
litteras Graecas senex didici; (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man. [Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didici, really states something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate Apposition).]
Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition):
Nec P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clarissimi viri atque amplissimi, vim tribuniciam sustinere potuerunt (Clu. 95) , neither Publius Popilius nor Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could withstand the power of the tribunes.
Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).
An Adjective may be used as an appositive:
ea Sex. Roscium inopem recepit (Rosc. Am. 27) , she received Sextus Roscius in his poverty (needy).
An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and Number when it can:
sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lael. 19) , they follow nature, the best guide.
omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. 1.13) , Athens, discoverer of all learning.
NOTE.--But such agreement is often impossible: as,-- olim truncus eram ficulnus, inutile lignum (Hor. S. 1.8.1) , I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.
A common noun in apposition with a Locative (Sect: 427) is put in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in:
Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4) , at Antioch, once a famous city.
Albae constiterunt, in urbe munita; ( Phil. 4.6), they halted at Alba, a fortified town.
For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see Sect: 302.
For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see Sect: 343. d.
For the construction with nomen est, see Sect: 373. a.
.Predicate Noun or Adjective
SECTION: #283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.
The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when so used is called the copula (i.e. connective).
Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the socalled copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named, to appear, and the like.
SECTION: #284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject:
pacis semper auctor fui; ( Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace.
quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis constantia videri potest (Marc. 31) , what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.
eiius mortis sedetis ultores (Mil. 79) , you sit as avengers of his death.
habeatur vir egregius Paulus (Cat. 4.21) , let Paulus be regarded as an extraordinary man.
ego patronus exstiti; ( Rosc. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate.
dicit non omnis bonos esse beatos, he says that not all good men are happy.
A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural:
consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. 3.1) , Caesar and Servilius are elected consuls.
Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb:
sunt viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf. vixere fortes ante Agamemnona ( Hor. Od. 4.9.25), brave men lived before Agamemnon.]
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see Sect: 392, 415. N.
.AGREEMENT OF .ADJECTIVES
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
SECTION: #285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as, -- bonus imperator, a good commander; stellae lucidae, bright stars; verbum Graecum, a Greek word.
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives:
stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit Scipio clarus (Cat. 4.21) , let Scipio be illustrious.
homines mitis reddidit (Inv. 1.2) , has rendered men mild.
tria praedia Capitoni propria traduntur (Rosc. Am. 21) , three farms are handed over to Capito as his own.
consilium ceperunt plenum sceleris ( id. 28), they formed a plan full of villany.
NOTE.--A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb (Sect: 283); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or the like (Sect: 393. N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun (Sect: 282. b).
Rules of Agreement
SECTION: #286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case:
vir fortis, a brave man.
illa mulier, that woman.
urbium magnarum, of great cities.
cum ducentis militibus, with two hundred soldiers.
imperator victus est, the general was beaten.
secutae sunt tempestates, storms followed.
NOTE.--All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles.
With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive):
Nisus et Euryalus primi (Aen. 5.294) , Nisus and Euryalus first.
Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fruor (Fam. 1.9.21) , I enjoy all Caesar's favor and resources.
NOTE.--An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural (synesis, Sect: 280. a): as,-- Iuba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken.
A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, Sect: 280. a):
pars certare parati (Aen. 5.108) , a part ready to contend.
coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (Liv. 1.3) , several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
multitudo convicti sunt (Tac. Ann. 15.44) , a multitude were convicted.
magna pars raptae ( id. 1.9), a large part [of the women] were seized.
NOTE.--A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited: as,-- velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin. N. H. 9.20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.
SECTION: #287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases,:/p>
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:
multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil.
vita moresque mei, my life and character.
si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 19) , if any thing, if any man, if any time was fit.
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the Nouns form one connected idea:
factus est strepitus et admurmuratio; ( Verr. 1.45), a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur).
NOTE.--This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (Sect: 317. c).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life:
uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. 2.40) , then his wife and children embraced him.
labor (M.) voluptas que (F.) societate quadam inter se naturali sunt iuncta (N.) ( id. 5.4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance.
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural:
rex regiaque classis una profecti (Liv. 21.50) , the king and the royal fleet set out together.
natura inimica sunt libera civitas et rex ( id. 44.24), by nature a free state and a king are hostile.
legatos sortesque oraculi exspectandas ( id. 5.15), that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for.
Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. Sect: 289. c):
stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia ... sunt fugienda (Fin. 3.39) , foliy, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
SECTION: #288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things:
omnes, all men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything).
maiores, ancestors. minores, descendants.
Romani, Romans. barbari, barbarians.
liberta, a freedwoman. Sabinae, the Sabine wives.
sapiens, a sage (philosopher). amicus, a friend.
boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property.
NOTE.--The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (Sect: 289. a, c) and in words that have become practically nouns.
Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive:
tuus vicinus proximus, your next-door neighbor.
propinqui ceteri, his other relatives.
meus aequalis, a man of my own age.
eiius familiaris Catilina (Har. Resp. 5) , his intimate friend Catiline.
Leptae nostri familiarissimus (Fam. 9.13.2) , a very close friend of our friend Lepta.
When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added:
boni, the good; omnia, everything (all things); but,--
potentia omnium rerum, power over everything.
Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association:
africus [ ventus], the southwest wind; Ianuarius [ mensis], January; vitulina [ caro], veal (calf's flesh); fera [ bestia], a wild beast; patria [ terra], the fatherland; Gallia [ terra], Gaul (the land of the Galli); hiberna [ castra], winter quarters; triremis [ navis], a three-banked galley, trireme; argentarius [ faber], a silversmith; regia [ domus], the palace; Latinae [ feriae], the Latin festival.
NOTE.--These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in Sect: 288. They include the names of winds and months (Sect: 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see Sect: 321. c.
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see Sect: 321. d.
SECTION: #289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses:
The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality:
rapto vivere, to live by plunder. in arido, on dry ground.
honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).
opus est maturato, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives Sect: 208. d.]
The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea:
honesta, honorable deeds (in general). praeterita, the past (lit., bygones).
omnes fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).
A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. Sect: 287. a):
triste lupus stabulis (Ecl. 3.80) , the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
varium et mutabile semper femina (Aen. 4.569) , woman is ever a changing and fickle thing.
malum mihi videtur esse mors (Tusc. 1.9) , death seems to me to be an evil.
A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause:
istuc ipsum non esse (Tusc. 1.12) , that very "not to be."
humanum est errare, to err is human.
aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri; ( Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Caesar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
SECTION: #290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb:
primus venit, he was the first to come (came first).
nullus dubito, I no way doubt.
laeti audiere, they were glad to hear.
erat Romae frequens (Rosc. Am. 16) , he was often at Rome.
serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. 1.2.45) , mayst thou return late to heaven.
.Comparatives and Superlatives
SECTION: #291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows:
The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as,-- brevior, rather short; audacior, too bold.
The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as,-- mons altissimus, a very high mountain.
NOTE.--The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.
With quam, vel, or unus the Superlative denotes the highest possible degree:
quam plurimi, as many as possible.
quam maxime potest ( maxime quam potest), as much as can be.
vel minimus, the very least.
vir unus doctissimus, the one most learned man.
NOTE 1.--A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, valde, very, or by per or prae in composition (Sect: 267. d. 1): as,-- valde malus, very bad= pessimus; permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
NOTE 2.--A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as,-- subrusticus, rather clownish, or by minus, not very; minime, not at all; parum, not enough; non satis, not much.
NOTE 3.--The comparative maiores (for maiores natu, greater by birth) has the special signification of ancestors; so minores often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see Sect: 313. b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see Sect: 406, 407; for that of a clause, see Sect: 535. c, 571. a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative ( multo etc.), see Sect: 414.
SECTION: #292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative:
longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. 27.48) , the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).
verior quam gratior ( id. 22.38), more true than agreeable.
NOTE.--So also with adverbs: as,-- libentius quam verius (Mil. 78) , with more freedom than truth.
Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive:
disertus magis quam sapiens (Att. 10.1.4) , eloquent rather than wise.
clari magis quam honesti (Iug. 8) , more renowned than honorable.
NOTE.--A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed:
claris maioribus quam vetustis (Tac. Ann. 4.61) , of a family more famous than old.
vehementius quam caute (Tac. Agr. 4) , with more fury than good heed.
SECTION: #293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession--also medius, [ ceterus], reliquus--usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:
summus mons, the top of the hill.
in ultima platea, at the end of the place.
prior actio, the earlier part of an action.
reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners.
in colle medio (B. G. 1.24) , half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill).
inter ceteram planitiem (Iug. 92) , in a region elsewhere level.
NOTE.--A similar use is found in sera ( multa) nocte, late at night, and the like. But medium viae, the middle of the way; multum diei, much of the day, also occur.
1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional: and subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other
.PRONOUNS
SECTION: #294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction (Sect: 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows:
Personal Pronouns (Sect: 295). Interrogative Pronouns (Sect: 333).
Demonstrative Pronouns (Sect: 296). Relative Pronouns (Sect: 303).
Reflexive Pronouns (Sect: 299). Indefinite Pronouns (Sect: 309).
Possessive Pronouns (Sect: 302).
.Personal Pronouns
SECTION: #295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns.
The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis:
te voco, I call you. But,--
quis me vocat? ego te voco, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.
The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively (Sect: 346), and that in - i oftenest objectively (Sect: 348):
maior vestrum, the elder of you.
habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui; ( Cat. 4.19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us.
NOTE 1.--The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (Sect: 348): as,-- cupidus vestrum (Verr. 3.224) , fond of you; custos vestrum (Cat. 3.29) , the guardian of you (your guardian).
NOTE 2.--"One of themselves"is expressed by unus ex suis or ipsis (rarely ex se), or unus suorum.
The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive se. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Relative (Sect: 296. 2, 308. f)
Demonstrative Pronouns
SECTION: #296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively.
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives (Sect: 286, 287):
hoc proelio facto, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).
eodem proelio, in the same battle.
ex eis aedificiis, out of those buildings.
2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is:
Caesar et exercitus eiius, Caesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar exercitum suum dimisit, Caesar disbanded his [own] army.]
si obsides ab eis dentur (B. G. 1.14) , if hostages should be given by them (persons just spoken of).
hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi; ( id. 1.10), they (those just mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
ille minimum propter adulescentiam poterat ( id. 1.20), he (emphatic) had very little power, on account of his youth.
An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. Sect: 306):
hic locus est unus quo perfugiant; hic portus, haec arx, haec ara sociorum (Verr. 5.126) , this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.
rerum caput hoc erat, hic fons (Hor. Ep. 1.17.45) , this was the head of things, this the source.
eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est consecutus [ for id. .. quod] (Lael. 18) , they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.
SECTION: #297. The main uses of hic, ille, iste, and is are the following:
Hic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for "the latter"of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for "the former" when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned.
Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person.
It is sometimes used to mean "the former‰Û?; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean "the following.‰Û?
Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed,--hence called the demonstrative of the second person.
It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt.
Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qui:
venit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litteras abs te reddidit (Att. 2.1.1) , your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
eum quem, one whom.
eum consulem qui non dubitet (Cat. 4.24) , a consul who will not hesitate.
The pronouns hic, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea:
est illud quidem vel maximum, animum videre (Tusc. 1.52) , that is in truth a very great thing,--to see the soul.
The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned:
nullam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28) , virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
NOTE.--But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred:
cum ei Simonides artem memoriae polliceretur: oblivionis, inquit, mallem (Fin. 2.104) , when Simonides promised him the art of memory, "I should prefer" said he, "[that] of forgetfulness.‰ Û?
Caesaris exercitus Pompeiianos ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Caesar defeated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
SECTION: #298. The main uses of .idem and .ipse are as follows:
When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing:
per unum servum et eum ex gladiatorio ludo; ( Att. 1.16.5), by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. 4.7) , imprisonment, and that perpetual.
Ti. Gracchus regnum occupare conatus est, vel regnavit is quidem paucos mensis (Lael. 41) , Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or rather he actually reigned a few months.
NOTE.--So rarely with ille: as,-- nunc dextra ingeminans ictus, nunc ille sinistra (Aen. 5.457) , now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. [In imitation of the Homeric ho ge: cf. Aen. 5.334; 9.796.]
Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):
oratio splendida et grandis et eadem in primis faceta (Brut. 273) , an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too.
cum [ haec] dicat, negat idem esse in Deo gratiam (N. D. 1.121) , when he says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
NOTE.--This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis:
turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Phil. 1.9) , even to me (to me myself) it seemed disgraceful.
id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
tum ipsum (Off. 2.60) , at that very time.
NOTE 1.--The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.
NOTE 2.--In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former would be translated by ipse, the latter by se or sese.
Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows:
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person:
idque rei publicae praeclarum, ipsis gloriosum (Phil. 2.27) , and this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.
omnes boni quantum in ipsis fuit ( id. 2.29), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves).
di capiti ipsius generique reservent (Aen. 8.484) , may the gods hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person:
vobiscum ipsi recordamini; ( Phil. 2.1), remember in your own minds (yourselves with yourselves).
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons:
ipse dixit (cf. autos epha), he (the Master) said it.
Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. 2.8.23) , Nomentanus was above [the host] himself [at table].
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see Sect: 300. b).
Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate:
me ipse consolor (Lael. 10) , I console myself. [Not me ipsum, as the English would lead us to expect.]
.Reflexive Pronouns
SECTION: #299. The Reflexive Pronoun ( se), and usually its corresponding possessive ( suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause:
se ex navi proiecit (B. G. 4.25) , he threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorigem ad se vocat ( id. 1.20), he calls Dumnorix to him.
sese castris tenebant ( id. 3.24), they kept themselves in camp.
contemni se putant (Cat. M. 65) , they think they are despised.
Caesar suas copias subducit (B. G. 1.22) , Caesar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhenum esse transeundum ( id. 4.16), Caesar decided that he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns ( mei, tui, etc.) and the corresponding possessives ( meus, tuus, etc.) are used:
morti me obtuli; ( Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hinc te reginae ad limina perfer (Aen. 1.389) , do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold.
quid est quod tantis nos in laboribus exerceamus (Arch. 28) , what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils?
singulis vobis novenos ex turmis manipulisque vestri similes eligite (Liv. 21.54) , for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine like yourselves.
SECTION: #300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of Reflexives.
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause (Direct Reflexive):
iudicari potest quantum habeat in se boni constantia (B. G. 1.40) , it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[ Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, ne Germani e suis finibus transirent ( id. 1.28), Caesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.
si qua significatio virtutis eluceat ad quam se similis animus adplicet et adiungat (Lael. 48) , if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar disposition may attach itself.
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that subject (Indirect Reflexive):
petierunt ut sibi liceret (B. G. 1.30) , they begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners).
Iccius nuntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur ( id. 2.6), Iccius sends a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.
decima legio ei gratias egit, quod de se optimum iudicium fecisset ( id. 1.41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high opinion of them.
si obsides ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Caesar, who is the speaker) dentur, se (Caesar) cum eis pacem esse facturum ( id. 1.14), [Caesar said that] if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
NOTE.--Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse: Thus,-- cum ipsi deo nihil minus gratum futurum sit quam non omnibus patere ad se placandum viam (Legg. 2.25) , since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.
If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found:
sunt ita multi ut eos carcer capere non possit (Cat. 2.22) , they are so many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used; so also in the example following.]
ibi in proximis villis ita bipartito fuerunt, ut Tiberis inter eos et pons interesset ( id. 3.5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions).
non fuit eo contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25) , he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare: qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo, quam sibi sortem seu ratio dederit seu fors obiecerit, illa contentus vivat (Hor. S. 1.1.1) , how comes it, M?"cenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive:
cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent (B. G. 1.40) , why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence?
omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populatos (Q. C. 3.5.6) , [they said that] either they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.]
qui se ex his minus timidos existimari volebant, non se hostem vereri, sed angustias itineris et magnitudinem silvarum quae intercederent inter ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum ... timere dicebant (B. G. 1.39) , those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.
audistis nuper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos Mercurium qui sacris anniversariis apud eos coleretur esse sublatum (Verr. 4.84) , you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eos colebatur, a remark of his own, and apud se coleretur, the words of the ambassadors. eos does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people--the Tyndaritani.]
SECTION: #301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following:
The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause:
Paetus omnis libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. 2.1) , P?"tus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) his brother had left him.
The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:
Socratem cives sui interfecerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellowcitizens.
qui poterat salus sua cuiquam non probari; ( Mil. 81), how can any one fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
hunc si secuti erunt sui comites (Cat. 2.10) , this man, if his companions follow him.
NOTE.--Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed: as,-- studeo sanare sibi ipsos (Cat. 2.17) , I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit (i.e. ut sani sibi sint).
Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it:
suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. 4.33) , destroy Fiden?" with its own fires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. 1.32.]
The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:
sui laus, self-praise.
habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. 4.19) , you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perditi homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. 1.5) , abandoned men with slaves like themselves.
The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely:
contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitiae (Par. 51) , the greatest wealth is to be content with one's own.
cui proposita sit conservatio sui (Fin. 5.37) , one whose aim is self-preservation.
Inter se ( nos, vos), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is egularly used to express reciprocal action or relation:
inter se confligunt (Cat. 1.25) , contend with each other.
inter se continentur (Arch. 2) , are joined to each other.
.Possessive Pronouns
SECTION: #302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor:
haec ornamenta sunt mea (Val. 4.4) , these are my jewels. [ mea is neuter plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
mei sunt ordines, mea discriptio; (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the arrangement. [ mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostro collegio praeclara ( id. 64), [there are] many fine things in our college. [ nostro is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]
Germani suas copias castris eduxerunt (B. G. 1.51) , the Germans led their troops out of the camp.
To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (Sect: 343. a):
domus mea, my house. [Not domus mei.]
pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostri.]
patrimonium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tui.]
NOTE 1.--Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see Sect: 348. a.
NOTE 2.--The Interrogative Possessive cuius, - a, -um, occurs in poetry and early Latin: as,-- cuium pecus (Ecl. 3.1) , whose flock? The genitive cuius is generally used instead.
The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:
[ petere] ut sua clementia ac mansuetudine utatur (B. G. 2.14) , they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
ignoranti quem portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71.3) , to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
tempore tuo pugnasti; ( Liv. 38.45.10), did you fight at a fit time?
NOTE.--This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally.
The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context:
socium fraudavit, he cheated his partner. [ socium suum would be distinctive, his partner (and not another's); suum socium, emphatic, his own partner.]
Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation:
nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.
suos continebat (B. G. 1.15) , he held his men in check.
flamma extrema meorum (Aen. 2.431) , last flames of my countrymen.
Sullani, the veterans of Sulla's army; Pompeiiani, the partisans of Pompey.
NOTE.--There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see Sect: 288).
A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun:
mea solius causa; ( Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.
in nostro omnium fletu; ( Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.
ex Anniana Milonis domo; ( Att. 4.3.3), out of Annius Milo's house. [Equivalent to ex Anni Milonis domo.]
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsius regnum, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see Sect: 299, 300.
.Relative Pronouns
SECTION: #303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as,-- iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locis esse Germanos audiebat (B. G. 4.7) , he began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is commonly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as,-- ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur (B. G. 7.77) , those who were besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives: as,--T. Balventius, qui superiore anno primum pilum duxerat ( id. 5.35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,-- quae cum ita sint (= et cum ea ita sint), [and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by qui at such an early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced.
SECTION: #304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence--
eum nihil delectabat quod fas esset (Mil. 43) , nothing pleased him which was right,
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas esset, indicating a relation between the two.
SECTION: #305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands:
ea dies quam constituerat venit (B. G. 1.8) , that day which he had appointed came.
pontem qui erat ad Genavam iubet rescindi; ( id. 1.7), he orders the bridge which was near Geneva to be cut down.
Aduatuci, de quibus supra diximus, domum reverterunt ( id. 2.29), the Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.
NOTE.--This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, qualis, quantus, quicumque, etc.
If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (Sect: 286, 287):
filium et filiam, quos valde dilexit, uno tempore amisit, he lost at the same time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grandes natu matres et parvuli liberi, quorum utrorumque aetas misericor, diam nostram requirit (Verr. 5.129) , aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
otium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant ( Sall. Cat. 36), idleness and wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).
eae fruges et fructus quos terra gignit (N. D. 2.37) , those fruits and crops which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see Sect: 316. a.
SECTION: #306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. Sect: 296. a):
mare etiam quem Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. 3.52) , the sea, too, which you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]
Thebae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est (Liv. 42.44) , even Thebes, which is the chief city of Boeotia.
NOTE.--This rule is occasionally violated: as,-- flumen quod appellatur Tamesis (B. G. 5.11) , a river which is called the Thames.
A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction):
si aliquid aga eorum quorum consuesti; (Fam. 5.14), if you should do something of what you are used to do. [For eorum quae.]
NOTE.--Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: urbem quam statuo vestra est (Aen. 1.573) , the city which I am founding is yours. Naucratem, quem convenire volui, in navi non erat (Pl. Am. 1009) , Naucrates, whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.
A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent:
quartum genus ... qui in vetere aere alieno vacillant (Cat. 2.21) , a fourth class, who are staggering under old debts.
unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Iug. 35) , one of the number [of those] who were ready.
coniuravere pauci, de qua [ i. e. coniuratione] dicam ( Sall. Cat. 18), a few have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
NOTE.--So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as, -- nostra acta, quos tyrannos vocas (Vat. 29) , the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. [Here quos agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
SECTION: #307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses, but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted.
The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause:
loci natura erat haec quem locum nostri delegerant (B. G. 2.18) , the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case:
quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hic versibus (Arch. 28) , he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
quae prima innocentis mihi defensio est oblata suscepi; ( Sull. 92), I undertook the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.
NOTE.--In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. Sect: 308. d) and a lemonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause:
quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. 1.12) , that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
quae gratia currum fuit vivis, eadem sequitur (Aen. 6.653) , the same pleasure that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).
qui fit ut nemo, quam sibi sortem ratio dederit, illa contentus vivat (cf. Hor. S. 1.1.1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice has assigned him?
The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite:
qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. 4.25) , [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.
qui cognoscerent misit ( id. 1.21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.
The phrase id quod or quae res may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea:
[ obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeiio? an utrique--id quod est verius? ( Manil. 57), an affront has been offered--shall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey? or--which is truer--to both?
multum sunt in venationibus, quae res vires alit (B. G. 4.1) , they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.
NOTE.--But quod alone often occurs: as,--Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae voluptati fuit, hostem reiiecerat (Fam. 2.10) , our friend Cassius--which was a great satisfaction to me--had driven back the enemy.
The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause:
firmi [ amici], cuius generis est magna penuria (Lael. 62) , steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause:
vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. 4.63) , those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]
SECTION: #308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be observed:
The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English:
liber quem mihi dedisti, the book you gave me.
is sum qui semper fui, I am the same man I always was.
eo in loco est de quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last:
erat profectus obviam legionibus Macedonicis quattuor, quas sibi conciliare pecunia cogitabat easque ad urbem adducere (Fam. 12.23.2) , he had set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.
A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,--particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency:
leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Caesar the conqueror of Gaul.
iusta gloria qui est fructus virtutis (Pison. 57) , true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue.
ille qui petit, the plaintiff (he who sues).
qui legit, a reader (one who reads).
In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. Sect: 307. b):
quae pars civitatis Helvetiae insignem calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. 1.12) , the portion of the Helvetian state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
NOTE.--In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: as,-- ille qui consulte cavet, diutine uti bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.
The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such:
quae vestra prudentia est (Cael. 45) , such is your wisdom. [Equivalent
to pro vestra prudentia.]
audisses comoedos vel lectorem vel lyristen, vel, quae mea liberalitas, omnes (Plin. Ep. 1.15) , you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a lyre-player, or--such is my liberality--to all of them.
A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes:
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convenit (B. G. 3.14) , Caesar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come together, etc.
quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things).
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.
quorum quod simile factum (Cat. 4.13) , what deed of theirs like this?
quo cum venisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
NOTE.--This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and.
A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun:
mortuus Cumis quo se contulerat (Liv. 2.21) , having died at Cum? ", whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas.]
locus quo aditus non erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.
regna unde genus ducis (Aen. 5.801) , the kingdom from which you derive your race.
unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).
The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered simply by as in English:
idem quod semper, the same as always.
cum esset talis qualem te esse video; ( Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I see you are.
tanta dimicatio quanta numquam fuit (Att. 7.1.2) , such a fight as never was before.
tot mala quot sidera (Ov. Tr. 1.5.47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.
The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, quo, unde, cum, quare.
.Indefinite Pronouns
SECTION: #309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
SECTION: #310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, and quidam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some one, stand between the two:
dixerit quis ( quispiam), some one may say.
aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [ quidam would mean certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hic quaedam mulieres pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647) , some poor women live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae or nescio quae].
The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations si quis, if any; nisi quis, if any ... not; ne quis, lest any, in order that none; num quis ( ecquis), whether any; and in relative clauses.
The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after si, nisi, ne, and num, and are rather more emphatic:
quid si hoc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875) , what if some god had desired this?
nisi alicui suorum negotium daret (Nep. Dion. 8.2), unless he should employ some one of his friends.
cavebat Pompeiius omnia, ne aliquid vos timeretis (Mil. 66) , Pompey took every precaution, so that you might have no fear.
SECTION: #311. In a particular negative aliquis ( aliqui), some one (some), is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, or ullus, any, would be required:
iustitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. 1.50) , justice never does harm to anybody. [ alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]
non sine aliquo metu, not without some fear. But,-- sine ullo metu, without any fear.
cum aliquid non habeas (Tusc. 1.88) , when there is something you have not.
NOTE.--The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam ( ullus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested:
si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit (Lael. 9) , if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dum praesidia ulla fuerunt (Rosc. Am. 126) , while there were any armed forces.
si quid in te peccavi; ( Att. 3.15.4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any particular case (see Sect: 310)].
SECTION: #312. Quivis or quilibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the corresponding adjective ullus, any at all, are general indefinites.
Quivis and quilibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and ullus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested:
non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. 1.17.36) , it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth. [ non cuiquam would mean not any man's.]
quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. 2.132) , anybody you will, provided it be somebody.
si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. 6.14.1) , if any man is timorous, I am he.
si tempus est ullum iure hominis necandi; ( Mil. 9), if there is any occasion whatever when homicide is justifiable.
NOTE.--The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
SECTION: #313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and unus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions:
bonus liber melior est quisque quo maior (Plin. Ep. 1.20.4) , the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).
ambo exercitus suas quisque abeunt domos (Liv. 2.7.1) , both armies go away, every man to his home.
uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu; ( B. G. 7.35), each army was in sight of the other (each to each).
ponite ante oculos unum quemque regum (Par. 1.11) , set before your eyes each of the kings.
Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:
quo quisque est sollertior, hoc docet iracundius (Rosc. Com. 31) , the keenerwitted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
NOTE.-- Quisque is generally postpositive: as, suum cuique, to every man his own.
Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal numerals:
nobilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their nobility).
primo quoque tempore (Rosc. Am. 36) , at the very first opportunity.
antiquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. 1.45) , the most ancient times.
decimus quisque ( id. 5.52), one in ten.
NOTE 1.--Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as,-- sapientissimus quisque aequissimo animo moritur (Cat. M. 83) , the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity.
NOTE 2.-- Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a disparaging sense (how few):
quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iuris peritus est (Planc. 62) , for how few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law!
quotus enim istud quisque fecisset (Lig. 26) , for how many would have done this? [i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].
SECTION: #314. Nemo, no one, is used of persons only:/p>
1. As a substantive:
neminem accusat, he accuses no one.
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nullus:
vir nemo bonus (Legg. 2.41) , no good man.
NOTE.--Even when used as a substantive, nemo may take a noun in apposition: as,-- nemo scriptor, nobody [who is] a writer.
Nullus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nemo, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a substantive:
nullum mittitur telum (B. C. 2.13) , not a missile is thrown.
nullo hoste prohibente (B. G. 3.6) , without opposition from the enemy.
nullius insector calamitatem (Phil. 2.98) , I persecute the misfortune of no one.
nullo adiuvante ( id. 10.4), with the help of no one (no one helping).
nulli erant praedones (Flacc. 28) , there were no pirates.
nulli eximentur (Pison. 94) , none shall be taken away.
For non nemo, non nullus ( non nulli), see Sect: 326. a.
.Alius and Alter
SECTION: #315. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; ceteri and reliqui, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two:
propterea quod aliud iter haberent nullum (B. G. 1.7) , because (as they said) they had no other way.
uni epistulae respondi, venio ad alteram (Fam. 2.17.6) , one letter I have answered, I come to the other.
alterum genus (Cat. 2.19) , the second class.
iecissem ipse me potius in profundum ut ceteros conservarem (Sest. 45) , I should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.
Servilius consul, reliquique magistratus (B. C. 3.21) , Servilius the consul and the rest of the magistrates.
cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. 6.3) , since it must be that one of the two should prevail.
NOTE.--Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly:
dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. S. 1.1.40) , so long as another is not richer than you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).
non ut magis alter, amicus ( id. 1.5.33), a friend such that no other is more so.
The expressions alter ... alter, the one ... the other, alius ... alius, one ... another, may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action:
alteri dimicant, alteri victorem timent (Fam. 6.3) , one party fights, the other fears the victor.
alteram alteri praesidio esse iusserat (B. C. 3.89) , he had ordered each (of the two legions) to support the other.
alii gladiis adoriuntur, alii fragmentis saeptorum (Sest. 79) , some make an attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.
alius ex alio causam quaerit (B. G. 6.37) , they ask each other the reason.
alius alium percontamur (Pl. Stich. 370) , we keep asking each other.
Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another (the other) of the objects referred to:
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.
aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare (Cael. 6) , it is one thing to slander, another to accuse.
Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses briefly a double statement:
alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks another thing).
iussit alios alibi fodere (Liv. 44.33) , he ordered different persons to dig in different places.
alii alio loco resistebant (B. C. 2.39) , some halted in one place, some in another.
VERBS
.Agreement of Verb and Subject
SECTION: #316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person:
ego statuo, I resolve. senatus decrevit, the senate ordered.
silent leges inter arma (Mil. 11) , the laws are dumb in time of war.
NOTE.--In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number (Sect: 286):
oratio est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose.
A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent:
adsum qui feci (Aen. 9.427) , here am I who did it.
tu, qui scis, omnem diligentiam adhibebis (Att. 5.2.3) , you, who know, will use all diligence.
videte quam despiciamur omnes qui sumus e municipiis (Phil. 3.15) , see how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.
A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verbform in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun:
amantium irae amoris integratio est (Ter. And. 555) , the quarrels of lovers are the renewal of love.
non omnis error stultitia dicenda est (Div. 2.90) , not every error should be called folly.
Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light of Greece, is put out.
.Double or .Collective Subject
SECTION: #317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
NOTE.--So rarely (by synesis, Sect: 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an ablative with cum: as,-- dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. 21.60) , the general and several leading men are taken.
When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third:
si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. 14.5) , if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
NOTE.--In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate adjectives (see Sect: 287. 2-4).
If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (Sect: 223. a), or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular:
quem neque fides neque ius iurandum neque illum misericordia repressit (Ter. Ad. 306) , not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.
senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. 5.8) , the Roman senate and people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habiti essemus ( id. 11.20), neither Caesar nor I should have been considered.]
fama et vita innocentis defenditur (Rosc. Am. 15) , the reputation and life of an innocent man are defended.
est in eo virtus et probitas et summum officium summaque observantia ( Fam. 13.28A. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense of duty, and the greatest devotion.
NOTE.--So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.
When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often agrees with one and is understood with the others:
intercedit M. Antonius Q. Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. 1.2) , Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
hoc mihi et Peripatetici et vetus Academia concedit (Acad. 2.113) , this both the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are thought of (Sect: 280. a):
(1) senatus haec intellegit (Cat. 1.2) , the senate is aware of this.
ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. 21.22) , the army returns to winter-quarters.
plebes a patribus secessit ( Sall. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.
(2) pars praedas agebant (Iug. 32) , a part brought in booty.
cum tanta multitudo lapides conicerent (B. G. 2.6) , when such a crowd were throwing stones.
NOTE 1.--The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as,-- equitatum omnem ... quem habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. 1.15) , he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).
NOTE 2.--The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, the soldiery; eques, the cavalry.
Quisque, each, and unus quisque, every single one, have very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. Sect: 282. a):
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Pl. Curc. 180) , let every one keep his own (let them keep every man his own).
NOTE.--So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius ... alium alter ... alterum (Sect: 315. a).
.Omission of Subject or Verb
SECTION: #318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted:
A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic:
loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.
An indefinite subject is often omitted: crederes, you would have supposed; putamus, we (people) think; dicunt, ferunt, perhibent, they say.
A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject expressed or understood (Sect: 208. d):
diu atque acriter pugnatum est (B. G. 1.26) , they fought long and vigorously.
SECTION: #319. The verb is sometimes omitted:
Dico, facio, ago, and other common verbs are often omitted in familiar phrases:
quorsum haec [ spectant], what does this aim at?
ex ungue leonem [ cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw.
quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much?)
quid? quod, what of this, that ...? (what shall I say of this, that ... ?) [A form of transition.]
Aeolus haec contra; ( Aen. 1.76), Aeolus thus [spoke] in reply.
tum Cotta [ inquit], then said Cotta.
di meliora [duint]! (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better things)!
unde [ venis] et quo [ tendis]? ( Hor. S. 2.4.1), where from and whither bound? [Cf. id. 1.9.62for the full form.]
The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub junctive:
tu coniunx (Aen. 4.113) , you [are] his wife.
quid ergo? audacissimus ego ex omnibus (Rosc. Am. 2) , what then? am I the boldest of all?
omnia praeclara rara (Lael. 79) , all the best things are rare.
potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honestis utrum honestius (Off. 1.152) , there may often occur a comparison of two honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.]
accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. 6.136) , hear what is first to be accomplished. [Direct: quae peragenda prius?]
1 That is, it does not stand first in its clause.
2 As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you take it.
.ADVERBS
SECTION: #320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as,--celeriter ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name ( adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see Sect: 241. b). They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendide mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter, too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see Sect: 20. g. N.).
SECTION: #321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs.
A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see Sect: 308. g):
eo [ = in ea] imponit vasa (Iug. 75) , upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils.
eo milites imponere (B. G. 1.42) , to put soldiers upon them (the horses).
apud eos quo [ = ad quos] se contulit (Verr. 4.38) , among those to whom (whither) he resorted.
qui eum necasset unde [ = quo] ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 71) , one who should have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).
o condiciones miseras administrandarum provinciarum ubi [ = in quibus] severitas periculosa est (Flacc. 87) , O! wretched terms of managing the provinces, where strictness is dangerous.
The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regularly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives; so occasionally other perfect participles:
praeclare facta (Nep. Timoth. 1) , glorious deeds (things gloriously done).
multa facete dicta (Off. 1.104) , many witty sayings.
A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modified by an adverb:
victor exercitus, the victorious army.
admodum puer, quite a boy (young).
magis vir, more of a man (more manly).
populum late regem (Aen. 1.21) , a people ruling far and wide.
NOTE.--Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force bat which contain a verbal idea:
hinc abitio; (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.
quid cogitem de obviarr itione (Att. 13.50) , what I think about going to meet (him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.]
A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are obviam, palam, sometimes contra, and occasionally others:
fit obviam Clodio; ( Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius. [Cf. the adjective obvius: as,-- si ille obvius ei futurus non erat ( id. 47), if he was not likely to fall in with him.]
haec commemoro quae sunt palam (Pison. 11) , I mention these facts, which are well-known.
alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. 2.7) , we call some things probable, others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contra contradicts a previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]
eri semper lenitas (Ter. And. 175) , my master's constant (always) gentleness. [An imitation of a Greek construction.]
NOTE.--In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in c above).
For propius, pridie, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see Sect: 432.
SECTION: #322. The following adverbs require special notice:
Etiam ( et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it:
non verbis solum sed etiam vi; ( Verr. 2.64), not only by words, but also by force.
hoc quoque maleficium (Rosc. Am. 117) , this crime too.
Nuncmeans definitely now, in the immediate present, and is rarely used of the immediate past.
Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives iam means (no) longer.
Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum ( tum-ce, cf. nunc):
ut iam antea dixi, as I have already said before.
si iam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet (Rosc. Am. 149) , if he had attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by).
non est iam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy.
quod iam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice (had now been established).
nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lael. 13) , now ('t is true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.
tum cum regnabat, at the time when he reigned.
Certo means certainly, certe (usually) at least, at any rate:
certo scio, I know for a certainty; ego certe, I at least.
Primum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Primo means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time:
hoc primum sentio, this I hold in the first place.
aedis primo ruere rebamur, at first we thought the house was falling.
NOTE.--In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by denique or postremo, lastly, finally. Thus,-- primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de imperatore deligendo (Manil. 6) , first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander.
Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.:
hoc quidem videre licet (Lael. 54) , THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.]
[ securitas] specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda ( id. 47), (tranquillity) in appearance, it is true, attractive, but in reality to be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]
Ne ... quidem means not even or not ... either. The emphatic word or words must stand between ne and quidem:
sed ne Iugurtha quidem quietus erat (Iug. 51) , but Jugurtha was not quiet either.
ego autem ne irasci possum quidem iis quos valde amo; ( Att. 2.19.1), but I cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.
NOTE.-- Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the first person. Thus,-- equidem adprobabo (Fam. 2.3.2) , I for my part shall approve.
.CONJUNCTIONS
\
1 For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see Sect: 214-217.
2 For num-ce; cf. tunc (for *tum-ce).
3 For the classification of conjunctions, see Sect: 223, 224.
SECTION: #323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them:
scriptum senatui et populo; ( Cat. 3.10), written to the senate and people.
ut eas [ partis] sanares et confirmares (Mil. 68) , that you might cure and strengthen those parts.
neque mea prudentia neque humanis consiliis fretus (Cat. 2.29) , relying neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.
Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also commonly connect similar constructions:
his igitur quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. 2.37) , do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?
hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter. Ph. 591) , a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. Sect: 407).
ut non omne vinum sic non omnis natura vetustate coacescit (Cat. M. 65) , as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.
in me quasi in tyrannum (Phil. 14.15) , against me as against a tyrant.
Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, Sect: 601. c):
omnes di, homines, all gods and men.
summi, medii, infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.
iura, leges, agros, libertatem nobis reliquerunt (B. G. 7.77) , they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.
xxxx
1. Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a conjunction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first):
aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum (B. G. 6.13) , by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the powerful.
at sunt morosi et anxii et iracundi et difficiles senes (Cat. M. 65) , but (you say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it):
propudium illud et portentum, L. Antonius insigne odium omnium hominum (Phil. 14.8) , that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomination of all men.
utrumque egit graviter, auctoritate et offensione animi non acerba; (Lael. 77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic - que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent:
voce voltu motuque (Brut. 110) , by voice, expression, and gesture.
curam consilium vigilantiamque (Phil. 7.20) , care, wisdom, and vigilance.
quorum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fam. 1.7.2) , whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.
Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction:
multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons.
vir liber ac fortis (Rep. 2.34) , a free and brave man.
Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clauses:
et ... et (- que ... - que), both ... and.
aut ... aut, either ... or.
vel ... vel, either ... or. [Examples in Sect: 324. e.]
sive ( seu) ... sive ( seu), whether ... or. [Examples in Sect: 324. f.]
Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force:
nunc ... nunc, tum ... tum, iam ... iam, now ... now.
modo ... modo, now ... now.
simul ... simul, at the same time ... at the same time.
qua ... qua, now ... now, both ... and, alike [this] and [that].
modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714) , now he says yes, now no.
simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. 6.7.15) , he thanks him and at the same time congratulates him.
erumpunt saepe vitia amicorum tum in ipsos amicos tum in alienos (Lael. 76) , the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends themselves, now against strangers.
qua maris qua feminas (Pl. Mil. 1113), both males and females.
Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla tively as conjunctions:
ut (rel.) ... ita, sic ( dem.), as (while) ... so (yet).
tam ( dem.) ... quam (rel.), so (as) ... as.
cum (rel.) ... tum ( dem.), while ... so also; not only ... but also.
SECTION: #324. The following Conjunctions require notice:
Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; - que combines more closely into one connected whole. - que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected:
cum coniugibus et liberis, with [their] wives and children.
ferro igni que, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.]
aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.]
Atque ( ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable:
omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, without the slightest distinction).
usus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or less expected).
atque ego credo, and yet I believe (for my part).
Atque ( ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness:
simul atque, as soon as.
non secus ( non aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if.
pro eo ac debui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought).
aeque ac tu, as much as you.
haud minus ac iussi faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
For and not, see Sect: 328. a.
Sed and the more emphatic verum or vero, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this ... but something else). At (old form ast) introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atqui, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument.
NOTE.--Et, - que, and atque ( ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause continuing the same thought: as,-- impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga verterunt (B. G. 4.35) , the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of volo) and - ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction is not always observed:
sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me facultas (Lael. 17) , but who am I or what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. 5.118) , let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]
vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria; (Lael. 12), his life was such either in respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).
si propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna; ( id. 70), if they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, for example, or in both).
aut deorum aut regum filii; ( id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.]
implicate Ç vel usu diuturno vel etiam officiis ( id. 85), entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude the first.]
Sive ( seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either ... or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing:
sive inridens sive quod ita putaret (De Or. 1.91) , either laughingly or because he really thought so.
sive deae seu sint volucres (Aen. 3.262) , whether they (the Harpies) are goddesses or birds.
Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with no alternative force: as,-- vel minimus, the very least.
Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim (for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
( ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sumus inclusi in his compagibus corporis, munere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere perfungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life) which alone deserves to be called life; for so long as we are confined by the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy task. For the soul is from heaven.
harum trium sententiarum nulli prorsus adsentior. nec enim illa prima vera est (Lael. 57) , for of course that first one is n't true.
Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirco, for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, si, ut, ne), and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
malum mihi videtur esse mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certe. ergo et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus eventurum est miseri. mihi ita videtur. nemo ergo non miser. (Tusc. 1.9.) Death seems to me to be an evil. ‰Û÷It is wretched, then, since it is an evil.‰Ûª Certainly. ‰Û÷Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are wretched.‰Ûª So it appears to me. ‰Û÷There is no one, therefore, who is not wretched.‰Ûª
quia natura mutari non potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt (Lael. 32) , because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friendships are eternal.
Autem, enim, and vero are postpositive; so generally igitur and often tamen.
Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at vero>, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque ergo, accordingly then; namque, for; et- enim, for, you see, for of course (Sect: 324. h).
For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
.Negative Particles
\
SECTION: #325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points are to be observed:
SECTION: #326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative:
nemo non audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear).
non possum non confiteri; ( Fam. 9.14.1), I must confess.
ut ... ne non timere quidem sine aliquo timore possimus (Mil. 2) , so that we cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.
Many compounds or phrases of which non is the first part express an indefinite affirmative:
non nullus, some; non nulli; (= aliqui), some few.
non nihil (= aliquid), something.
non nemo; (=aliquot), sundry persons.
non numquam (= aliquotiens), sometimes.
Two negatives of which the second is non (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative:
nemo non, nullus non, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. non nemo, not nobody, i.e. somebody.]
nihil non, everything. [Cf. non nihil, something.]
numquam non, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. non numquam, sometimes.]
A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary (Litotes, Sect: 641):
non semel (= saepissime), often enough (not once only).
non haec sine numine divom eveniunt (Aen. 2.777) , these things do not occur without the will of the gods.
haec non nimis exquiro; ( Att. 7.18.3), not very much, i.e. very little.
NOTE.--Compare non nullus, non nemo, etc., in a above.
SECTION: #327. A general negation is not destroyed:/p>
1. By a following ne ... quidem, not even, or non modo, not only:
numquam tu non modo otium, sed ne bellum quidem nisi nefarium concupisti; ( Cat. 1.25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never desired any war except one which was infamous.
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate member:
eaque nesciebant nec ubi nec qualia essent (Tusc. 3.4) , they knew not where or of what kind these things were.
3. By neque introducing a coordinate member:
nequeo satis mirari neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547) , I cannot wonder enough nor conjecture.
SECTION: #328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions:
nulli ( neutri) credo (not non credo ulli), I do not believe either (I believe neither).
sine ullo periculo; (less commonly cum nullo), with no danger (without any danger).
nihil umquam audivi iucundius, I never heard anything more amusing.
Cf. nego haec esse vera (not dico non esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.)
In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly expressed by neque ( nec), not by et non:
hostes terga verterunt, neque prius fugere destiterunt (B. G. 1.53) , the enemy turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.
NOTE.--Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et nemo; neque ullus for et nullus; nec umquam for et numquam; neve (neu), for et ne.
SECTION: #329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather):
causa igitur non bona est? immo optima (Att. 9.7.4) , is the cause then not a good one? on the contrary, the best.
Minus, less (especially with si, if, quo, in order that), and minime, least, often have a negative force:
si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quo minus, see Sect: 558. b.]
audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minime (Rosc. Am. 2) , am I the boldest of them all? by no means (not at all).
.QUESTIONS
Forms of Interrogation
1 That is, they do not stand first in their clause.
2 For a list of Negative Particles see Sect: 217. e.
SECTION: #330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker:
quid est? what is it? ubi sum? where am I?
2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like:
rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct: quid est, what is it?]
nescio ubi sim, I know not where I am. [Direct: ubi sum, where am I?]
SECTION: #331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English.
NOTE.--The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunctive (Sect: 574).
SECTION: #332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic - ne to the emphatic word:
tune id veritus es (Q. Fr. 1.3.1) , did you fear that?
hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Mil. 104) , shall this man die anywhere but in his native land?
is tibi mortemne videtur aut dolorem timere (Tusc. 5.88) , does he seem to you to fear death or pain?
The interrogative particle - ne is sometimes omitted:
patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. 1.1) , do you not see that your schemes are manifest? (you do not see, eh?)
NOTE.--In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
When the enclitic - ne is added to a negative word, as in nonne, an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer:
nonne animadvertis (N. D. 3.89) , do you not observe?
num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 107) , there is no doubt, is there?
NOTE.--In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means simply whether.
The particle - ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nonne:
meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. 1.7) , don't you remember my saying in the Senate?
rectene interpretor sententiam tuam (Tusc. 3.37) , do I not rightly interpret your meaning?
NOTE 1.--This was evidently the original meaning of - ne; but in most cases the negative force was lost and - ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into eh?
NOTE 2.--The enclitic - ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. 2.3.317) , how big? quone malo ( id. 2.3.295), by what curse?
SECTION: #333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English (Sect: 152):
quid exspectas (Cat. 2.18) , what are you looking forward to?
quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. 6.6.11) , whither then is all this tending?
I care, ubi es (Ov. M. 8.232) , Icarus, where are you?
quod vectigal vobis tutum fuit? quem socium defendistis? cui praesidio classibus vestris fuistis? ( Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you? what ally have you defended? whom have you guarded with your fleets?
NOTE.--A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice: as,--
qualis vir erat! what a man he was!
quot calamitates passi sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!
quo studio consentiunt (Cat. 4.15) , with what zeal they unite!
The particles - nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis:
quisnam est, pray who is it? [ quis tandem est? would be stronger.]
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9) , where in the world are we?
in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 7) , in what city, pray, do they maintain this?
NOTE--Tandem is sometimes added to verbs:
ain tandem (Fam. 9.21) , you don't say so! (say you so, pray?)
itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipho; ( Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got married.
.Double Questions
SECTION: #334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
SECTION: #335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or - ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, or, annon, necne, or not, in the second; and usually an in the third, if there be one:
utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. 10.26) , is it that you don't know, or do you think nothing of it?
vos ne L. Domitium an vos Domitius deseruit (B. C. 2.32) , did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you?
quaero servos ne an liberos (Rosc. Am. 74) , I ask whether slaves or free.
utrum hostem an vos an fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis (Liv. 21.10) , is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you do not know?
NOTE.--Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect questions it is commoner than annon. In poetry - ne ... - ne sometimes occurs.
The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; in which case an or - ne ( anne, necne) may stand in the second:
Gabinio dicam anne Pompeiio an utrique (Manil. 57) , shall I say to Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both?
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. 3.41) , are these your words or not?
quaesivi a Catilina in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. 2.13) , I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Laeca's or not.
Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an ( anne) alone asks the question,--usually with indignation or surprise:
an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. 1.13) , what! do you think those men wretched?
an iste umquam de se bonam spem habuisset, nisi de vobis malam opinionem animo imbibisset (Verr. 1.42) , would he ever have had good hopes about himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you?
Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative:
utrum est in clarissimis civibus is, quem ... (Flacc. 45) , is he among the noblest citizens, whom, etc.?
The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions:
utrum ... an ... an
utrum ... annon ( necne, see Sect: 335. N.)
... an ( anne)
- ne ... an
... - ne, necne
- ne ... necne
- ne ... - ne
NOTE.--From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (- ve). Thus,-- quaero num iniuste aut improbe fecerit (Off. 3.54) , I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did.
Question and Answer
SECTION: #336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with non or a similar negative:
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).
eratne tecum, was he with you? non erat, no (he was not).
num quidnam novi? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sane, oh! nothing.
An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is sometimes used to answer a direct question:
1. For YES:
vero, in truth, true, no doubt, yes. ita vero, certainly (so in truth), etc.
etiam, even so, yes, etc. sane quidem, yes, no doubt, etc.
ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc.
sane, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.
certe, certainly, unquestionably, etc.
factum, true, it's a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done).
2. For NO:
non, not so. nullo modo, by no means.
minime, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. Sect: 329. a).
minime vero, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.
non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.
non hercle vero, why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules!)
Examples are:
quidnam? an laudationes? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.
aut etiam aut non respondere (Acad. 2.104) , to answer (categorically) yes or no.
estne ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361) , is she as handsome as they say she is? (is her beauty as it is said?) oh! yes.
miser ergo Archelaus? certe si iniustus (Tusc. 5.35) , was Archelaus wretched then? certainly, if he was unjust.
an haec contemnitis? minime (De Or. 2.295) , do you despise these things? not at all.
volucribusne et feris? minime vero (Tusc. 1.104) , to the birds and beasts? why, of course not.
ex tui animi sententia tu uxorem habes? non hercle, ex mei animi sententia; (De Or. 2.260), Lord! no, etc.
SECTION: #337. In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, or some part of it, must be repeated:
vidisti an de audito nuntias?-- egomet vidi; (Plaut. Merc. 902), did you see it or are you repeating something you have heard?--I saw it myself.
CONSTRUCTION OF .CASES
For a list of Interrogative Particles, see Sect: 217. d.
SECTION: #338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uninflected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.
Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instrumental were lostexcept in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (Sect: 38. a), perhaps never had a suffix of its own.The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see Sect: 386).
The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning; and the same may be true of the Dative.
The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however, have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (Sect: 421). To indicate the case-relations--especially those of place--more precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see Sect: 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by caseforms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, Sect: 402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, Sect: 421 ff.)
The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek pt?sis, a falling away (from the erect position). The term pt?sis was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (Sect: 35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called orth<, erect ( casus rectus). The later name Nominative ( casus nominativus) is from nomino, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive ( casus genetivus) is a translation of genik< [ pt?sis], from genos (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative ( casus dativus, from do) is translated from dotik<, and means the case of giving. Accusative ( accusativus, from accuso) is a mistranslation of aitiatik< (the case of causing), from aitia, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative ( vocativus, from voco) is translated from kl< (the case of calling). The name Ablative ( ablativus, from ablatus, aufero) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.
.NOMINATIVE CASE
SECTION: #339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative:
Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat (B. G. 4.17) , Caesar had determined to cross the Rhine.
For the omission of a pronominal subject, see Sect: 295. a.
The nominative may be used in exclamations:
en dextra fidesque (Aen. 4.597) , lo, the faith and plighted word!
ecce tuae litterae de Varrone (Att. 13.16) , lo and behold, your letters aoout Varro!
NOTE.--But the accusative is more common (Sect: 397. d).
.VOCATIVE CASE
SECTION: #340. The Vocative is the case of direct address:
Tiberine pater, te, sancte, precor (Liv. 2.10) , O father Tiber, thee, holy one, I pray.
res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortensi (Verr. 1.33) , my whole attention will be devoted to you, Hortensius.
A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative:
audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. 1.24) , hear, thou people of Alba.
The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person:
quo moriture ruis (Aen. 10.811) , whither art thou rushing to thy doom?
censorem trabeate salutas (Pers. 3.29) , robed you salute the censor.
The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte esto ( virtute), success attend your (valor):
iuberem te macte virtute esse (Liv. 2.12) , I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor.
macte nova virtute puer (Aen. 9.641) , success attend your valor, boy!
NOTE.--As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.
.GENITIVE CASE
SECTION: #341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases.
The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows:
I. Genitive with Nouns: 1. Of Possession (Sect: 343).
2. Of Material (Sect: 344).
3. Of Quality (Sect: 345).
4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, Sect: 346).
5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (Sect: 348).
II. Genitive with Adjectives: 1. After Relative Adjectives (or Verbals) (Sect: 349).
2. Of Specification (later use) (Sect: 349. d).
III. Genitive with Verbs: 1. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. (Sect: 350, 351, 354).
2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (Sect: 352).
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS
SECTION: #342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.
This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case:
libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books.
inimici Caesaris, Caesar's enemies, or the enemies of Caesar.
talentum auri, a talent of gold.
vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage.
But observe the following equivalents:
vacatio laboris, a respite FROM toil.
petitio consulatus, candidacy FOR the consulship.
regnum civitatis, royal power OVER the state.
Possessive Genitive
SECTION: #343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:
Alexandri canis, Alexander's dog.
potentia Pompeii ( Sall. Cat. 19), Pompey's power.
Ariovisti mors (B. G. 5.29) , the death of Ariovistus.
perditorum temeritas (Mil. 22) , the recklessness of desperate men.
NOTE 1.--The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alexander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, Sect: 347).
NOTE 2.--The noun limited is understood in a few expressions:
ad Castoris [ aedes] (Quinct. 17) , at the [ temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.]
Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.
Hectoris Andromache; (Aen. 3.319), Hector's [wife] Andromache.
For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective is often used,--regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns (Sect: 302. a):
liber meus, my book. [Not liber mei.]
aliena pericula, other men's dangers. [But also aliorum.]
Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.]
The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive):
haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's.
iam me Pompeii totum esse scis (Fam. 2.13) , you know I am now all for Pompey (all Pompey's).
summa laus et tua et Bruti est (Fam. 12.4.2) , the highest praise is due both to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).
compendi facere, to save (make of saving).
lucri facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).
NOTE.--These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in Sect: 343 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive (Sect: 282, 283).
An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate:
neque sui iudici [ erat] discernere (B. C. 1.35) , nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).
cuiusvis hominis est errare (Phil. 12.5) , it is any man's [liability] to err.
negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres (Verr. 2.1.66) , he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
sed timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. 4.115) , but't is the coward's part to wish for death.
stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. 2.23) , it was folly (the part of a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.
sapientis est pauca loqui, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little. [Not sapiens (neuter) est, etc.]
NOTE 1.--This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
NOTE 2.--A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:
mentiri non est meum [not mei], it is not for me to lie.
humanum [for hominis] est errare, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).
A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition (Appositional Genitive) (Sect: 282):
nomen insaniae (for nomen insania), the word madness.
oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city of Antioch.
1 Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote).
2 The e-vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (Sect: 45. c).
Possessive Genitive
SECTION: #344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (cf. Sect: 403):
talentum auri, a talent of gold. flumina lactis, rivers of milk.
Genitive of Quality
SECTION: #345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective:
vir summae virtutis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtutis.]
magnae est deliberationis, it is an affair of great deliberation.
magni formica laboris (Hor. S. 1.1.33) , the ant [a creature] of great toil.
ille autem sui iudici (Nep. Att. 9) , but he [a man] of independent (his own) judgment.
NOTE.--Compare Ablative of Quality (Sect: 415). In expressions of quality, the genitive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestanti prudentia vir, a man of surpassing wisdom; maximi animi homo, a man of the greatest courage. In classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the ablative; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with eiius, and to nouns modified by magnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases eiius modi, cuius modi (equivalent to talis, such; qualis, of what sort):
eiius modi sunt tempestates consecutae, uti; ( B. G. 3.29), such storms followed, that, etc.
The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define measures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure):
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth].
murus sedecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].
For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see Sect: 417.
Partitive Genitive
SECTION: #346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs.
Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are:/p>
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. alsobelow):
pars militum, part of the soldiers. quis nostrum, which of us?
nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left.
nemo eorum (B. G. 7.66) , not a man of them.
magnam partem eorum interfecerunt ( id. 2.23), they killed a large part of them.
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like alius, alter, nullus, etc.:
unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes (see c below).
sapientum octavus (Hor. S. 2.3.296) , the eighth of the wise men.
milia passuum sescenta (B. G. 4.3) , six hundred miles (thousands of paces).
maior fratrum, the elder of the brothers.
animalium fortiora, the stronger [of] animals.
Sueborum gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum omnium (B. G. 4.1) , the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of all the Germans.
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.
nulla earum (B.G. 4.28) , not one of them (the ships).
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns:
tantum spati, so much [of] space.
aliquid nummorum, a few pence (something of coins).
id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (å ¤ 397. a).
plana urbis, the level parts of the town.
quid novi, what news? (what of new?)
paulum frumenti (B. C. 1.78) , a little grain.
plus doloris (B. G. 1.20) , more grief.
sui aliquid timoris (B. C. 2.29) , some fear of his own (something of his own fear).
NOTE 1.--In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a partitive genitive, except multum, tantum, quantum, and similar words.
NOTE 2.--The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used partitively: nihil novi (genitive), nothing new; but,-- nihil memorabile (nominative), nothing worth mention (not nihil memorabilis).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place:
parum oti, not much ease (too little of ease).
satis pecuniae, money enough (enough of money).
plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. 5.3) , is strongest of all Gaul in cavalry.
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9) , where in the world are we (where of nations)?
ubicumque terrarum et gentium (Verr. 5.143) , wherever in the whole world.
res erat eo iam loci ut (Sest. 68) , the business had now reached such a point that, etc.
eo miseriarum (Iug. 14.3) , to that [pitch] of misery.
inde loci, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case:
sequimur te, sancte deorum (Aen. 4.576) , we follow thee, O holy deity. [For sancte deus (Sect: 49. g. N.)]
nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N. 8.193) , black wools. [For nigrae lanae.]
expediti militum (Liv. 30.9) , light-armed soldiers. [For expediti milites.]
hominum cunctos (Ov. M. 4.631) , all men. [For cunctos homines; cf. e.]
Cardinal numerals (except milia) regularly take the Ablative with e ( ex) or de instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam, a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally:
unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes. [But also, unus tribunorum (cf. a. 2).]
minumus ex illis (Iug. 11) , the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers.
unus de multis (Fin. 2.66) , one of the many.
pauci de nostris cadunt (B. G. 1.15) , a few of our men fall.
hominem de comitibus meis, a man of my companions.
Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns take a partitive genitive:
uterque consul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.
unus quisque vestrum, each one of you.
utraque castra, both camps.
Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of:
nos omnes, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostrum.]
quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there?
cave inimicos, qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many.
multi milites, many of the soldiers.
nemo Romanus, not one Roman.
Objective Genitive
SECTION: #347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
SECTION: #348. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the Object:
caritas tui, affection for you. desiderium oti, longing for rest.
vacatio muneris, relief from duty. gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness.
fuga malorum, refuge from disaster. precatio deorum, prayer to the gods.
contentio honorum, struggle for office. opinio virtutis, reputation for valor.
NOTE.--This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive). Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Caesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a). The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example: the phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive).
The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive pronoun or other derivative adjective:
mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf. odium mei (Har. Resp. 5) , hatred of me.]
laudator meus (Att. 1.16.5) , my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostri laudator ( id. 1.14.6).]
Clodianum crimen (Mil. 72) , the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As we say, the Nathan murder.]
metus hostilis (Iug. 41) , fear of the enemy (hostile fear).
ea quae faciebat, tua se fiducia facere dicebat (Verr. 5.176) , what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance).
neque neglegentia tua, neque id odio fecit tuo (Ter. Ph. 1016) , he did this neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.
Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive:
animi multarum rerum percursio; (Tusc. 4.31), the mind's traversing of many things.
A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective genitive:
odium in Antonium (Fam. 10.5.3) , hate of Antony.
merita erga me ( id. 1.1.1), services to me.
meam in te pietatem ( id. 1.9.1), my devotion to you.
impetus in urbem (Phil. 12.29) , an attack on the city.
excessus e vita (Fin. 3.60) , departure from life. [Also, excessus vitae, Tusc. 1.27.]
adoptio in Domitium (Tac. Ann. 12.25) , the adoption of Domitius. [A late and bold extension of this construction.]
NOTE.--So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. å ¤ 366. b): as,-- longo bello materia (Tac. H. 1.89) , resources for a long war.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
SECTION: #349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the Objective Genitive.
Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive:
avidi laudis (Manil. 7) , greedy of praise.
fastidiosus litterarum, disdaining letters.
iuris peritus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, iure, cf. Sect: 418.]
memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. 4.19) , mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
rationis et orationis expertes (Off. 1.50) , devoid of sense and speech.
nostrae consuetudinis imperiti; ( B. G. 4.22), unacquainted with our customs.
plenus fidei, full of good faith.
omnis spei egenam (Tac. Ann. 1.53) , destitute of all hope.
tempestatum potentem (Aen. 1.80) , having sway over the storms.
impotens irae (Liv. 29.9.9) , ungovernable in anger.
coniurationis participes (Cat. 3.14) , sharing in the conspiracy.
affinis rei capitalis (Verr. 2.2.94) , involved in a capital crime.
insons culpae (Liv. 22.49) , innocent of guilt.
Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a particular act:
si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti; ( Q. Fr. 1.1.15), if you have become acquainted with any one more fond of you.
multitudo insolens belli (B. C. 2.36) , a crowd unused to war.
erat Iugurtha appetens gloriae militaris (Iug. 7) , Jugurtha was eager for military glory.
NOTE 1.--Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly governed by the verb to which they belong: as,--Sp. Maelium regnum appetentem interemit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Maelius, who was aspiring to royal power.
NOTE 2.--Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) even when they express a disposition or character: as,-- virtus quam alii ipsam temperantiam dicunt esse, alii obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptis et eam subsequentem (Tusc. 4.30) , observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
Verbals in -ax (Sect: 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later Latin:
iustum et tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. 3.3) , a man just and steadfast to his purpose.
circus capax populi (Ov. A. A. 1.136) , a circus big enough to hold the people.
cibi vinique capacissimus (Liv. 9.16.13) , a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine).
The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists (Genitive of Specification):
callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. 2.32) , skilled in soldiership.
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. 3.30.11) , scant of water.
notus animi paterni ( id. 2.2.6), famed for a paternal spirit.
fessi rerum (Aen. 1.178) , weary of toil.
integer vitae sceleris que purus (Hor. Od. 1.22.1) , upright in life, and unstained by guilt.
NOTE.--The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with adjectives requiring an object of reference (Sect: 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge; pauper, want; purus, innocence; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a.
For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see Sect: 418. For Adjectives of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see Sect: 385. c. For Adjectives with animi (locative in origin), see Sect: 358.
GENITIVE WITH VERBS
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting
SECTION: #350. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object:
Memini takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaintances, or of things which one has experienced.
So obliviscor in the opposite sense,--to forget literally, to lose all memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person).
Cinnam memini; ( Phil. 5.17), I remember Cinna.
utinam avum tuum meminisses ( id. 1.34), oh! that you could remember your grandfather! (but he died before you were born).
Postumium, cuius statuam in Isthmo meminisse te dicis (Att. 13.32) , Postumius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
omnia meminit Siron Epicuri dogmata (Acad. 2.106) , Siron remembers all the doctrines of Epicurus.
multa ab aliis audita meminerunt (De Or. 2.355) , they remember many things that they have heard from others.
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 217) , he forgot the whole case.
hinc iam obliviscere Graios (Aen. 2.148) , from henceforth forget the Greeks (i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if you had never known them).
Memini takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something (often with special interest or warmth of feeling).
So obliviscor in the opposite sense,--to disregard, or dismiss from the mind,--and the adjective oblitus, careless or regardless.
ipse sui meminerat (Verr. 2.136) , he was mindful of himself (of his own interests).
faciam ut huius loci di ei que m ei que semper memineris ( Ter. Eun. 801), I will make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.
nec me meminisse pigebit Elissae, dum memor ipse mei; ( Aen. 4.335), nor shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
meminerint verecundiae (Off. 1.122) , let them cherish modesty.
humanae infirmitatis memini; ( Liv. 30.31.6), I remember human weakness.
oblivisci temporum meorum, meminisse actionum (Fam. 1.9.8) , to disregard my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue.
nec tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci; (Fin. 5.3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.
obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat. 1.6) , turn your mind from slaughter and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts).
NOTE 1.--With both memini and obliviscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are regularly in the Genitive; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regularly in the Accusative; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).
NOTE 2.-- Memini in the sense of mention takes the Genitive: as,-- eundem Achillam cuius supra meminimus (B. C. 3.108) , that same Achillas whom I mentioned above.
Reminiscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense of call to mind, recollect; the Genitive in the more figurative sense of be mindful of:
dulcis moriens reminiscitur Argos (Aen. 10.782) , as he dies he calls to mind his beloved Argos.
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum (B. G. 1.13) , let him remember both the former discomfiture of the Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning,-- let him bear it in mind (and beware)!]
Recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative:
recordare consensum illum theatri; ( Phil. 1.30), recall that unanimous agreement of the [audience in the] theatre.
recordamini omnis civilis dissensiones (Cat. 3.24) , call to mind all the civil wars.
NOTE.-- Recordor takes the genitive once (Pison. 12); it is never used with a personal object, but may be followed by de with the ablative of the person or thing (cf. Sect: 351. N.):
de te recordor (Scaur. 49) , I remember about you.
de illis ( lacrimis) recordor (Planc. 104) , I am reminded of those tears.
Verbs of Reminding
SECTION: #351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. Sect: 390. c).
So admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio, commonefio. But moneo with the genitive is found in late writers only.
Catilina admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae ( Sall. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.
eos hoc moneo; ( Cat. 2.20), I give them this warning.
quod vos lex commonet (Verr. 3.40) , that which the law reminds you of.
NOTE.--All these verbs often take de with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them:
saepius te admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana; ( Fam. 8.4.5) I remind you again and again of Sittius's bond.
officium vostrum ut vos malo cogatis commonerier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting
SECTION: #352. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty:
arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft.
peculatus damnatus ( pecuniae publicae damnatus) ( Flacc. 43), condemned for embezzlement.
video non te absolutum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatos esse caedis (Verr. 2.1.72) , I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that they were condemned for homicide.
Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are--
capitis, as in damnare capitis, to sentence to death.
maiestatis [ laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state).
repetundarum [ rerum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
voti damnatus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one's vow, i.e. successful in one's effort.
pecuniae ( damnare, iudicare, see note).
dupli etc., as in dupli condemnare, condemn to pay twofold.
NOTE.--The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecuniae damnare (Gel. 20.1.38) , to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecuniae iudicati essent ( id.xx.1.47), how much money they were adjudged to pay, in a mere suit for debt; confessi aeris ac debiti iudicati ( id.xx.1. 42), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary to assume an ellipsis of crimine or iudicio.
SECTION: #353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are:/p>
1. The Ablative of Price: regularly of a definite amount of fine, and often of indefinite penalties (cf. Sect: 416):
Frusinates tertia parte agri damnati; ( Liv. 10.1), the people of Frusino condemned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
2. The Ablative with de, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatie expressions:
de alea, for gambling; de ambitu, for bribery.
de pecuniis repetundis, of extortion (cf. Sect: 352. a).
inter sicarios (Rosc. Am. 90) , as an assassin (among the assassins).
de vi et maiestatis damnati; ( Phil. 1.21), convicted of assault and treason.
NOTE.--The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the penalty: as,-- ad mortem (Tac. Ann. 16.21) , to death; ad ( in) metalla, to the mines.
Verbs of .Feeling
SECTION: #354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object which excites the feeling.
Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco, take the genitive:
miseremini familiae, iudices, miseremini patris, miseremini fili (Flacc. 106) , have pity on the family, etc.
miserere animi non digna ferentis (Aen. 2.144) , pity a soul that endures unworthy things.
miserescite regis ( id. 8.573), pity the king. [Poetical.]
NOTE.--But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as,-- communem condicionem miserari (Mur. 55) , bewail the common lot.
As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of the person affected:
quos infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. 1.35) , who are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
me miseret parietum ipsorum (Phil. 2.69) , I pity the very walls.
me civitatis morum piget taedetque (Iug. 4) , I am sick and tired of the ways of the state.
decemvirorum vos pertaesum est (Liv. 3.67) , you became tired of the decemvirs.
With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be expressed by an infinitive or a clause:
neque me paenitet mortalis inimicitias habere (Rab. Post. 32) , nor am I sorry to have deadly enmities.
non dedisse istunc pudet; me quia non accepi piget (Pl. Pseud. 282), he is ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.
NOTE.-- Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as subject: as,-- non te haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754) , do not these things shame you?
.Interest and .Refert
SECTION: #355. The impersonals interest and refert take the Genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected.
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause:
Clodi intererat Milonem perire (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die.
aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur (Iug. 111) , something which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
video enim quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostrum (Fam. 7.23.4) , forsee what is for my good and for the good of us both.
Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the corresponding possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or refert:
quid tua id refert? magni; ( Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. [See also the last two examples above.]
vehementer intererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin. Ep. 4.13.4) , it would be very much to your advantage, you who are fathers.
NOTE.--This is the only construction with refert in classic prose, except in one passage in Sallust (see example above).
The accusative with ad is used with interest and refert to express the thing with reference to which one is interested:
magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. 16.1) , it is of great consequence to our honor.
refert etiam ad fructus (Varr. R. R. 1.16.6) , it makes a difference as to the crop.
NOTE 1.--Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with refert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption):
quid id ad me aut ad meam rem refert (Pl. Per. 513) , what difference does that make to me or to my interests?
quid referat intra naturae finis viventi (Hor. S. 1.1.49) , what difference does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire?
non referre dedecori (Tac. Anu. 15.65), that it makes no difference as to the disgrace.
NOTE 2.--The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb, or an adverbial accusative.
Verbs of Plenty and Want
SECTION: #356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the genitive (cf. Sect: 409. a. N.):
convivium vicinorum compleo; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.
implentur veteris Bacchi pinguisque ferinae (Aen. 1.215) , they fill themselves with old wine and fat venison.
ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. 6.11) , lest any require aid.
quid est quod defensionis indigeat (Rosc. Am. 34) , what is there that needs defence?
quae ad consolandum maioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtutis indigent ( Fam. 6.4.2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.
NOTE.--Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see Sect: 409. a, <
>01), except egeo, which takes either case, and indigeo. But the genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation and want (cf. Sect: 357. b. 3):
abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. 3.27.69) , refrain from wrath.
operum solutis ( id. 3.17.16), free from toils.
desine mollium querellarum ( id. 2.9.17), have done with weak complaints.
Genitive with Special Verbs
SECTION: #357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to be master of affairs:
illius regni potiri; ( Fam. 1.7.5), to become master of that kingdom.
Cleanthes solem dominari et rerum potiri putat (Acad. 2.126) , Cleanthes thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.
NOTE.--But potior usually takes the ablative (see Sect: 410).
Some other verbs rarely take the genitive:/p>
1. By analogy with those mentioned in Sect: 354:
neque huius sis veritus feminae primariae (Ter. Ph. 971) , and you had no respect for this high-born lady.
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive:
fastidit mei (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastidiosus.]
studet tui (quoted N. D. 3.72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiosus.]
3. In imitation of the Greek:
iustitiae ne prius mirer, belline laborum (Aen. 11.126) , shall I rather admire his justice or his toils in war?
neque ille sepositi ciceris nec longae invidit avenae (Hor. S. 2.6.84) , nor did he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.]
laborum decipitur (Hor. Od. 2.13.38) , he is beguiled of his woes.
me laborum levas (Pl. Rud. 247) , you relieve me of my troubles.
SECTION: #358. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like:
Antipho me excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187) , Antipho tortures my mind (me in my mind).
qui pendet animi (Tusc. 4.35) , who is in suspense.
me animi fallit (Lucr. 1.922) , my mind deceives me.
So, by analogy, desipiebam mentis (Pl. Epid. 138) , I was out of my head.
aeger animi, sick at heart; confusus animi, disturbed in spirit.
sanus mentis aut animi (Pl. Trin. 454) , sound in mind or heart.
.PECULIAR GENITIVES
SECTION: #359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following:
A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation):
di immortales, mercimoni lepidi; ( Pl. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charming bargain!
foederis heu taciti; ( Prop. 4.7.21), alas for the unspoken agreement!
The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for the sake of; ergo, because of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as:
honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor).
verbi gratia, for example.
eiius legis ergo, on account of this law.
equus instar montis (Aen. 2.15) , a horse huge as a mountain (the image of a mountain).
laterum tenus ( id. 10.210), as far as the sides.
NOTE 1.--Of these the genitive with causa is a development from the possessive genitive and resembles that in nomen insaniae (Sect: 343.d). The others are of various origin.
NOTE 2.--In prose of the Republican Period pridie and postridie are thus used only in the expressions pridie ( postridie) eiius diei, the day before (after) that (cf. "the eve, the morrow of that day‰Û?). Tacitus uses the construction with other words: as,-- postridie insidiarum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see Sect: 432. a. Tenus takes also the ablative (p. 136).
.DATIVE CASE
SECTION: #360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clamor caelo, Aen. 5.451) are regarded as survivals of the original use.
In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings:
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, he gave the boy a book, or fecit mihi iniuriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see Sect: 367. a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see Sect: 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasionally confounded, as in Sect: 383, 384.
The uses of the Dative are the following:
1. Indirect Object (general use): 1. With Transitives (Sect: 362).
2. With Intransitives (Sect: 366-372).
2. Special or Idiomatic Uses: 1. Of Possession (with esse) (Sect: 373).
2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (Sect: 374).
3. Of Reference ( dativus commodi) (Sect: 376-381).
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (Sect: 382).
5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) (Sect: 383, 384).
INDIRECT OBJECT
SECTION: #361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected by an action.
This is called the Indirect Object (Sect: 274). It is usually denoted in English by the objective with to:
cedite tempori, yield to the occasion.
provincia Ciceroni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.
inimicis non credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES
SECTION: #362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see Sect: 274):
do tibi librum, I give you a book.
illud tibi affirmo; ( Fam. 1.7.5), this I assure you.
commendo tibi eiius omnia negotia ( id. 1.3), I put all his affairs in your hands (commit them to you).
dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti; ( Deiot. 40), you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
litteras a te mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. 2.17) , your messenger delivered to me a letter from you.
Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone:
mihi id aurum credidit (cf. Plaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.
equo ne credite (Aen. 2.48) , put not your trust in the horse.
concessit senatus postulationi tuae (Mur. 47) , the senate yielded to your demand.
concedere amicis quidquid velint (Lael. 38) , to grant to friends all they may wish.
SECTION: #363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of Motion (Sect: 426, 427):
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion prevails:
litteras quas ad Pompeiium scripsi; ( Att. 3.8.4), the letter which I have written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. non quo haberem quod tibi scriberem ( id. 4.4A), not that I had anything to write to you]
litterae extemplo Romam scriptae (Liv. 41.16) , a letter was immediately written [and sent] to Rome.
hostis in fugam dat (B. G. 5.51) , he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut me dem fugae (Att. 7.23) , to take to flight.]
omnes rem ad Pompeiium deferri volunt (Fam. 1.1) , all wish the matter to be put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea:
mihi litteras mittere (Fam. 7.12) , to send me a letter.
eum librum tibi misi; ( id. 7.19), I sent you that book.
nec quicquam quod non mihi Caesar detulerit ( id. 4.13), and nothing which Caesar did not communicate to me.
cures ut mihi vehantur ( id. 8.4.5), take care that they be conveyed to me.
cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. 2.26) , while one lent aid to another.
SECTION: #364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing:
donat coronas suis, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths.
vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. 7.772) , to shake off the leash (from himself).
omnis armis exuit (B. G. 5.51) , he stripped them all of their arms.
NOTE 1.-- Interdico, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Ablative of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing:
aqua et igni alicui interdicere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular formula for banishment.]
interdixit histrionibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7) , he forbade the actors [to appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).
feminis ( dat.) purpurae usu interdicemus (Liv. 34.7) , shall we forbid women the wearing of purple?
NOTE 2.--The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative. Intercludo and prohibeo sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose:
hisce omnis aditus ad Sullam intercludere (Rosc. Am. 110) , to shut these men off from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. uti commeatu Caesarem intercluderet (B. G. 1.48) , to shut Caesar off from supplies.]
hunc ( oestrum) arcebis pecori (Georg. 3.154) , you shall keep this away from the flock. [Cf. illum arcuit Gallia (Phil. 5.37) , he excluded him from Gaul.]
solstitium pecori defendite (Ecl. 7.47) , keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf. uti se a contumeliis inimicorum defenderet (B. C. 1.22) , to defend himself from the slanders of his enemies.]
SECTION: #365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive:
nuntiabantur haec eadem Curioni (B. C. 2.37) , these same things were announced to Curio. [Active: nuntiabant ( quidam) haec eadem Curioni.]
nec docendi Caesaris propinquis eiius spatium datur, nec tribunis plebis sui periculi deprecandi facultas tribuitur ( id. 1.5), no time is given Caesar's relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of the plebs to avert danger from themselves.
provinciae privatis decernuntur ( id. 1.6), provinces are voted to private citizens.
1 Such are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo, e Çnspergo, circumdo, and in poetry accingo, implico, and similar verbs.
DATIVE: .INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVE
SECTION: #366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows:
cedant arma togae (Phil. 2.20) , let arms give place to the gown.
Caesari respondet, he replies to Caesar.
Caesari respondetur, a reply is given to Caesar (Caesar is replied to). [Cf. Sect: 372.]
respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. 2.36) , I have answered the heaviest charges.
ut ita cuique eveniat ( id. 2.119), that it may so turn out to each.
NOTE 1.--Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, therefore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. Sect: 362. a).
NOTE 2.-- Cedo, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the Dative of the person: as,-- cedere alicui possessione hortorum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to one the possession of a garden.
Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. Sect: 367. a. N.2):
auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuadeo).
quis huic rei testis est (Quinct. 37) , who testifies (is witness) to this fact?
is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. 2.30.9) , this put an end to the raids.
The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. Sect: 367. d, 377):
legatus fratri (Mur. 32) , a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his brother).
ministri sceleribus (Tac. Ann. 6.36) , agents of crime. [Cf. seditionis ministri ( id. 1.17), agents of sedition.]
miseriis suis remedium mortem exspectare ( Sall. Cat. 40), to look for death as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. solus mearum miseriarumst remedium (Ter. Ad. 294) .]
NOTE.--The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of Sect: 367. a. N.2 and Sect: 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to which it serves as an indirect object.
Indirect Object with Special Verbs
SECTION: #367. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,take the Dative:
cur mihi invides, why do you envy me?
mihi parcit atque ignoscit, he spares and pardons me.
ignosce patrio dolori (Liv. 3.48) , excuse a father's grief.
subveni patriae, opitulare conlegae (Fam. 10.10.2) , come to the aid of your country, help your colleague.
mihi non displicet (Clu. 144) , it does not displease me.
non omnibus servio; ( Att. 13.49), I am not a servant to every man.
non parcam operae (Fam. 13.27) , I will spare no pains.
sic mihi persuasi; (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself.
mihi Fabius debebit ignoscere si minus eiius famae parcere videbor quam antea consului; ( Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.
huic legioni Caesar confidebat maxime; ( B. G. 1.40.15), in this legion Caesar trusted most.
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. Thus: invidere, to envy, is literally to look askance at; servire is to be a slave to; suadere is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.
Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.
Such are iuvo, adiuvo, help; laedo, injure; iubeo, order; deficio, fail; delecto, please:
hic pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculis nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.]
NOTE 1.-- Fido and confido take also the Ablative (Sect: 431): as,-- multum natura loci confidebant (B. G. 3.9) , they had great confidence in the strength of their position.
NOTE 2.--Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such are--praesto esse, be on hand (cf. adesse); morem gerere, humor (cf. morigerari); gratum facere, do a favor (cf. gratificari); dicto audiens esse, be obedient (cf. oboedire); cui fidem habebat (B. G. 1.19) , in whom he had confidence (cf. confidebat).
So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are-- bene (male, pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; iniuriam facere, do injustice to; diem dicere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere gratias, express one's thanks; habere gratiam, feel thankful; referre gratiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be necessary; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum ( expensum) ferre ( esse), credit (charge); honorem habere, to pay honor to.
Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.
Such are adulor, aemulor, despero, praestolor, medeor:
adulatus est Antonio (Nep. Att. 8) , he flattered Antony.
adulari Neronem (Tac. Ann. 16.19) , to flatter Nero.
pacem non desperas (Att. 8.15.3) , you do not despair of peace.
saluti desperare vetuit (Clu. 68) , he forbade him to despair of safety.
Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning:
parti civium consulunt (Off. 1.85) , they consult for a part of the citizens.
cum te consuluissem (Fam. 11.29) , when I had consulted you.
metuens pueris (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.
nec metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772) , they fear not even the gods. [So also timeo.]
prospicite patriae (Cat. 4.3) , have regard for the state.
prospicere sedem senectuti; ( Liv. 4.49.14), to provide a habitation for old age. [So also provideo.]
A few verbal nouns (as insidiae, ambush; obtemperatio, obedience) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs:
insidiae consuli ( Sall. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. insidior).
obtemperatio legibus (Legg. 1.42) , obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero).
sibi ipsi responsio; (De Or. 3.207), an answer to himself (cf. respondeo).
NOTE.--In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. Sect: 366. a, b).
SECTION: #368. The Dative is used:/p>
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is allowed:
quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. 1.8.3) , what most pleases me.
quasi tibi non liceret ( id. 6.8), as if you were not permitted.
2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male:
mihi ipse numquam satisfacio; ( Fam. 1.1), I never satisfy myself.
optimo viro maledicere (Deiot. 28) , to speak ill of a most excellent man.
pulchrum est benefacere rei publicae ( Sall. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to benefit the state.
NOTE.--These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as such by the Romans. Thus,-- satis officio meo, satis illorum voluntati qui a me hoc petiverunt factum esse arbitrabor (Verr. 5.130) , I shall consider that enough has been done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me.
3. With gratificor, gratulor, nubo, permitto, plaudo, probo, studeo, supplico, excello:
Pompeiio se gratificari putant (Fam. 1.1) , they suppose they are doing Pompey a service.
gratulor tibi, mi Balbe ( id. 6.12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus.
tibi permitto respondere (N. D. 3.4) , I give you leave to answer.
mihi plaudo ipse domi; ( Hor. S. 1.1.66), I applaud myself at home.
cum inimici M. Fonteii vobis ac populo Romano minentur, amici ac propinqui supplicent vobis (Font. 35) , while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives are beseeching you.
NOTE.-- Misceo and iungo sometimes take the dative (see Sect: 413. a. N.). Haereo usually takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as,-- haerentem capiti coronam (Hor. S. 1.10.49) , a wreath clinging to the head.
The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs of contending (Sect: 413. b):
contendis Homero (Prop. 1.7.3) , you vie with Homer. [In prose: cum Homero.]
placitone etiam pugnabis amori (Aen. 4.38) , will you struggle even against a love that pleases you?
tibi certat (Ecl. 5.8) , vies with you. [tecum.]
differt sermoni (Hor. S. 1.4.48) , differs from prose. [ a sermone, Sect: 401.]
lateri abdidit ensem (Aen. 2.553) , buried the sword in his side. [ in latere, Sect: 430.]
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see Sect: 428. h.
SECTION: #369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. Sect: 362. a):
cui cum rex crucem minaretur (Tusc. 1.102) , and when the king threatened him with the cross.
Cretensibus obsides imperavit (Manil. 35) , he exacted hostages of the Cretans.
omnia sibi ignoscere (Vell. 2.30) , to pardon one's self everything.
Ascanione pater Romanas invidet arces (Aen. 4.234) , does the father envy Ascanius his Roman citadels? [With invideo this construction is poetic or late.]
With the passive voice this dative may be retained:
qui iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgeri aequum censet (Liv. 40.15.16) , who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a favor.
singulis censoribus denarii trecenti imperati sunt (Verr. 2.137) , three hundred denarii were exacted of each censor.
Scaevolae concessa est facundiae virtus (Quint. 12.3.9) , to Scaevola has been granted excellence in oratory.
1 These include, among others, the following: adversor, cedo, credo, faveo, fido, fgnosco, impero, indulgeo, invideo, irascor, minitor, noceo, parco, pareo, placeo, resisto, servio, studeo, suadeo ( persuadeo), suscenseo, tempero ( obtempero).
2 See the Lexicon under caveo , convenio, cupio, insisto, maneo, praeverto, recipio, renuntio, solvo, succedo
Indirect Object with Compounds
SECTION: #370. Many verbs compounded with ao, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object:
neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. 13) , for I do not agree with them.
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. 1.105) , so far as man's nature is superior to brutes.
si sibi ipse consentit ( id. 1.5), if he is in accord with himself.
virtutes semper voluptatibus inhaerent (Fin. 1.68) , virtues are always connected with pleasures.
omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit ( id. 1.6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. 1.9.21) , it is a point of skill to yield to the weather.
nec umquam succumbet inimicis (Deiot. 36) , and he will never yield to his foes.
cum et Brutus cuilibet ducum praeferendus videretur et Vatinius nulli non esset postferendus (Vell. 2.69) , since Brutus seemed worthy of being put before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them.
In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains.
Thus in convocat suos, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperatorem bello, to put a man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an indirect object (see also b, Sect: 371, 388. b).
NOTE 1.--Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object: as,-- ne offeramus nos periculis (Off. 1.83) , that we may not expose ourselves to perils.
NOTE 2.--The construction of Sect: 370 is not different in its nature from that of Sect: 362, 366, and 367; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. Sect: 388. b):
nos oppugnat (Fam. 1.1) , he opposes us.
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi; ( Phil. 12.25), who would dare encounter a man well attended?
munus obire (Lael. 7) , to attend to a duty.
The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative:
si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 47) , if he was not intending to get in his way.
mihi obviam venisti; ( Fam. 2.16.3), you came to meet me.
SECTION: #371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in Sect: 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition:
inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. 4.24) , it remains fixed in the vitals.
homine coniuncto mecum (Tull. 4) , a man united to me.
cum hoc concurrit ipse Eumenes (Nep. Eum. 4.1) , with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together).
inserite oculos in curiam (Font. 43) , fix your eyes on the senate-house.
ignis qui est ob os offusus (Tim. 14) , the fire which is diffused before the sight.
obicitur contra istorum impetus Macedonia (Font. 44) , Macedonia is set to withstand their attacks. [Cf. si quis vobis error obiectus (Caec. 5) , if any mistake has been caused you.]
in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. 2.304) , the fire falls upon the standing corn.
NOTE.--But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.
SECTION: #372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive (Sect: 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. Sect: 365):
cui parci potuit (Liv. 21.14) , who could be spared?
non modo non invidetur illi aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. 2.45) , that age (youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.
tempori serviendum est (Fam. 9.7) , we must serve the exigency of the occasion.
NOTE.--In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as,-- cur invideor (Hor. A. P. 56) , why am I envied?
1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenio, ineo, obeo, offendo, oppugno, praecedo, subeo
Dative of .Possession
SECTION: #373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession:
est mihi domi pater (Ecl. 3.33) , I have a father at home (there is to me).
homini cum deo similitudo est (Legg. 1.25) , man has a likeness to God.
quibus opes nullae sunt ( Sall. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth.
NOTE.--The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as,-- liber est meus, the book is MINE (and no one's else): est mihi liber, I HAVE a book (among other things).
With nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is often put in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the Nominative is also common:
(1) cui africano fuit cognomen (Liv. 25.2) , whose (to whom) surname was Africanus.
puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen ( id. 1.34), the name Egerius was given the boy from his poverty.
(2) puero nomen est Marcus, the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. 4.118) , [a fount] called Arethusa.
NOTE.--In early Latin the dative is usual; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the dative; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf. Sect: 343. d): as,--Q. Metello Macedonici nomen inditum est (Vell. 1.11) , to Quintus Metellus the name of Macedonicus was given.
Desum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regularly has the ablative):
hoc unum Caesari defuit (B.G. 4.26) , this only was lacking to Caesar.
quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. 1.48) , what can be wanting to him?
Dative of the Agent
SECTION: #374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to denote the person on whom the necessity rests:
haec vobis provincia est defendenda (Manil. 14) , this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you).
mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me: cf. mihi est liber, I have a book, Sect: 373. N.).
This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (Sect: 196).
NOTE 1.--The Ablative of the Agent with ab (Sect: 405) is sometimes used with the Second Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger expression is desired:
quibus est a vobis consulendum (Manil. 6) , for whom you must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and vobis, would have been ambiguous.]
rem ab omnibus vobis providendam (Rab. 4) , that the matter must be attended to by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.]
NOTE 2.--The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Possession or a development of the Dative of Reference (Sect: 376).
SECTION: #375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect participles (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with other parts of the verb:
mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Leg. Agr. 1.25) , I have deliberated and resolved (it has been deliberated by me).
mihi res provisa est (Verr. 4.91) , the matter has been provided for by me.
sic dissimillimis bestiolis communiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. 2.123) , so by very different creatures food is sought in common.
The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any passive verb:
neque cernitur ulli (Aen. 1.440) , nor is seen by any.
felix est dicta sorori (Ov. Fast. 3.1.597), she was called happy by her sister.
Aelia Paetina Narcisso fovebatur (Tac. Ann. 12.1) , Aelia Paetina was favored by Narcissus.
The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after videor, seem:
videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
dis aliter visum [ est] (Aen. 2.428) , it seemed otherwise to the gods.
videor mihi perspicere ipsius animum (Fam. 4.13.5) , I seem (to myself) to see the soul of the man himself.
NOTE.--The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference (Sect: 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent:
haec sententia et illi et nobis probabatur (Fam. 1.7.5) , this view met both his approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me).
hoc consilium plerisque non probabatur (B. C. 1.72) , this plan was not approved by the majority. [But also, consilium a cunctis probabatur ( id. 1.74).]
Dative of .Reference
SECTION: #376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference).
The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage,as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
tibi aras (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
tuas res tibi habeto; (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula of divorce).
laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive).
meritos mactavit honores, taurum Neptuno, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo; ( Aen. 3.118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to thee, beautiful Apollo.
NOTE.--In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
SECTION: #377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word:
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 75) , to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.).
se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. 5.86) , he put himself in sight of the sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
versatur mihi ante oculos ( id. 5.123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me before the eyes).
SECTION: #378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.
This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,but is merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used:/p>
1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me. etc.):
Plato mihi unus instar est centum milium (Brut. 191) , in my opinion (to me) Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
erit ille mihi semper deus (Ecl. 1.7) , he will always be a god to me (in my regard).
quae est ista servitus tam claro homini (Par. 41) , what is that slavery according to the view of this distinguished man?
2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative plural:
oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro; ( B. C. 3.80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
laeva parte sinum intranti (Liv. 26.26) , on the left as you sail up the gulf (to one entering).
est urbe egressis tumulus (Aen. 2.713) , there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (to those having come out).
NOTE.--The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by volens, volens (participles of nolo, volo), or by some similar word:
ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. 1.59) , as each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Iug. 100) , that the soldiers might assume the task willingly.
SECTION: #379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations:
quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12) , of what use to me is fortune?
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. 2.7.116) , where can I get a stone?
quo tibi, Tilli; ( id. 1.6.24), what use for you, Tillius?
The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections:
ei (hei) mihi (Aen. 2.274) , ah me!
vae victis (Liv. 5.48) , woe to the conquered.
em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. Sect: 380.]
NOTE.--To express FOR--meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of--the ablative with pro is used:
pro patria mori; ( Hor. Od. 3.2.13), to die for one's country.
ego ibo pro te (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.
1 Dativus commodi aut incommodi.
2 Dativus iudicantis
.Ethical Dative
SECTION: #380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated.
This construction is called the Ethical Dative.It is really a faded variety of the Dative of Reference.
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. 1.3.15) , pray what is Celsus doing?
suo sibi servit patri; (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.
at tibi repente venit mihi Caninius (Fam. 9.2) , but, look you, of a sudden comes to me Caninius.
hem tibi talentum argenti; ( Pl. Truc. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.
quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself)?
1 Compare "I'll rhyme you so eight years together.‰Shaks.--As You Like It, 3.2.
2 Dativus ethicus.
Dative of .Separation
SECTION: #381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (Sect: 401).
Such are compounds of ab, de, ex, and a few of ad:
aureum ei detraxit amiculum (N. D. 3.83) , he took from him his cloak of gold.
hunc mihi terrorem eripe (Cat. 1.18) , take from me this terror.
vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (Cat. M. 71) , violence deprives young men of life.
nihil enim tibi detraxit senatus ( Fam. 1.5B), for the senate has taken nothing from you.
nec mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo; (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me.
NOTE.--The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It represents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative
The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a preposition--thus generally with names of things (Sect: 426. 1):
illum ex periculo eripuit (B. G. 4.12) , he dragged him out of danger.
NOTE.--Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as,-- mihi praeda de manibus eripitur (Verr. 2.1.142) , the booty is wrested from my hands.
Dative of the Purpose or End
SECTION: #382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected.
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions, as follows:
1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of the person or thing affected:
rei publicae cladi sunt (Iug. 85.43) , they are ruin to the state (they are for a disaster to the state).
magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. 4.25) , it was of great service to our men (to our men for great use).
tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit ( id. 1.52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men.
suis saluti fuit ( id. 7.50), he was the salvation of his men.
evenit facile quod dis cordi esset (Liv. 1.39) , that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
NOTE 1.--This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjective, except one of degree ( magnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.
NOTE 2.--The word frugi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind:
cogis me dicere inimicum Frugi (Font. 39) , you compel me to call my enemy Honest.
homines satis fortes et plane frugi (Verr. 3.67) , men brave enough and thoroughly honest. Cf. ero frugi bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), I will be good for something. [See Sect: 122. b.]
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry :
locum castris deligit (B. G. 7.16) , he selects a site for a camp.
receptui canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat).
receptui signum (Phil. 13.15) , the signal for retreat.
optavit locum regno (Aen. 3.109) , he chose a place for a kingdom.
locum insidiis circumspectare (Liv. 21.53) , to look about for a place for an ambush. [Cf. locum seditionis quaerere ( id. 3.46).]
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see Sect: 505. b.
Dative with Adjectives
SECTION: #383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards which it tends.
NOTE.--The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.
SECTION: #384. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites:
nihil est tam naturae aptum (Lael. 17) , nothing is so fitted to nature.
nihil difficile amanti puto; (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.
castris idoneum locum delegit (B. G. 1.49) , he selected a place suitable for a camp.
tribuni nobis sunt amici; ( Q. Fr. 1.2.16), the tribunes are friendly to us.
esse propitius potest nemini (N. D. 1.124) , he can be gracious to nobody.
magnis autem viris prosperae semper omnes res ( id. 2.167), but to great men everything is always favorable.
sedes huic nostro non importuna sermoni (De Or. 3.18) , a place not unsuitable for this conversation of ours.
cui fundo erat affinis M. Tullius (Tull. 14) , to which estate Marcus Tullius was next neighbor.
convenienter naturae vivere (Off. 3.13) , to live in accordance with nature ( homologoumenos te phusei).
NOTE 1.--So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem: as,-- invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti (Hor. A. P. 467) , he who saves a man against his will does the same as one who kills him.
NOTE 2.--Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque ( ac), as. So also the adverbs aeque, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun idem has regularly atque or a relative:
si parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty).
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri; (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are disturbed by the same things by which I am.
SECTION: #385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected:
Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons:
aptus ad rem militarem, fit for a soldier's duty.
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53) , a place fitter for lying in wait.
nobis utile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.
Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or erga:
comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. 2.2.133) , kind to his wife.
divina bonitas erga homines (N. D. 2.60) , the divine goodness towards men.
de benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Off. 1.47) , in regard to each man's good will which he has towards us.
gratiorem me esse in te (Fam. 11.10) , that I am more grateful to you.
Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive:
quod ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit ... optare debetis (Manil. 48) , which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]
fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Romani ( id. 32), this was once the peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.]
cum utrique sis maxime necessarius ( Att. 9.7A), since you are especially bound to both. [Dative.]
procurator aeque utriusque necessarius (Quinct. 86) , an agent alike closely connected with both. [Genitive.]
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns:
amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero; and even, Ciceronis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
creticus et eiius aequalis paean (Or. 215) , the cretic and its equivalent the p?"an.
hi erant affines istius (Verr. 2.36) , these were this man's fellows.
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular ( mei, tui, etc.), and also in veri similis, probable:
domini similis es (Ter. Eun. 496) , you're like your master (your master's like).
ut essemus similes deorum (N. D. 1.91) , that we might be like the gods.
est similis maiorum suom (Ter. Ad. 411) , he's like his ancestors.
patris similis esse (Off. 1.121) , to be like his father.
simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (N. D. 1.97, quoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape!
si enim hoc illi simile sit, est illud huic ( id. 1.90), for if this is like that, that is like this.
NOTE.--The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in Sect: 349, but possessive (cf. Sect: 343).
For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proxime, see Sect: 432. a.
.ACCUSATIVE CASE
SECTION: #386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative (run a race, fight a battle, see Sect: 390). From this it would be a short step to the Factitive Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. Sect: 273. N.1). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see Sect: 387. a). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf. Sect: 265.3).). It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with certainty from any single function of that case.
The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows:
I. Primary Object: 1. Directly affected by the Action ( Sect: 387. a).
2. Effect of the Action Thing produced (Sect: 387. a). Cognate Accusative (Sect: 390).
II. Two Accusatives: 1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) (Sect: 393).
2. Of Asking or Teaching (Sect: 396).
3. Of Concealing (Sect: 396. c).
III. Idiomatic Uses: 1. Adverbial (Sect: 397. a).
2. Of Specification ( Greek Accusative) (Sect: 397. b).
3. Of Extent and Duration (Sect: 423, 425).
4. Of Exclamation (Sect: 397. d).
5. Subject of Infinitive (Sect: 397. e).
1 Adjectives of this kind are accommodatus, aptus; amicus, inimicus, infestus, invisus, molestus; idoneus, opportunus, proprius; utilis, inutilis; affinis, finitimus, propinquus, vicinus; par, dispar, similis, dissimilis; iucundus, gratus; notus, ignotus, and others.
2 Such are aequalis, affinis, alienus, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguineus, contrarius, dispar, familiaris, finitimus, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius (regularly genitive), sacer, similis, superstes, vicinus.
3 Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with arma gerere, to bear arms; fidicen, lyre-player, with fidibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tactio (Plaut.), the [act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her (Sect: 388. d. N.2).
Direct Object
SECTION: #387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (Sect: 274).
The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb:
(1) Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Caesar.
(2) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Cf. proelium pugnare, to fight a battle, Sect: 390.]
NOTE.--There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. Thus timeo, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum timeo, I fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in noli timere, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as,-- Helvetios superaverunt Romani, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superabat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change of meaning: as,-- rides, you are laughing; but me rides, you're laughing at me.
The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (Sect: 275):
Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Caesar.
Caesar a Bruto interfectus est, Caesar was killed by Brutus.
domum aedificat, he builds a house.
domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built).
SECTION: #388. Certain special verbs require notice.
Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive:
meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest. 145) , they grieved at my calamity and sorrow.
si non Acrisium risissent Iuppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. 3.16.5) , if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.
ridetur ab omni conventu; ( Hor. S. 1.7.22), he is laughed at by the whole assembly.
For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see Sect: 390. a.
NOTE.--Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative:
gemens ignominiam (Georg. 3.226) , groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doleo.]
festinare fugam (Aen. 4.575) , to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelero.]
comptos arsit crinis (Hor. Od. 4.9.13) , she burned with love for his well-combed locks. [Cf. adamo.]
Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trans, and praeter, and a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. Sect: 370. b):
mortem obire, to die (to meet death).
consulatum ineunt (Liv. 2.28) , they enter upon the consulship.
neminem conveni; ( Fam. 9.14), I met no one.
si insulam adisset (B. G. 4.20) , if he should go to the island.
transire flumen ( id. 2.23), to cross the river (cf. Sect: 395).
cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. 1.21) , the citizens who stand about the senate.
NOTE.--Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub.
The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dedecet, delectat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit:
ita ut vos decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you.
me pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. S. 2.1.28) , my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
nisi me fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me).
iuvit me tibi tuas litteras profuisse (Fam. 5.21.3) , it pleased me that your literary studies had profited you.
te non praeterit (Fam. 1.8.2) , it does not escape your notice.
NOTE 1.--So after later in poetry and post-classical prose: as,-- latet plerosque (Plin. N. H. 2.82), it is unknown to most persons.
NOTE 2.--These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic signification. Hence most of them are also used personally.
NOTE 3.-- Decet and latet sometimes take the dative:
ita nobis decet (Ter. Ad. 928) , thus it befits us.
hosti que Roma latet (Sil. It. 12.614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.
A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are:
ferire foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim).
vincere iudicium ( sponsionem, rem, hoc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, Aen. 6.688.]
aequor navigare (Aen. 1.67) , to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, Sect: 388. b.]
maria aspera iuro; ( id. 6.351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. 6.324). [The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic.]
noctis dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).
NOTE 1.--These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction (cf. the second example under Sect: 390).
NOTE 2.--In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative:
quid tibi istanc tactio est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? [Cf. tango.]
mirabundi bestiam (Ap. Met. 4.16) , full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miror.]
vitabundus castra (Liv. 25.13) , trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vito.]
SECTION: #389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely, having their natural object in the ablative with de (Sect: 273. N. 2):
priusquam Pomponius de eiius adventu cognosceret (B. C. 3.101) , before Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. eiius adventu cognito, his arrival being discovered.]
For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see Sect: 354. b. For the Accusative after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see Sect: 500. 3.
.Cognate Accusative
SECTION: #390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.
This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification:
tutiorem vitam vivere (Verr. 2.118) , to live a safer life.
tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cat. M. 31) , he was now living the third generation of men.
servitutem servire, to be in slavery.
coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance.
Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative of the quality:
vinum redolens (Phil. 2.63) , smelling [of] wine.
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. 11.18) , the honey tastes [of] grass.
olere malitiam (Rosc. Com. 20) , to have the odor of malice.
Cordubae natis poetis, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrinum (Arch. 26) , to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and foreign accent.
The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets:
huic errori similem [ errorem] insanire (Hor. S. 2.3.62) , to suffer a delusion like this.
saltare Cyclopa ( id. 1.5.63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).
Bacchanalia vivere (Iuv. 2.3) , to live in revellings.
Amaryllida resonare (Ecl. 1.5) , to reÌÇcho [the name of] Amaryllis.
intonuit laevum (Aen. 2.693) , it thundered on the left.
dulce ridentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. 1.22.23) , sweetly smiling, sweetly prattling.
acerba tuens (Aen. 9.794) , looking fiercely. (Cf. Eng. "to look daggers.)
torvum clamat ( id. 7.399), he cries harshly.
A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very common as cognate accusative (cf. Sect: 214. d, 397. a):
Empedocles multa alia peccat (N. D. 1.29) , Empedocles commits many other errors.
ego illud adsentior Theophrasto; (De Or. 3.184), in this I agree with Theophrastus.
multum te ista fefellit opinio; ( Verr. 2.1.88), you were much deceived in this expectation (this expectation deceived you much).
plus valeo, I have more strength.
plurimum potest, he is strongest.
quid me ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. 2.32) , what harm do those things do me?
hoc te moneo, I give you this warning (cf. d. N.1).
id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. N.1).
quid moror, why do I delay?
quae homines arant, navigant, aedificant ( Sall. Cat. 2.7), what men do in ploughing, sailing, and building.
So in many common phrases:
si quid ille se velit (B. G. 1.34) , if he should want anything of him (if he should want him in anything).
numquid, Geta, aliud me vis (Ter. Ph. 151) , can I do anything more for you, Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form of leave-taking.]
quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hoc erat quod ( Aen. 2.664), was it for this that, etc.?]
NOTE 1.--In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some other construction:
in hoc eodem peccat, he errs in this same point.
bonis rebus laetari, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also: in, de, or ex.]
de testamento monere, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitive, Sect: 351.]
offici admonere, to remind one of his duty. [Also: de officio.]
NOTE 2.--In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as,-- multum, plus, plurimum; plerumque, for the most part, generally; ceterum, cetera, for the rest, otherwise, but; primum, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why; facile, easily. So in the comparative of adverbs (Sect: 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial.
TWO ACCUSATIVES
SECTION: #391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to their Direct Object.
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or (2) a Secondary Object.
Predicate Accusative
SECTION: #392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative.
SECTION: #393. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object:
o Spartace, quem enim te potius appellem (Phil. 13.22) , O Spartacus, for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)?
Ciceronem consulem creare, to elect Cicero consul.
me augurem nominaverunt (Phil. 2.4) , they nominated me for augur.
cum gratias ageret quod se consulem fecisset (De Or. 2.268) , when he thanked him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy).
hominem prae se neminem putavit (Rosc. Am. 135) , he thought nobody a man in comparison with himself.
ducem se praebuit (Vat. 33) , he offered himself as a leader.
NOTE.--The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as,-- homines mitis reddidit et mansuetos (Inv. 1.2) , has made men mild and gentle.
In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (Sect: 284):
rex ab suis appellatur (B. G. 8.4) , he is called king by his subjects. [Active
> sui eum regem appellant.]
Secondary Object
SECTION: #394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb.
SECTION: #395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition:
Caesar Germanos flumen traicit (B. C. 1.83) , Caesar throws the Germans across the river.
idem ius iurandum adigit Afranium ( id. 1.76), he exacts the same oath from Afranius.
quos Pompeiius omnia sua praesidia circumduxit ( id. 3.61), whom Pompey conducted through all his garrison.
NOTE 1.--This construction is common only with traduco, traicio, and transporto. The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trans, and usually with compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used:
donec res suas trans Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. 38.25) , till they should get their possessions across the river Halys.
( exercitus) Pado traiectus Cremonam ( id. 21.56), the army was conveyed across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, Sect: 429. a).
NOTE 2.--The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as,-- Belgae Rhenum traducti sunt (B. G. 2.4) , the Belgians were led over the Rhine.
NOTE 3.--The double construction indicated in Sect: 395 is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative,--the same which was formerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So traicio comes to mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):
gladio hominem traiecit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacio has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.]
Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iacio has become simply a verb of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from transeo.]
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if traiecit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative:
homo traiectus est gladio, the man was pierced with a sword.
Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
The poetical traiectus lora (Aen. 2.273) , pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions: (1) eum traiecit lora, he rove thongs through him,and (2) eum traiecit loris, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former ( lora) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter ( eum) is made the subject.
SECTION: #396. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing (secondary object):
me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion.
otium divos rogat (Hor. Od. 2.16.1) , he prays the gods for rest.
haec praetorem postulabas (Tull. 39) , you demanded this of the pr?"tor.
aedilis populum rogare (Liv. 6.42) , to ask the people [to elect] ?"diles.
docere pueros elementa, to teach children their A B C's.
NOTE.--This construction is found in classical authors with oro, posco, reposco, rogo, interrogo, flagito, doceo.
Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, peto ( ab), quaero ( ex, ab, de); usually posco ( ab), flagito ( ab), postulo ( ab), and occasionally others:
pacem ab Romanis petierunt (B. G. 2.13) , they sought peace from the Romans.
quod quaesivit ex me P. Apuleiius (Phil. 6.1) , what Publius Apuleius asked of me.
With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the person or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. N.2):
Caesar sententiam rogatus est, Caesar was asked his opinion.
id ab eo flagitabatur (B. C. 1.71) , this was urgently demanded of him.
NOTE.--The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogo, and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs:
fuerant hoc rogati; ( Cael. 64), they had been asked this.
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. 7.771) , I am asked for my Laelaps.
Cicero cuncta edoctus ( Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as,-- ne postulantur quidem vires a senectute (Cat. M. 34) , strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).
The verb celo, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive lateo, lie hid, an accusative of the person:
non te celavi sermonem T. Ampi; ( Fam. 2.16.3), I did not conceal from you the talk of Titus Ampius.
nec latuere doli fratrem Iunonis (Aen. 1.130) , nor did the wiles of Juno escape the notice of her brother.
NOTE 1.--The accusative of the person with lateo is late or poetical (Sect: 388. c. N.1).
NOTE 2.--All the double constructions indicated in å ¤ 396 arise from the wavering meaning of the verbs. Thus doceo means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person; celo, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rogo, to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary.
1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. traiecto fune (Aen. 5.488) .
Idiomatic Uses
SECTION: #397. The Accusative has the following special uses:
The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial Accusative):
id temporis, at that time; id ( istuc) aetatis, at that age.
id ( quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative).
meam vicem, on my part.
bonam partem, in a great measure; maximam partem, for the most part.
virile ( muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in apposition).
quod si, but if (as to which, if); quod nisi, if not.
The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected:
caput nectentur (Aen. 5.309) , their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound about the head).
ardentis oculos suffecti sanguine et igni; ( id. 2.210), their glaring eyes bloodshot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).
nuda genu ( id. 1.320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee).
femur tragula ictus (Liv. 21.7.10) , wounded in the thigh by a dart.
NOTE.--This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.
In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (Sect: 156. a):
inutile ferrum cingitur (Aen. 2.510) , he girds on the useless steel.
nodo sinus collecta fluentis ( id. 1.320), having her flowing folds gathered in a knot.
umeros insternor pelle leonis ( id. 2.722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's skin.
protinus induitur faciem cultum que Dianae (Ov. M. 2.425) , forthwith she assumes the shape and garb of Diana.
The Accusative is used in Exclamations:
o fortunatam rem publicam, O fortunate republic! [Cf. o fortunata mor<
> ( Phil. 14.31), oh, happy death! (Sect: 339. a).]
o me infelicem (Mil. 102) , oh, unhappy I!
me miserum, ah, wretched me!
en quattuor aras (Ecl. 5.65) , lo, four altars!
ellum (=em illum), there he is! [Cf. Sect: 146. a. N.2.]
eccos (= ecce eos), there they are, look at them!
pro deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods)!
hocine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304) , O this generation!
huncine hominem (Verr. 5.62) , this man, good heavens!
NOTE 1.--Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.
NOTE 2.--The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusatives. Such are:
salutem (sc. dicit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.
me dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith).
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. 2.7.116) , where can I get a stone?
quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12) , of what use to me is fortune? [No verb thought of.]
The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative:
intellego te sapere (Fam. 7.32.3) , I perceive that you are wise.
eas res iactari nolebat (B. G. 1.18) , he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed.
NOTE.--This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Sect: 580).
The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition with a clause:
deserunt tribunal ... manus intentantes, causam discordiae et initium armorum (Tac. Ann. 1.27) , they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists,-- a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
NOTE.--This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as,-- Eumenem prodidere Antiocho, pacis mercedem ( Sall. Ep. Mith. 8) , they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see Sect: 427.2; for the Accusative of Duration of Time and Extent of Space, see Sect: 423, 425; for the Accusative with Prepositions, see Sect: 220.
.ABLATIVE CASE
SECTION: #398. Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms of three cases,--the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM; the Locative, IN; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. These three cases were originally not wholly distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the development of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the phrases a parte dextera, ON the right; quam ob causam, FROM which cause; ad famam, AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in - e of the fifth declension (Sect: 96), and the loss of the original -d of the ablative (Sect: 49. e; cf. Sect: 43. N.1, 92. f, 214. a. N.).
The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be attached)is set forth in the following table:
I. Ablative Proper (from) (Separative): 1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (Sect: 400).
2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) (Sect: 403).
3. Of Cause ( laboro, exsilio, etc.) (Sect: 404).
4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (Sect: 405).
5. Of Comparison (THAN) (Sect: 406).
II. Instrumental Ablative (with): 1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (Sect: 408 ff.).
2. Of Object of the Deponents utor etc. (Sect: 410).
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (Sect: 413).
4. Of Degree of Difference (Sect: 414).
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (Sect: 415).
6. Of Price and Exchange (Sect: 416).
7. Of Specification (Sect: 418).
8. Ablative Absolute (Sect: 419).
III. Locative Ablative (in, on, at): 1. Of Place where (commonly with in) (Sect: 421).
2. Of Time and Circumstance (Sect: 423).
SECTION: #399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by:
liberare metu, to deliver from fear.
excultus doctrina, trained in learning.
hoc ipso tempore, at this very time.
caecus avaritia, blind with avarice.
occisus gladio, slain by the sword.
1 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative.
USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER
Ablative of Separation
SECTION: #400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by the ablative.
SECTION: #401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex):
oculis se privavit (Fin. 5.87) , he deprived himself of eyes.
omni Gallia Romanis interdicit (B. G. 1.46) , he ( Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.
ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vell. 2.45) , he is debarred the use of fire and water. [The regular formula of banishment.]
voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 7) , to lack enjoyments.
non egeo medicina (Lael. 10) , I want no physic.
levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. 1.63) , we are relieved from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.
soluti a cupiditatibus (Leg. Agr. 1.27) , freed from desires.
multos ex his incommodis pecunia se liberasse (Verr. 5.23) , that many have freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.
For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see Sect: 356. N.
SECTION: #402. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, ex, (1) take the simple Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a preposition (Sect: 426. 1):
(1) conatu desistere (B. G. 1.8) , to desist from the attempt.
desine communibus locis (Acad. 2.80) , quit commonplaces.
abire magistratu, to leave one's office.
abstinere iniuria, to refrain from wrong.
(2) a proposito aberrare (Fin. 5.83) , to wander from the point.
de provincia decedere (Verr. 2.48) , to withdraw from one's province.
ab iure abire ( id. 2.114), to go outside of the law.
ex civitate excessere (B. G. 6.8) , they departed from the state. [But cf. finibus suis excesserant ( id. 4.18), they had left their own territory.]
a magno demissum nomen Iulo; ( Aen. 1.288), a name descended (sent down) from great Iulus.
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see Sect: 381. For the Ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see Sect: 427. 1, 428. f.
Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the ablative:
urbs nuda praesidio (Att. 7.13) , the city naked of defence.
immunis militia (Liv. 1.43) , free of military service.
plebs orba tribunis (Leg. 3.9), the people deprived of tribunes.
NOTE.--A preposition sometimes occurs:
a culpa vacuus ( Sall. Cat. 14), free from blame.
liberi a deliciis (Leg. Agr. 1.27) , free from luxuries.
Messana ab his rebus vacua atque nuda est (Verr. 4.3) , Messana is empty and bare of these things.
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see Sect: 349. a.
Ablative of Source and Material
SECTION: #403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists:
1. Source:
Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. 4.10) , the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii.
ab his sermo oritur (Lael. 5) , the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
cuius rationis vim atque utilitatem ex illo caelesti Epicuri volumine accepimus (N. D. 1.43) , of this reasoning we have learned the power and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
suavitatem odorum qui afflarentur e floribus (Cat. M. 59) , the sweetness of the odors which breathed from the flowers.
2. Material:
erat totus ex fraude et mendacio factus (Clu. 72) , he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood.
valvas magnificentiores, ex auro atque ebore perfectiores (Verr. 4.124) , more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.
factum de cautibus antrum (Ov. M. 1.575) , a cave formed of rocks.
templum de marmore ponam (Georg. 3.13) , I'll build a temple of marble.
NOTE 1.--In poetry the preposition is often omitted.
NOTE 2.--The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. For the Genitive of Material, see Sect: 344.
Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla tive of Source, generally without a preposition:
Iove natus et Maia (N. D. 3.56) , son of Jupiter and Maia.
edite regibus (Hor. Od. 1.1.1) , descendant of kings.
quo sanguine cretus (Aen. 2.74) , born of what blood.
genitae Pandione (Ov. M. 6.666) , daughters of Pandion.
NOTE 1.--A preposition ( ab, de, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors:
ex me hic natus non est sed ex fratre meo; ( Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but my brother's (not born from me, etc.).
cum ex utraque [ uxore] filius natus esset (De Or. 1.183) , each wife having had a son (when a son had been born of each wife).
Belus et omnes a Belo (Aen. 1.730) , Belus and all his descendants.
NOTE 2.--Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as,-- desideravit C. Fleginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. 3.71) , he lost Caius Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli.
NOTE 3.--The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as,-- Q. Verrem Romilia (Verr. 1.23) , Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.
Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposition. Such are constare, consistere, and contineri.But with constare, ex is more common:
domus amoenitas non aedificio sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13) , the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.
ex animo constamus et corpore (Fin. 4.19) , we consist of soul and body.
vita corpore et spiritu continetur (Marc. 28) , life consists of body and spirit.
The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of:
quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. 2.1.42) , what are you going to do with this man?
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. 14.4.3) , what will become of my dear Tullia ?
quid te futurum est (Verr. 2.155) , what will become of you?
The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun:
non pauca pocula ex auro (Verr. 4.62) , not a few cups of gold.
scopulis pendentibus antrum (Aen. 1.166) , a cave of hanging rocks.
For Ablative of .Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see Sect: 346. c.
Ablative of Cause
SECTION: #404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause:
neglegentia plectimur (Lael. 85) , we are chastised for negligence.
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fin. 1.42) , the pilot s skill is praised for its service, not its skill.
certis de causis, for cogent reasons.
ex vulnere aeger (Rep. 2.38) , disabled by (from) a wound.
mare a sole lucet (Acad. 2.105) , the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).
The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with laboro (also with ex), exsilio, exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo:
doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. 4.3) , I am sorry that you suffer with other ills. [Cf. ex aere alieno laborare (B. C. 3.22) , to labor under debt (from another's money).]
exsultare laetitia, triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 14) , she began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy.
exsilui gaudio (Fam. 16.16) , I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrimo gaudio (Ter. Ad. 409) , I weep for joy.]
ardere dolore et ira (Att. 2.19.5) , to be on fire with pain and anger.
For gaudeo and glorior, see Sect: 431.
The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion often by obor propter with the accusative:
non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. 1.63) , not for booty or through lust of plunder.
amicitia ex se et propter se expetenda (Fin. 2.83) , friendship must be sought of and for itself.
NOTE.--But these constructions are often confused: as,-- parere legibus propter metum (Par. 34) , to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to ‰ Ûuthe terrors of the law" and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more natural.]
The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement:
ea causa, on account of this; qua gratia; ( Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose?
mea causa, for my sake; mea gratia; (Plaut.), for my sake.
ex mea et rei publicae causa, for my own sake and the republic's.
praedictionis causa; (N. D. 3.5), by way of prophecy.
exempli gratia; ( verbi gratia), for example.
sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.
NOTE.--But gratia with possessives in this use is rare.
Ablative of .Agent
SECTION: #405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with a or ab:
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. S. 1.2.11) , he is praised by these, blamed by those.
ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. 1.52) , whatever is done by your soul is done by yourself.
a filiis in iudicium vocatus est (Cat. M. 22) , he was brought to trial by his sons.
cum a cuncto consessu plausus esset multiplex datus ( id. 64), when great applause had been given by the whole audience.
ne virtus ab audacia vinceretur (Sest. 92) , that valor might not be overborne by audacity. [ Audacia is in a manner personified.]
NOTE 1.--This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent is conceived as the source or author of the action.
NOTE 2.--The ablative of the agent (which requires a or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition (Sect: 409). Thus -- occisus gladio, slain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
NOTE 3.--The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons, but it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.
The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intransitive verbs that have a passive sense:
perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.
The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or possessive:
ab exploratoribus certior factus est (B. G. 1.21) , he was informed by scouts (in person). But,--
per exploratores Caesar certior factus est ( id. 1.12), Caesar was informed by (means of) scouts.
elautae opera Neptuni (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of Neptune.
non mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228) , it hasn't happened through me (by my exertions). [Cf. eiius opera, B. G. 5.27.]
NOTE 1.--The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the ablative of agent, especially in military phrases: as,-- haec excubitoribus tenebantur (B. G. 7.69) , these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels.
NOTE 2.--An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, sometimes as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur:
equo vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.]
clipeos a muribus esse derosos (Div. 1.99) , that the shields were gnawed by mice.
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see Sect: 374.
Ablative of .Comparison
SECTION: #406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablativesignifying than:
Cato est Cicerone eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero.
quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 5) , what more burdened with toil than we two?
vilius argentum est auro, virtutibus aurum (Hor. Ep. 1.1.52) , silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtue.
The idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, dicto, aequo, credibili, and iusto are used after comparatives instead of a clause:
celerius opinione (Fam. 14.23) , faster than one would think.
serius spe omnium (Liv. 26.26) , later than all hoped (than the hope of all).
amnis solito citatior ( id. 23.19.11), a stream swifter than its wont.
gravius aequo ( Sall. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.
SECTION: #407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case<
>
non callidior es quam hic (Rosc. Am. 49) , you are not more cunning than he.
contionibus accommodatior est quam iudiciis (Clu. 2) , fitter for popular assemblies than for courts.
misericordia dignior quam contumelia (Pison. 32) , more worthy of pity than of disgrace.
The construction with quam is required when the first of the things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1.--There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement with a genitive, dative, or ablative: as,-- senex est eo meliore condicione quam adulescens (Cat. M. 68) , an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man; and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause: as,--minor fuit aliquanto is qui primus fabulam dedit quam ei qui, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc.
NOTE 2.--The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam: as,--pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. 1.10.11) , I now want bread better than honey-cakes.
NOTE 3.--Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative: as,-- rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iustior alter nec, etc. ( Aen. 1.544), Aeeas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.
In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative:
nihil detestabilius dedecore, nihil foedius servitute (Phil. 3.36) , nothing is more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.
neminem esse cariorem te ( Att. x. 8A. 1), that no one is dearer than you.
After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, without quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in its case:
plus septingenti capti; ( Liv. 41.12), more than seven hundred were taken. [Nominative.]
plus tertia parte interfecta; ( B. G. 3.6), more than a third part being slain. [Ablative Absolute.]
aditus in latitudinem non amplius ducentorum pedum relinquebatur ( id. 2.29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left. [Genitive of Measure: Sect: 345. b.]
NOTE.--The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative, which is in a sort of apposition: "seven hundred were taken [and] more.‰Û?
Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial use; in formal prose it is followed by ac ( atque), et, more rarely by nisi, quam:
nec quicquam aliud libertate communi; ( Fam. 11.2), nothing else than the common liberty.
alius Lysippo (Hor. Ep. 2.1.240) , another than Lysippus.
num aliud videtur esse ac meorum bonorum direptio; ( Dom. 51), does it seem anything different from the plundering of my property?
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio; (De O<
>. 2.52), history was nothing else but a compiling of records.
The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry:
tempus te citius quam oratio deficeret (Rosc. Am. 89) , time would fail you sooner than words. But,--
cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat (Hor. Od. 1.8.9) , why does he shun oil more carefully than viper's blood?
NOTE.--Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, supra) are sometimes used with a comparative: as,-- scelere ante alios immanior omnis (Aen. 1.347) , more monstrous in crime than all other men.
1 As natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, cretus, creatus, oriundus.
2 The ablative with consistere and contineri is probably locative in origin (cf. Sect: 431).
3 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, de, ex; but when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental).
4 Originally a mercantile use: cf. ob decem minas, for the price of ten min ae.
5 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything is compared is the starting-point from which we reckon. Thus, " Cicero is eloquent‰Û?; but, starting from him we come to Cato, who is "more so than he.?
USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS .INSTRUMENTAL
SECTION: #408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instrumental Ablative (see Sect: 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus orabant, they entreated with every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished from that of manner.
Ablative of Means or Instrument
SECTION: #409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action:
certantes pugnis, calcibus, unguibus, morsu denique (Tusc. 5.77) , fighting with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.
cum pugnis et calcibus concisus esset (Verr. 3.56) , when he had been pummelled with their fists and heels.
meis laboribus interitu rem publicam liberavi; ( Sull. 33), by my toils I have saved the state from ruin.
multae istarum arborum mea manu sunt satae (Cat. M. 59) , many of those trees were set out with my own hands.
vi victa vis, vel potius oppressa virtute audacia est (Mil. 30) , violence was overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.
The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, abounding, and the like:
Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Tim. 3) , God has filled the world with all good things.
aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. 7.86) , they fill up the ditches with earth and fascines.
totum montem hominibus complevit ( id. 1.24), he filled the whole mountain with men.
opimus praeda (Verr. 2.1.132) , rich with spoils.
vita plena et conferta voluptatibus ( Sest.23), life filled and crowded with delights.
Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. S. 1.5.4) , Forum Appii crammed with bargemen.
NOTE.--In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleo and impleo sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf. Sect: 356); so regularly plenus and (with personal nouns) completus and refertus (Sect: 349. a):
omnia plena luctus et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. 128) , everything was full of grief and mourning.
ollam denariorum implere (Fam. 9.18) , to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
convivium vicinorum compleo; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.
cum completus mercatorum carcer esset (Verr. 5.147) , when the prison was full of traders.
SECTION: #410. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several of their compounds,govern the Ablative:
utar vestra benignitate (Arch. 18) , I will avail myself of your kindness.
ita mihi salva re publica vobiscum perfrui liceat (Cat. 4.11) , so may I enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous.
fungi inani munere (Aen. 6.885) , to perform an idle service.
auro heros potitur (Ov. M. 7.156) , the hero takes the gold.
lacte et ferina carne vescebantur (Iug. 89) , they fed on milk and game.
NOTE.--This is properly an Ablative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are really in the middle voice (Sect: 156. a). Thus utor with the ablative signifies I employ myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.
Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to get control or be master of affairs (Sect: 357. a):
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. 1.3) , they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul.
NOTE 1.--In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative:
functus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281) , he performed the part, etc.
ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871) , he enjoys his ancestral estate.
NOTE 2.--The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but cf. Sect: 500. 3): as,-- Heraclio omnia utenda ac possidenda tradiderat (Verr. 2.46) , he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and possessed).
SECTION: #411. Opus and usus, signifying need, take the Ablative:
magistratibus opus est (Leg. 3.5), there is need of magistrates.
nunc viribus usus (Aen. 8.441) , now there is need of strength.
NOTE.--The ablative with usus is not common in classic prose.
With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun:
opus est tua exprompta malitia atque astutia; ( Ter. And. 723), I must have your best cunning and cleverness set to work.
properato opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.
NOTE 1.--So rarely with usus in comedy: as,-- quid istis usust conscriptis (Pl. Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing?
NOTE 2.--The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions: as,-- quid opus factost (cf. B. G. 1.42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fieri? with quo facto opus est?]
Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject:
dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. 2.6.4) , we need a chief and responsible adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us).
si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. 1.34) , if he himself wanted anything (if anything should be necessary for him).
quae opus sunt ( Cato R. R. 14.3) , things which are required.
Ablative of Manner
SECTION: #412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative; usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun:
cum celeritate venit, he came with speed. But,--
summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed.
quid refert qua me ratione cogatis (Lael. 26) , what difference does it make in what way you compel me?
But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adjective:
quanto id cum periculo fecerit (B. G. 1.17) , at what risk he did this.
non minore cum taedio recubant (Plin. Ep. 9.17.3) , they recline with no less weariness.
With such words of manner as modo, pacto, ratione, ritu, vi, via, and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silentio, iure, iniuria), cum is not used:
apis Matinae more modoque carmina fingo; ( Hor. Od. 4.2.28), in the style and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.
NOTE.--So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as,-- insequitur cumulo aquae mons (Aen. 1.105) , a mountain of water follows in a mass. [Cf. murmure ( id. 1.124); rimis ( id. 1.123).]
Ablative of Accompaniment
SECTION: #413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum:
cum coniugibus ac liberis (Att. 8.2.3) , with wives and children.
cum funditoribus sagittariis que flumen transgressi; ( B. G. 2.19), having crossed the river with the archers and slingers.
quae supplicatio si cum ceteris conferatur (Cat. 3.15) , if this thanksgiving be compared with others.
quae [ lex] esse cum telo vetat (Mil. 11) , the law which forbids [one] to go armed (be with a weapon).
si secum suos eduxerit (Cat. 1.30) , if he leads out with him his associates. [For secum, see Sect: 144. b. N.1.]
The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and here and there by early writers:
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (B. G. 2.19) , he followed close with all his forces. [But also cum omnibus copiis, id. 1.26.]
hoc praesidio profectus est (Verr. 2.1.86) , with this force he set out.
NOTE.-- Misceo and iungo, with some of their compounds, and confundo take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative (mostly poetical or late):
mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56) , pleasure mingled with pain.
cuius animum cum suo misceat (Lael. 81) , whose soul he may mingle with his own.
fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. M. 4.140) , and mingled tears with blood.
Caesar eas cohortis cum exercitu suo coniunxit (B. C. 1.18) , Caesar united those cohorts with his own army.
aer coniunctus terris (Lucr. 5.562) , air united with earth.
humano capiti cervicem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. 1) , to join to a human head a horse's neck.
Words of Contention and the like require cum:
armis cum hoste certare (Off. 3.87) , to fight with the enemy in arms.
libenter haec cum Q. Catulo disputarem (Manil. 66) , I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus.
NOTE.--But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see Sect: 368. a).
Ablative of Degree of Difference
SECTION: #414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference:
quinque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant.
a milibus passuum circiter duobus (B. G. 5.32) , at a distance of about two miles. [For a as an adverb, see Sect: 433. 3.]
aliquot ante annis (Tusc. 1.4) , several years before.
aliquanto post suspexit (Rep. 6.9) , a while after, he looked up.
multo me vigilare acrius (Cat. 1.8) , that I watch much more sharply.
nihilo erat ipse Cyclops quam aries prudentior (Tusc. 5.115) , the Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
The ablatives quo ... eo ( hoc), and quanto ... tanto, are used correlatively with comparatives, like the English the ... the:
quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. 24.28) , the less greed, the more weight (by what the less, by that the more).
quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur (B. G. 5.45) , the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.
NOTE.--To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quo and eo ( hoc) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause:
eoque me minus paenitet (N. D. 1.8) , and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so much the less I regret).
haec eo facilius faciebant, quod (B. G. 3.12) , this they did the more easily for this reason, because, etc. [Cf. hoc maiore spe, quod
The Ablative of Comparison (Sect: 406) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective:
paulo minus ducentis (B. C. 3.28) , a little less than two hundred.
patria, quae mihi vita mea multo est carior (Cat. 1.27) , my country, which is much dearer to me than life.
But the construction with quam is more common.
Ablative of Quality
SECTION: #415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive modifier.
This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality:
animo meliore sunt gladiatores (Cat. 2.26) , the gladiators are of a better mind.
quae cum esset civitas aequissimo iure ac foedere (Arch. 6) , as this was a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.
mulierem eximia pulchritudine (Verr. 2.1.64) , a woman of rare beauty.
Aristoteles, vir summo ingenio, scientia, copia (Tusc. 1.7) , Aristotle, a man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.
de Domitio dixit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. 25) , concerning Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.
NOTE.--The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, Sect: 345) modifies a substantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs.
In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative (cf. Sect: 345. N.):
capillo sunt promisso (B. G. 5.14) , they have long hair.
ut capite operto sit (Cat. M. 34) , to have his head covered (to be with covered head).
quam fuit inbecillus P. africani filius, quam tenui aut nulla potius valetudine ( id. 35), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or rather none at all!
Ablative of Price
SECTION: #416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative:
agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces.
Antonius regna addixit pecunia (Phil. 7.15) , Antony sold thrones for money.
logos ridiculos: quis cena poscit (Pl. Stich. 221) , jokes: who wants them for (at the price of) a dinner?
magno illi ea cunctatio stetit (Liv. 2.36) , that hesitation cost him dear.
NOTE.--To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (Sect: 353. 1).
SECTION: #417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to denote indefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris:
mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me.
illud parvi refert (Manil. 18) , this is of small account.
est mihi tanti (Cat. 2.15) , it is worth the price (it is of so much).
Verresne tibi tanti fuit (Verr. 2.1.77) , was Verres of so much account to you?
tantone minoris decumae venierunt ( id. 3.106), were the tithes sold for so much less?
ut te redimas captum quam queas minimo: si nequeas paululo, at quanti queas (Ter. Eun. 74) , to ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheapest rate you can; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.
NOTE.--These are really Genitives of Quality (Sect: 345. b).
The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefinite value. Such are nihili ( nili), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare); flocci (a lock of wool), a straw:
non flocci facio; ( Att. 13.50), I care not a straw. [Colloquial.]
utinam ego istuc abs te factum nili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94) , O that I cared nothing for this being done by you! [Colloquial.]
With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are muto, commuto, permuto, verto:
fidem suam et religionem pecunia commutare (Clu. 129) , to barter his faith and conscience for money.
exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q. C. 3.7.11) , he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).
velox saepe Lucretilem mutat Lycaeo Faunus (Hor. Od. 1.17.1) , nimble Faunus often changes Lyc?"us for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at the price of Lycaeus, i.e. he goes from Lycaeus to Lucretilis.]
vertere funeribus triumphos ( id. 1.35.4), to change the triumph to the funeral train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]
NOTE.--With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different conception of the action: as,--aries ... cum croceo mutabit vellera luto (Ecl. 4.44) , the ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron.
With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris:
quanti eam emit? vili ... quot minis? quadraginta minis (Pl. Epid. 51) , what did he buy her for? Cheap. For how many min?"? Forty.
Ablative of Specification
SECTION: #418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done:
virtute praecedunt (B. G. 1.1) , they excel in courage.
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages. 8) , lame of one foot.
lingua haesitantes, voce absoni; (De Or. 1.115), hesitating in speech, harsh in voice.
sunt enim homines non re sed nomine (Off. 1.105) , for they are men not in fact, but in name.
maior natu, older; minor natu, younger (cf. Sect: 131. c).
paulum aetate progressi; (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.
corpore senex esse poterit, animo numquam erit ( id. 38), he may be an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart.
To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done:
meo iure, with perfect right; but, meo modo, in my fashion.
mea sententia, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea sententia. [Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the second source.]
propinquitate coniunctos atque natura (Lael. 50) , closely allied by kindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, but no doubt is a development of means.]
qui vincit viribus ( id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior.]
NOTE.--As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instrumental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and cause.
For the Supine in -u as an Ablative of Specification, see Sect: 510.
The adjectives dignus and indignus take the ablative:
vir patre, avo, maioribus suis dignissimus (Phil. 3.25) , a man most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
te omni honore indignissimum iudicavit (Vat. 39) , he judged you entirely unworthy of every honor.
NOTE 1.--So the verb dignor in poetry and later prose: as,-- haud equidem tali me dignor honore (Aen. 1.335) , I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor.
NOTE 2.-- Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and in poetry:
curam dignissimam tuae virtutis ( Balbus in Att. 8.15), care most worthy of your noble character.
dignus salutis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety.
magnorum haud umquam indignus avorum (Aen. 12.649) , never unworthy of my great ancestors.
Ablative .Absolute
SECTION: #419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute:
Caesar, acceptis litteris, nuntium mittit (B. G. 5.46) , having received the letter, Caesar sends a messenger (the letter having been received).
quibus rebus cognitis Caesar apud milites contionatur (B. C. 1.7) , having learned this, Caesar makes a speech to the soldiers.
fugato omni equitatu (B. G. 7.68) , all the cavalry being put to flight.
interfecto Indutiomaro ( id. 6.2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.
nondum hieme confecta in finis Nerviorum contendit ( id. 6.3), though the winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii.
compressi [ sunt] conatus nullo tumultu publice concitato (Cat. 1.11) , the attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.
ne vobis quidem omnibus re etiam tum probata ( id. 2.4), since at that time the facts were not yet proved even to all of you.
NOTE.--The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is, however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name absolute ( absolutus, i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the Ablative Absolute construction:
exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. 4.20) , when but a small part of the summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).
L. Domitio Ap. Claudio consulibus ( id. 5.1), in the consulship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius ( Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being] consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see Sect: 424. g.]
nil desperandum Teucro duce et auspice Teucro (Hor. Od. 1.7.27) , there should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and auspices ( Teucer being leader, etc.).
A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective:
incerto quid peterent (Liv. 28.36) , as it was uncertain what they should aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
comperto vanum esse formidinem (Tac. Ann. 1.66) , when it was found that the alarm was groundless.
cur praetereatur demonstrato (Inv. 2.34) , when the reason for omitting it has been explained (why it is passed by being explained).
NOTE.--This construction is very rare except in later Latin.
A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive:
consulto (Off. 1.27) , on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on).
mihi optato veneris (Att. 13.28.3) , you will come in accordance with my wish.
sereno (Liv. 31.12) , under a clear sky (it [being] clear).
nec auspicato nec litato ( id. 5.38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice.
tranquillo, ut aiunt, quilibet gubernator est (Sen. Ep. 85.34) , in good weather, as they say, any man's a pilot.
SECTION: #420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub ordinate Clause.
Thus it may replace:
1. A Temporal Clause (Sect: 541 ff.):
patre interfecto, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.]
recentibus sceleris eiius vestigiis (Q. C. 7.1.1) , while the traces of the crime were fresh. [Cf. dum recentia sunt vestigia.]
2. A Causal Clause (Sect: 540):
at ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur praeterita die qua auxilia suorum exspectaverant, consumpto omni frumento, concilio coacto consultabant (B. G. 7.77) , but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (seebelow), consulted together. [Cf. cum dies praeterisset, etc.]
Dareus, desperata pace, ad reparandas viris intendit animum (Q. C. 4.6.1) , Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting his forces. [Cf. cum pacem desperaret.]
3. A Concessive Clause (Sect: 527):
at eo repugnante fiebat ( consul), immo vero eo fiebat magis (Mil. 34) , but though he ( Clodius) opposed, he ( Milo) was likely to be elected consul; nay, rather, etc.
turribus excitatis, tamen has altitudo puppium ex barbaris navibus superabat (B. G. 3.14) , although towers had been built up, still the high sterns of the enemy's ships rose above them.
4. A Conditional Clause (Sect: 521):
occurrebat ei, mancam et debilem praeturam futuram suam, consule Milone (Mil. 25) , it occurred to him that his pr?"torship would be maimed and feeble, if Milo were consul. [ si Milo consul esset.]
qua ( regione) subacta licebit decurrere in illud mare (Q. C. 9.3.13), if this region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea.
qua quidem detracta (Arch. 28) , if this be taken away.
5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance:
ego haec a Chrysogono mea sponte, remoto Sex. Roscio, quaero; ( Rosc. Am. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius ( Sextus Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus.
nec imperante nec sciente nec praesente domino (Mil. 29) , without their master's giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.
NOTE.--As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Ablative Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle. These changes may be seen in the following example:
At illi, intermisso spatio, imprudentibus nostris atque occupatis in munitione castrorum, subito se ex silvis eiecerunt; impetu que in eos facto qui erant in statione pro castris conlocati, acriter pugnaverunt; duabusque missis subsidio cohortibus a Caesare, cum hae ( perexiguo intermisso loce Ç spatio inter se) constitissent, novo genere pugnae perterritis nostris, per medios audacissime perruperunt seque inde incolumis receperunt.-- CAESAR, B. G. 5.15.
But they, having paused a space, while our men were unaware and busied in fortifying the camp, suddenly threw themselves out of the woods; then, making an attack upon those who were on guard in front of the camp, they fought fiercely; and, though two cohorts had been sent by Caesar as reinforcements, after these had taken their position (leaving very little space of ground between them), as our men were alarmed by the strange kind of fighting, they dashed most daringly through the midst of them and got off safe.
For the Ablative with Prepositions, see Sect: 220.
1 These are abutor, deutor (very rare), defungor, defruor, perfruor, perfungor.
2 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and usus mean work and service, and the ablative expresses that with which the work is performed or the service rendered. The noun usus follows the analogy of the verb utor, and the ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with usus est.
3 In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the Anglo- Saxon thy, the instrumental case of the pronoun thaet, that. This pronoun is used both as relative (by which, by how much) and as demonstrative (by that, by so much). Thus the ... the corresponds exactly to quo ... eo.
4 It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompaniment (Sect: 413) and manner (Sect: 412).
5 The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, sometimes explained as an outgrowth of the locative, and in any event certain locative constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development.
6 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (Sect: 170. b), is used in Sanskrit and Greek as in English.
.ABLATIVE AS .LOCATIVE
Ablative of Place
SECTION: #421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place). But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in most instances with the preposition in.
SECTION: #422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Locative), which are systematically treated in Sect: 423 ff.
.TIME AND .PLACE
Time
SECTION: #423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Ablative; time how long by the Accusative.
1. Ablative:
constituta die, on the appointed day; pre Çmè÷ luce, at daybreak.
quota hora, at what o'clock? tertia vigilia, in the third watch.
tribus proximis annis (Iug. 11) , within the last three years.
diebus viginti quinque aggerem exstruxerunt (B. G. 7.24) , within twentyfive days they finished building a mound.
2. Accusative:
dies continuos triginta, for thirty days together.
cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. 2.16) , when he had marched three days.
NOTE.--The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin (Sect: 421); the Accusative is the same as that of the extent of space (Sect: 425).
SECTION: #424. Special constructions of time are the following:
The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision:
in diebus proximis decem (Iug. 28) , within the next ten days.
ludi per decem dies (Cat. 3.20) , games for ten days.
Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative:
milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. 1.47) , the men had sustained the fight five hours.
NOTE.--In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annos quattuordecim ( B. G. 1.36), for fourteen years.
Time during which or within which may be expressed by the Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral:
quinto die, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans counted both ends, see Sect: 631. d.]
regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years.
Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when where in English the main idea is rather of place:
pugna Cannensi; (or, apud Cannas), in the fight at Cann?"
ludis Romanis, at the Roman games.
omnibus Gallicis bellis, in all the Gallic wars.
In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad, in, or sub is used. Such are the following:
supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas Ianuarias, a thanksgiving was voted for the first of January.
convenerunt ad diem, they assembled on the [appointed] day.
ad vesperum, till evening; sub vesperum, towards evening.
sub idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, at nightfall.
Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed:
post ( ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertium post annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno (Sect: 414), three years after.
tribus annis ( tertio anno) post exsilium ( postquam eiectus est), three years after his exile.
his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years.
paucis annis, a few years hence.
abhinc annos tres ( tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago.
triennium est cum ( tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since.
octavo mense quam, the eighth month after (see Sect: 434. N.).
In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition; and the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.
The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, usually without a conjunction (Sect: 419. a):
is dies erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. ( quintum Kalendas Aprilis) L. Pisone A. Gabinio consulibus (B. G. 1.6) , that day was the 5th before the calends of April (March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius.
in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. 1.7) , to the 5th day before the calends of November (Oct. 28).
xv. Kal. Sextilis, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full form: quinto decimo die ante Kalendas.]
For the Roman Calendar, see Sect: 631.
Extent of Space
SECTION: #425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative:
fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. 7.72) , trenches fifteen feet broad.
progressus milia passuum circiter duodecim ( id. 5.9), having advanced about twelve miles.
in omni vita sua quemque a recta conscientia transversum unguem non oportet discedere (quoted in Att. 13.20), in all one's life, one should not depart a nail's breadth from straightforward conscience.
NOTE.--This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes place and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (Sect: 427. 2).
Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (Sect: 345. b):
vallum duodecim pedum (B. G. 7.72) , a rampart of twelve feet (in height).
Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accusative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative (Sect: 414):
milia passuum tria ab eorum castris castra ponit (B. G. 1.22) , he pitches his camp three miles from their camp.
quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. 30.29) , it is distant five days' march.
triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. 6.35) , thirty miles below that place (below by thirty miles).
Relations of Place
SECTION: #426. Relations of Placeare expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, de, or ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with <
>d or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
Examples are:
1. Place from which:
a septentrione, from the north.
cum a vobis discessero; (Cat. M. 79), when I leave you.
de provincia decedere, to come away from one's province.
de monte, down from the mountain.
negotiator ex africa (Verr. 2.1.14) , a merchant from Africa.
ex Britannia obsides miserunt (B. G. 4.38) , they sent hostages from Britain.
Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego; ( id. 4.10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in the Vosges mountains.
2. Place to which (end of motion):
nocte ad Nervios pervenerunt (B. G. 2.17) , they came by night to the Nervii.
adibam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82) , I was going to that estate.
in africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa; in Italiam profectus, gone to Italy.
legatum in Treveros mittit (B. G. 3.11) , he sends his lieutenant into the [country of the] Treveri.
3. Place where:
in hac urbe vitam degit, he passed his life in this city.
si in Gallia remanerent (B. G. 4.8) , if they remained in Gaul.
dum haec in Venetis geruntur ( id. 3.17), while this was going on among the Veneti.
oppidum in insula positum ( id. 7.58), a town situated on an island.
SECTION: #427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rus, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative.
Examples are:
1. Place from which:
Roma profectus, having set out from Rome; Roma abesse, to be absent from Rome.
domo abire, to leave home; r? Çre reversus, having returned from the country.
2. Place to which:
cum Romam sexto die Mutina venisset (Fam. 11.6.1) , when he had come to Rome from Modena in five days (on the sixth day).
Delo Rhodum navigare, to sail from Delos to Rhodes.
rus ibo, I shall go into the country.
domum iit, he went home.[So, suas domos abire, to go to their homes.]
3. Place where (or at which):
Romae, at Rome ( Roma). Athenis, at Athens ( Athenae).
Rhodi, at Rhodes ( Rhodus). Lanuvi, at Lanuvium.
Sami, at Samos. Cypri, at Cyprus.
Tiburi or Tibure, at Tibur. Curibus, at Cures.
Philippis, at Philippi. Capreis, at Capri ( Capreae).
domi (rarely domui), at home. ruri, in the country.
The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns, which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition:
belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service.
humi, on the ground. vesperi (-e), in the evening.
foris, out of doors. animi (see Sect: 358).
heri (-e), yesterday. temperi, betimes.
Cf. infelici arbori; ( Liv. 1.26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terra marique, by land and sea.
SECTION: #428. Special uses of place from which, to which, and where are the following:
With names of towns and small islands ab is often used to denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neighborhood of:
ut a Mutina discederet (Phil. 14.4) , that he should retire from Modena (which he was besieging).
erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. 7.45) , there was from about Gergovia a view into the camp.
ad Alesiam proficiscuntur ( id. 7.76), they set out for Alesia.
ad Alesiam perveniunt ( id. 7.79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighborhood of the town).
D. Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit (B. C. 3.100) , Decimus L?"lius came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).
The general words urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition to express the place from which, to which, or where:
ab ( ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city.
ad urbem, to the city. Romae in urbe, in the city of Rome.
in urbem, into the city. Roma ex urbe, from the city of Rome.
ad urbem Romam ( Romam ad urbem), to the city of Rome.
With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders; in with the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away from the outside; ex, out of the interior.
Thus ad Italiam pervenit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of the destination; in Italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome, for instance.
So ab I talia profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point; ex I talia, he came from Italy, from within, as from Rome, for instance.
With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed by ad or apud with the accusative.
pugna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae.
conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. 2.22) , at Caieta (along the shore).
ad ( apud) inferos, in the world below (near, or among, those below).
ad foris, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door.
NOTE 1.--In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circa with the accusative; among, by apud with the accusative:
apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house.
apud Solensis (Leg. 2.41), at Soli. circa Capuam, round about Capua.
N OTE 2.--In citing an author, apud is regularly used; in citing a particular work, in. Thus,-- apud Xenophontem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophontis Oeconomico, in Xenophon's ?'conomicus
Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and not as a locality, are treated like names of countries:
in Sicilia, in Sicily.
in Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N. 8.226) , in Ithaca hares, when carried there, die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae.]
The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place from which in certain idiomatic expressions:
cessisset patria (Mil. 68) , he would have left his country.
patria pellere, to drive out of the country.
manu mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).
The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the place from which or to which when it would be required in classical prose:
manis Acheronte remissos (Aen. 5.99) , the spirits returned from Acheron.
Scythia profecti; (Q. C. 4.12.11), setting out from Scythia.
Italiam ... Laviniaque venit litora (Aen. 1.2) , he came to Italy and the Lavinian shores.
terram Hesperiam venies ( id. 2.781, you shall come to the Hesperian land.
Aegyptum proficiscitur (Tac. Ann. 2.59) , he sets out for Egypt.
In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative, occasionally also in later prose:
it clamor caelo (Aen. 5.451) , a shout goes up to the sky.
facilis descensus Averno ( id. 6.126), easy is the descent to Avernus.
diadema capiti reponere iussit (Val. Max. 5.1.9), he ordered him to put back the diadem on his head.
The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (Sect: 509) and in the following old phrases:
exsequias ire, to go to the funeral. infitias ire, to resort to denial.
pessum ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdo).
venum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vendere.]
venum ire, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence venire.]
foras (used as adverb), out: as,-- foras egredi, to go out of doors.
suppetias advenire, to come to one's assistance.
When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction:
quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Vola terras defertur (Rosc. Am. 20) , within four days after this was done,th matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla's camp AT Volaterr?".
NOTE.--The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k, N.).
Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domi, may be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive:
domum regis (Deiot. 17) , to the king's house. [But also in M. Laecae domum (Cat. 1.8) , to Marcus L?"ca's house.]
domi meae, at my house; domi Caesaris, at Caesar's house.
domi suae vel alienae, at his own or another's house.
NOTE.--At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in domum or in domo is used:
in domum privatam conveniunt ( Tac. H. 4.55), they come to gether in a private house.
in Marci Crassi castissima domo (Cael. 9) , in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus. [Cf. ex Anniana Milonis domo, Sect: 302. e.]
SECTION: #429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition in the following instances:
1. Often in indefinite words, such as loco, parte, etc.:
quibus loco positi<
> (De Or. 3.153), when these are set in position.
qua parte belli vicerant (Liv. 21.22) , the branch of warfare in which they were victorious.
locis certis horrea constituit (B. C. 3.32) , he established granaries in particular places.
2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regularly when totus is used):
media urbe (Liv. 1.33) , in the middle of the city.
tota Sicilia (Verr. 4.51) , throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily).
tota Tarracina (De Or. 2.240) , in all Tarracina.
cuncta Asia atque Graecia (Manil. 12) , throughout the whole of Asia and Greece too.
3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place:
pendemus animis (Tusc. 1.96) , we are in suspense of mind (in our minds).
socius periculis vobiscum adero; (Iug. 85.47), I will be present with you, a companion in dangers.
4. Freely in poetry:
litore curvo; ( Aen. 3.16), on the winding shore.
antro seclusa relinquit ( id. 3.446), she leaves them shut up in the cave.
Epiro, Hesperia ( id. 3.503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.
premit altum corde dolorem ( id. 1.209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart.
The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition:
via breviore equites praemisi; ( Fam. 10.9), I sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road.
Aegaeo mari traiecit (Liv. 37.14) , he crossed by way of the Aegean Sea.
provehimur pelago (Aen. 3.506) , we sail forth over the sea.
NOTE.--In this use the way by which is conceived as the means of passage.
Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely ex), properly meaning from:
a tergo, in the rear; a sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.]
a parte Pompeiiana, on the side of Pompey.
ex altera parte, on the other side.
magna ex parte, in a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part).
SECTION: #430. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the construction of the place where:
Such are pono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo, etc.:
qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Par. 25) , who put [one] into his place and home.
statuitur eques Romanus in Aproni convivio (Verr. 3.62) , a Roman knight is brought into a banquet of Apronius.
insula Delos in Aegaeo mari posita (Manil. 55) , the island of Delos, situated in the Ì gean Sea.
si in uno Pompeiio omnia poneretis ( id. 59), if you made everything depend on Pompey alone.
NOTE.--Compounds of pono take various constructions (see the Lexicon under each word).
SECTION: #431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative.
These are acquiesco, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nitor, sto, maneo, fido, confido, consisto, contineor.
nominibus veterum gloriantur (Or. 169) , they glory in the names of the ancients. [Also, de divitiis (in virtute, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriari.]
spe niti; ( Att. 3.9), to rely on hope.
prudentia fidens (Off. 1.81) , trusting in prudence.
NOTE.--The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fido in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus,--in quibus causa nititur (Cael. 25) , on whom the case depends.
With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For fido and confido with the Dative, see Sect: 367.
The verbals fretus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Ablative:
fretus gratia Bruti; ( Att. 5.21.12), relying on the favor of Brutus.
laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty.
contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.]
non fuit contentus gloria (Dom. 101) , he was not content with the glory.
NOTE.--So intentus, rarely: as,-- aliquo negotio intentus ( Sall. Cat. 2), intent on some occupation.
.SPECIAL USES OF .PREPOSITIONS
1 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative, in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion; the ablative, in its proper meaning of separation, denoted the place from which, and, in its locative function, the place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define more exactly the direction of motion (as in to usward, toward us), and by long association became indispensable except as indicated below.
2 The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.)
3 The English home in this construction is, like domum, an old accusative of the end of motion.
4 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes.
5 For a list of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see Sect: 221.
Adverbs and Prepositions
SECTION: #432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as Prepositions:
The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, less frequently the adjectives propior and proximus, may be followed by the Accusative:
pridie Nonas Maias (Att. 2.11) , the day before the Nones of May (see Sect: 631).
postridie ludos (Att. 16.4) , the day after the games.
propius periculum (Liv. 21.1) , nearer to danger.
propior montem (Iug. 49) , nearer the hill.
proximus mare oceanum (B. G. 3.7) , nearest the ocean.
NOTE.-- Pridie and postridie take also the Genitive (Sect: 359. b). Propior, propius, proximus, and proxime, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab:
propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis (Nep. Hann. 8) , nearer to the Tiber than to Thermopylae.
Sugambri qui sunt proximi Rheno (B. G. 6.35) , the Sugambri, who are nearest to the Rhine.
proximus a postremo (Or. 217) , next to the last.
? »sque sometimes takes the Accusative, but usque ad is much more common:
terminos usque Libyae (Iust. 1.1.5), to the bounds of Libya.
usque ad castra hostium (B. G. 1.51) , to the enemy's camp.
The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions and take the Ablative:
rem creditori palam populo solvit (Liv. 6.14) , he paid the debt to his creditor in the presence of the people.
haud procul castris in modum municipi exstructa (Tac. H. 4.22) , not far from the camp, built up like a town.
simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. 5.10.29), close among us dwells the barbarian.
NOTE.--But simul regularly takes cum; procul is usually followed by ab in classic writers; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative, also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the Ablative:
clam matrem suam (Pl. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother.
clam patris ( id. Merc. 43), without his father's knowledge.
clam vobis ( B. C. 2.32.8), without your knowledge.
SECTION: #433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs:
1. Ante and post in relations of time:
quos paulo ante diximus (Brut. 32) , whom I mentioned a little while ago.
post tribus diebus, three days after (cf. Sect: 424. f).
2. Adversus, circiter, prope:
nemo adversus ibat (Liv. 37.13.8) , no one went out in opposition.
circiter pars quarta ( Sall. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.
prope exanimatus, nearly lifeless.
3. a or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of Degree of Difference (Sect: 414):
a milibus passuum circiter duobus Romanorum adventum exspectabant (B. G. 5.32) , at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they awaited the approach of the Romans.
4. In general, prepositions ending in -a:
Aeolus haec contra (Aen. 1.76) , thus Aeolus in reply.
forte fuit iuxta tumulus ( id. 3.22), there happened to be a mound close by.
SECTION: #434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated by several words, or even clauses.
Such words are ante, prius, post, postea, pridie, postridie; also magis and prae in compounds:
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. 39.10) , nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge.
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44) , the third day after he said it.
Cato ipse iam servire quam pugnare mavult (Att. 7.15) , Cato himself by this time had rather be a slave than fight.
Gallorum quam Romanorum imperia praeferre (B. G. 1.17) , [they] prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
NOTE.--The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way (Sect: 424. f): as,--octavo mense quam (Liv. 21.15) , within eight months after, etc.
SECTION: #435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their nouns: ad, citra, circum, contra, de, e ( ex), inter, iuxta, penes, propter, ultra; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others:
[ usus] quem penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendi; ( Hor. A. P. 72), custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech.
cuius a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (Cat. M. 84) , whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary (contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him.
SYNTAX OF THE .VERB
.MOODS AND .TENSES
SECTION: #436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, Sect: 517. c; future for imperative, Sect: 449. b); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future conditions, Sect: 516. b, and notice the want of a future subjunctive).
The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of terminations, -a-m, -a-s, in the present tense ( moneam, dicam), and -e-m, - e-s, in the present ( amem) or other tenses ( essem, dixissem). The Optative was formed by ie-, i-, with the present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect ( dixerim). (See details in Sect: Sect: 168, 169.)
Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Subjunctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action vividly conceived; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and of action vaguely conceived.
It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the subjunctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was afterwards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have taken place in English. Thus, the expression I would do this has become equivalent to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact (Sect: 517): if I were you, etc. By further analysis, I would do is seen to have meant, originally, I should have wished (or I did wish) to do.
In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed,and to these the original as well as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see Sect: 438). All the independent uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.
The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most frequently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as a more complete expression of a complex idea (Sect: 268). Thus a question implying a general negative ( quin rogem? why should n't I ask?) might have the general negative expressed in a prefixed statement ( nulla causa est, there is no reason); or abeat, let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly disappears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in misit legatos qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose. Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you remove, etc.).
The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun (Sect: 451), modifying a verb like other nouns: volo videre, lit. "I wish for-seeing‰Û?: compare English "what went ye out for to see?"But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods.
The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various ways, which are treated under their respective heads below.
The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified:
I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (Sect: 437).
II. Subjunctive: a. Independent Uses: 1. Exhortation or Command (Sect: 439).
2. Concession (Sect: 440).
3. Wish (Sect: 441).
4. Question of Doubt etc. (Sect: 444).
5. Possibility or Contingency (Sect: 446).
b. Dependent Uses: 1. Conditions Future (less vivid) (Sect: 516. b, c). Contrary to Fact (Sect: 517).
2. Purpose (with ut, ne) (Sect: 531).
3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (Sect: 535).
4. Result (with ut, ut non) (Sect: 537).
5. Time (with cum) (Sect: 546).
6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (Sect: 592).
7. Indirect Questions or Commands (Sect: 574, 588).
III. Imperative: 1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (Sect: 448).
2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (Sect: 449. 2).
3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (Sect: 450. a).
IV. Infinitive: a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (Sect: 452, 454).
b. Objective Constructions: 1. Complementary Infinitive (Sect: 456).
2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative) (Sect: 580).
c. Idiomatic Uses: 1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (Sect: 460).
2. Exclamation (with Subject Accusative) (Sect: 462).
3. Historical Infinitive (Sect: 463).
MOODS
For the signification of the tense-endings, see Sect: 168, 169.
SECTION: #437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or questions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that of time.
The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest the Subjunctive:
longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satius erat, it would have been better [if, etc.]; persequi possum, I might follow up [in detail].
NOTE.--Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (Sect: 463), and (2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (Sect: 580).
For the Indicative in Conditions, see Sect: 515, 516; for the Indicative in implied Commands, see Sect: 449. b.
1 For the signification of the tense-endings, see Sect: 168, 169.
.INDICATIVE MOOD
SECTION: #438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modificationsuch as is expressed in English by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (Sect: 157. b).
The Subjunctive is used independently to express:/p>
1. An Exhortation or Command (Hortatory Subjunctive: Sect: 439).
2. A Concession (Concessive Subjunctive: Sect: 440).
3. A Wish (Optative Subjunctive: Sect: 441).
4. A Question of Doubt etc. (Deliberative Subjunctive: Sect: 444).
5. A Possibility or Contingency (Potential Subjunctive: Sect: 446).
For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apodosis, see Sect: 514.
The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express:/p>
1. Condition: future or contrary to fact (Sect: 516. b, c, 517).
2. Purpose (Final, Sect: 531).
3. Characteristic (Sect: 535).
4. Result (Consecutive, Sect: 537).
5. Time (Temporal, Sect: 546).
6. Indirect Question (Sect: 574).
The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Comparison (Sect: 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (Sect: 580).
.SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES
.Hortatory Subjunctive
SECTION: #439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is ne.
hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. 7.38) , let us kill these robbers.
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. 1.122) , let them shun excess and cherish modesty.
NOTE 1.--The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in prohibitions: Sect: 450): as,-- Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. 2.19) , let Epicurus look to this.
NOTE 2.--The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first person plural, the second and third persons being designated as the jussive subjunctive; but the constructions are substantially identical.
NOTE 3.--Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the negative with the hortatory subjunctive is non: as,--a legibus non recedamus (Clu. 155) , let us not abandon the laws.
The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in poetry:
iniurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tusc. 5.118) , the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight.
exoriare aliquis ultor (Aen. 4.625) , rise, some avenger.
isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras (Cat. M. 33) , use this blessing while it is present; when it is wanting do not regret it.
doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas (Aen. 6.109) , show us the way and lay open the sacred portals.
For Negative Commands (prohibitions), see Sect: 450.
The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time:
moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post. 29) , he should have died, you will say.
potius doceret (Off. 3.88) , he should rather have taught.
ne poposcisses (Att. 2.1.3) , you should not have asked.
saltem aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. 4.57) , at least he should have taken something from the weight.
NOTE 1.--In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past.
NOTE 2.--This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the potential use (Sect: 446). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought (not would or might).
SECTION: #440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a concession.The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past. The negative is ne.
sit fur, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus imperator (Verr. 5.4) , grant he is a thief, a godless wretch: yet he is a good general.
fuerit aliis; tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. 2.1.37) , suppose he was [so] to others; when did he begin to be to you?
nemo is umquam fuit: ne fuerit (Or. 101) , there never was such a one [you will say]: granted (let there not have been).
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. 2.14) , granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil.
NOTE.--The concessive subjunctive with quamvis and licet is originally hortatory ( Sect: 527. a, b).
For other methods of expressing Concession, see Sect: 527.
For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see Sect: 528. a.
Optative Subjunctive
SECTION: #441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time. The negative is ne:
ita vivam (Att. 5.15) , as true as I live, so may I live.
ne vivam si scio; ( id. 4.16.8), I wish I may not live if I know.
di te perduint (Deiot. 21) , the gods confound thee!
valeant, valeant cives mei; sint incolumes (Mil. 93) , farewell, farewell to my fellow-citizens; may they be secure from harm.
di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. 8.72) , would that the gods allowed me to be without a father (but they do not)!
The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic:
di faxint (Fam. 14.3.3) , may the gods grant.
quod di omen averterint ( Phil. 12.14, in a religious formula), and may the gods avert this omen.
SECTION: #442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the particle utinam; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect:
falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. 21.10.10) , I wish I may be a false prophet.
utinam Clodius viveret (Mil. 103) , would that Clodius were now alive.
utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. 1.3.1) , would you had seen me dead.
utinam ne vere scriberem (Fam. 5.17.3) , would that I were not writing the truth.
NOTE.-- Utinam non is occasionally used instead of utinam ne: as,-- utinam susceptus non essem (Att. 9.9.3) , would that I had not been born.
In poetry and old Latin uti or ut often introduces the optative subjunctive; and in poetry si or o si with the subjunctive sometimes expresses a wish:
ut pereat positum robigine telum (Hor. S. 2.1.43) , may the weapon unused perish with rust.
o si angulus ille accedat ( id. 2.6.8), O if that corner might only be added!
si nunc se nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat (Aen. 6.187) , if now that golden branch would only show itself to us!
NOTE 1.--The subjunctive with uti ( ut) or utinam was originally deliberative, meaning how may I, etc. (Sect: 444). The subjunctive with si or o si is a protasis (Sect: 512. a), the apodosis not being expressed.
NOTE 2.--The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (Sect: 585): as,-- ac venerata Ceres, ita culmo surgeret alto ( Hor. S. 2.2.124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [I<
> addressing the goddess directly the prayer would be: ita surgas.]
Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive:
velim tibi persuadeas (Fam. 9.13.2) , I should like to have you believe (I should wish that you would persuade yourself).
de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att. 15.4.4) , about Menedemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I wish it may be.
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. 3.10.2) , I wish the time never had come.
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. 1.12) , I had rather have had you afraid of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus).
NOTE.-- Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with the protasis omitted (Sect: 447. 1. N.). The thing wished may be regarded as a substantive clause used as object of the verb of wishing (Sect: 565. N.1).
Deliberative Subjunctive
SECTION: #443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed. The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infrequently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning of the Potential (see Sect: 445). In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative or Dubitative.
SECTION: #444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done. The negative is non.
quid agam, iudices? quo me vertam (Verr. 5.2) , what am I to do, judges ? whither shall I turn?
etiamne eam salutem (Pl. Rud. 1275) , shall I greet her?
quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini eiius invenias (Verr. 2.40) , what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can you devise for his wantonness?
an ego non venirem (Phil. 2.3) , what, should I not have come?
quid dicerem (Att. 6.3.9) , what was I to say?
quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. H. 15.7) , who could conceal the flame?
NOTE.--The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus,-- quid faciamus?= faciamus [ aliquid], quid? let us do--what? (Compare the expanded form quid vis faciamus? what do you wish us to do?) Once established, it was readily transferred to the past: quid faciam? what AM I to do? quid facerem? what WAS I to do? Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cf. Sect: 517).
In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation, rejecting a suggested possibility:
mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 94) , could think that the defence of good men would ever fail me!
NOTE.--The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions: as,-- quid ago, what am I to do?
Potential Subjunctive
SECTION: #445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf. Sect: 436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive,is found in a variety of sentence-forms having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real (indicative). Some of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxiliaries would, should, may, might, can, could.
SECTION: #446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable. The negative is non.
In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to the immediate future; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to past time; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened.
SECTION: #447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses:
1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of expressions of saying, thinking, or wishing (present or perfect):
pace tua dixerim (Mil. 103) , I would say by your leave.
haud sciam an (Lael. 51) , I should incline to think.
tu velim sic existimes (Fam. 12.6) , I should like you to think so.
certum affimare non ausim (Liv. 3.23) , I should not dare to assert as sure.
NOTE.-- Vellem, nollem, or mallem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unexpressed condition (Sect: 521): as-- vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. 1.16) , I could wish Antony were here.
2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, thinking, and the like (present or imperfect):
credas non de puero scriptum sed a puero; (Plin. Ep. 4.7.7), you would think that it was written not about a boy but by a boy.
crederes victos (Liv. 2.43.9) , you would have thought them conquered.
reos diceres ( id. 2.35.5), you would have said they were culprits.
videres susurros (Hor. S. 2.8.77) , you might have seen them whispering (lit. whispers).
freto assimilare possis (Ov. M. 5.6) , you might compare it to a sea.
3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or conceivable:
nil ego contulerim iucundo sanus amico; ( Hor. S. 1.5.44), when in my senses I should compare nothing with an interesting friend.
fortunam citius reperias quam retineas (Pub. Syr. 168) , you may sooner find fortune than keep it.
aliquis dicat (Ter. And. 640) , somebody may say.
NOTE.--In this use the subjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an undeveloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed.
Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also common:
forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rosc. Am. 5) , you may perhaps inquire what this alarm is.
forsitan temere fecerim ( id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly.
NOTE.--The subjunctive clause with forsitan (= fors sit an) was originally an Indirect Question: it would be a chance whether, etc.
Fortasse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; sometimes, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin:
quaeres fortasse (Fam. 15.4.13) , perhaps you will ask.
NOTE.--Other expressions for perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and poetical; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit) occurs once ( Hor. S. 1.6.49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare; construed like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are also found.
1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special development (cf. Sect: 436). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action and has developed the construction differently from the English.
2 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative Subjunctive in a wish.
3 The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed in grammatical usage.
.IMPERATIVE MOOD
SECTION: #448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties:
consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. 4.3) , have a care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves.
dic, Marce Tulli, sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion.
te ipsum concute (Hor. S. 1.3.35) , examine yourself.
vive, vale que ( id. 2.5.110), farewell, bless you (live and be well)!
miserere animi non digna ferentis (Aen. 2.144) , pity a soul bearing undeserved misfortune.
The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic:
ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (Legg. 3.8) , the safety of the people shall be their first law.
iusta imperia sunto, eisque cives modeste parento ( id. 3.6), let there be lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.
NOTE.--In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (Sect: 439).
SECTION: #449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there is a distinct reference to future time:
1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indicates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or (in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative:
cras petito, dabitur (Pl. Merc. 769) , ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given.
cum valetudini consulueris, tum consulito navigationi; ( Fam. 16.4.3), when you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing.
Phyllida mitte mihi, meus est natalis, Iolla; cum faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venito (Ecl. 3.76) , send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, Iollas; when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself.
dic quibus in terris, etc., et Phyllida solus habeto ( id. 3.107), tell in what lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself.
2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills:
is iuris civilis custos esto (Legg. 3.8) , let him (the praetor) be the guardian of civil right.
Borea flante, ne arato, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. 18.334) , when the north wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.
The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present:
filiolo me auctum scito (Att. 1.2) , learn that I am blessed with a little boy.
sic habeto, mi Tiro; ( Fam. 16.4.4), so understand it, my good Tiro.
de palla memento, amabo; ( Pl. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown.
The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative; and quin (why not?) with the Present Indicative may have the force of a command:
si quid acciderit novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. 14.8) , you will let me know if anything new happens.
quin accipis (Ter. Haut. 832) , here, take it (why not take it?).
Instead of the simple Imperative, cura ut, fac ( fac ut), or velim, followed by the subjunctive (Sect: 565), is often used, especially in colloquial language:
cura ut Romae sis (Att. 1.2) , take care to be at Rome.
fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. 14.17) , see that you take care of your health
domi adsitis facite (Ter. Eun. 506) , be at home, do.
eum mihi velim mittas (Att. 8.11) , I wish you would send it to me.
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see Sect: 588.
For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see Sect: 521. b.
Prohibition (Negative Command)
SECTION: #450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by noli with the Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, or (3) by ne with the Perfect Subjunctive:
(1) noli putare (Lig. 33) , do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose).
noli impudens esse (Fam. 12.30.1) , don't be shameless.
nolite cogere socios (Verr. 2.1.82) , do not compel the allies.
(2) cave putes (Att. 7.20) , don't suppose (take care lest you suppose).
cave ignoscas (Lig. 14) , do not pardon.
cave festines (Fam. 16.12.6) , do not be in haste.
(3) ne necesse habueris (Att. 16.2.5) , do not regard it as necessary.
ne sis admiratus (Fam. 7.18.3) , do not be surprised.
hoc facito; hoc ne feceris (Div. 2.127) , thou shalt do this, thou shalt not do that.
ne Apellae quidem dixeris (Fam. 7.25.2) , do not tell Apella even.
ne vos quidem mortem timueritis (Tusc. 1.98) , nor must you fear death.
All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first, which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest; the third, though not discourteous, is usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.
NOTE 1.--Instead of noli the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar meaning (cf. Sect: 457. a):
parce pias scelerare manus (Aen. 3.42) , forbear to defile your pious hands.
cetera mitte loqui; (Hor. Epod. 13.7), forbear to say the rest.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. 1.9.13) , do not inquire.
NOTE 2.-- Cave ne is sometimes used in prohibitions; also vide ne and (colloquially) fac ne: as,-- fac ne quid aliud cures ( Fam. 16.11), see that you attend to nothing else.
NOTE 3.--The present subjunctive with ne and the perfect with cave are found in old writers; ne with the present is common in poetry at all periods:
ne exspectetis (Pl. Ps. 1234) , do not wait.
ne metuas (Mart. Ep. 1.70.13) , do not fear.
cave quicquam responderis (Pl. Am. 608) , do not make any reply.
NOTE 4.--Other negatives sometimes take the place of ne:
nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65) , grant no pardon (pardon nothing).
nec mihi illud dixeris (Fin. 1.25) , and do not say this to me.
NOTE 5.--The regular connective, and do not, is neve.
The Present Imperative with ne is used in prohibitions by early writers and the poets:
ne time (Pl. Curc. 520) , don't be afraid.
nimium ne crede colori; ( Ecl. 2.17), trust not too much to complexion.
equo ne credite (Aen. 2.48) , trust not the horse.
The Future Imperative with ne is used in prohibitions in laws and formal precepts (see Sect: 449. 2).
1 In prohibitions the subjunctive with ne is hortatory; that with cav e is an object clause (cf. Sect: 450. N.2, 565. N.1).
.INFINITIVE MOOD
SECTION: #451. The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abstractly. It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited to special constructions.
The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a nounand was originally used to denote Purpose; but it has in many constructions developed into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.
In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (Sect: 397. e), originally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubeo te valere is literally I command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, Sect: 562. N.).
Infinitive as Noun
SECTION: #452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative.
1. As Subject:
dolere malum est (Fin. 5.84) , to suffer pain is an evil.
bellum est sua vitia nosse (Att. 2.17) , it's a fine thing to know one's own faults.
praestat componere fluctus (Aen. 1.135) , it is better to calm the waves.
2. In Apposition with the Subject:
proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperio uti; ( Sall. Cat. 12), just as if this and this alone, to commit injustice, were to use power. [Here facere is in apposition with id.]
3. As Predicate Nominative:
id est convenienter naturae vivere (Fin. 4.41) , that is to live in conformity with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.]
NOTE 1.--An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predicate Accusative (Sect: 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object:
istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto; (Tusc. 1.12), for I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. [Here istuc ipsum belongs to the noun non esse.]
miserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant ( id. 3.7), to feel pity, envy, desire, joy,--all these things the Greeks call diseases. [Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec.]
NOTE 2.--An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive in any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject expressed or not. Thus,-- non esse cupidum pecunia est (Par. 51) , to be free from desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.]
The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning:
quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere, in unum coegit (Iug. 31) , all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same things has united into one.
ingenuas didicisse fideliter artis emollit mores (Ov. P. 2.9.48), faithfully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners.
posse loqui eripitur (Ov. M. 2.483) , the power of speech is taken away.
SECTION: #453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative of a noun:
beate vivere alii in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Fin. 2.86) , a happy life different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure.
quam multa ... facimus causa amicorum, precari ab indigno, supplicare, etc. (Lael. 57) , how many things we do for our friends' sake, ask favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc.
nihil exploratum habeas, ne amare quidem aut amari ( id. 97), you have nothing assured, not even loving and being loved.
NOTE.--Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusative use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the examples above. Thus,-- avaritia ... superbiam, crudelitatem, deos neglegere, omnia venalia habere edocuit ( Sall. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, and to hold everything at a price.
Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals
SECTION: #454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many impersonal verbs and expressions:
Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget, necesse est, opus est, etc.:
libet mihi considerare (Quinct. 48) , it suits me to consider.
necesse est mori (Tusc. 2.2) , it is necessary to die.
quid attinet gloriose loqui nisi constanter loquare (Fin. 2.89) , what good does it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently?
neque me vixisse paenitet ( id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived.
gubernare me taedebat (Att. 2.7.4) , I was tired of being pilot.
NOTE.--This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (Sect: 456); but the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be con veniently regarded as the subjects of the impersonals.
SECTION: #455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the Infinitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action may be expressed:/p>
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase:
rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. 1.7) , they ask that it be allowed them to do this.
non lubet enim mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 84) , for it does not please me to lament my life.
visum est mihi de senectute aliquid conscribere ( id. 1), it seemed good to me to write something about old age.
quid est tam secundum naturam quam senibus emori; ( id. 71), what is so much in accordance with nature as for old men to die?
exstingui homini suo tempore optabile est ( id. 85), for a man to die at the appointed time is desirable.
2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or the object of the impersonal:
si licet vivere eum quem Sex. Naevius non volt (Quinct. 94) , if it is allowed a man to live against the will of Sextus N?"vius.
nonne oportuit praescisse me ante (Ter. And. 239) , ought I not to have known beforehand?
oratorem irasci minime decet (Tusc. 4.54) , it is particularly unbecoming for an orator to lose his temper.
puderet me dicere (N. D. 1.109) , I should be ashamed to say.
consilia ineunt quorum eos in vestigio paenitere necesse est (B. G. 4.5) , they form plans for which they must at once be sorry.
NOTE.-- Libet, placet, and visum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and generally decet, the accusative only; licet and necesse est take either case.
A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative; but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative is used:
expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Haut. 388) , it is for your advantage to be good.
licuit esse otioso Themistocli; (Tusc. 1.33), Themistocles might have been inactive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive).
mihi neglegenti esse non licet (Att. 1.17.6) , I must not be negligent. [But also neglegentem.]
cur his esse liberos non licet (Flacc. 71) , why is it not allowed these men to be free?
non est omnibus stantibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33) , it is not necessary for all to speak standing.
NOTE.--When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. Sect: 452. 3. N.2): as,-- vel pace vel bello clarum fieri licet ( Sall. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in peace or in war
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Complementary Infinitive
SECTION: #456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative.
Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like:
hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 32) , this I can say.
mitto quaerere (Rosc. Am. 53) , I omit to ask.
vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. 1.58) , I fear to praise a man to his face.
oro ut matures venire (Att. 4.1) , I beg you will make haste to come.
oblivisci non possum quae volo; (Fin. 2.104), I cannot forget that which I wish.
desine id me docere (Tusc. 2.29) , cease to teach me that.
dicere solebat, he used to say.
audeo dicere, I venture to say.
loqui posse coepi, I began to be able to speak.
NOTE.--The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no subject expressed. Thus volo dicere and volo me dicere mean the same thing, I wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not apparently different in origin and construction from queo dicere (complementary infinitive), and again volo eum dicere, I wish him to speak, is essentially different from either (cf. Sect: 563. b).
SECTION: #457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Complementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning.
Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. Sect: 563):
decernere optabat (Q. C. 3.11.1) , he was eager to decide.
optavit ut tolleretur (Off. 3.94) , he was eager to be taken up.
oppugnare contendit (B. G. 5.21) , he strove to take by storm.
contendit ut caperet ( id. 5.8), he strove to take.
bellum gerere constituit ( id. 4.6), he decided to carry on war.
constitueram ut manerem (Att. 16.10.1) , I had decided to remain.
NOTE 1.--For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs instead of a complementary infinitive, see Sect: 563.
NOTE 2.--Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identical in meaning with others which do:
eos quos tutari debent deserunt (Off. 1.28) , they forsake those whom they ought to protect.
aveo pugnare (Att. 2.18.3) , I'm anxious to fight.
In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infinitive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it in prose:
furit te reperire (Hor. Od. 1.15.27) , he rages to find thee. [A forcible way of saying cupit (Sect: 457, 563. b).]
saevit exstinguere nomen (Ov. M. 1.200) , he rages to blot out the name.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. 1.9.13) , forbear to ask (cf. Sect: 450. N. 1).
parce pias scelerare manus (Aen. 3.42) , forbear to defile your pious hands.
SECTION: #458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb:
fierique studebam eiius prudentia doctior (Lael. 1) , I was eager to become more wise through his wisdom.
scio quam soleas esse occupatus (Fam. 16.21.7) , I know how busy you usually are (are wont to be).
brovis esse laboro, obscurus fio; ( Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be brief, I become obscure.
Infinitive with Subject Accusative
SECTION: #459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, Sect: 579):
dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. 1.22) , he says that the hill is held by the enemy. [Direct: mons ab hostibus tenetur.]
Infinitive of Purpose
SECTION: #460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose.
The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunctive clause after habeo, do, ministro:
tantum habeo polliceri ( Fam. 1.5A. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.]
ut Iovi bibere ministraret (Tusc. 1.65) , to serve Jove with wine (to drink).
meridie bibere dato; ( Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday.
Paratus, suetus, and their compounds, and a few other participles (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which they come:
id quod parati sunt facere (Quint. 8) , that which they are ready to do.
adsuefacti superari (B. G. 6.24) , used to being conquered.
curru succedere sueti; ( Aen. 3.541), used to being harnessed to the chariot
copias bellare consuetas (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting.
NOTE.--In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive construction (Sect: 503 ff.) either in the genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad:
insuetus navigandi (B. G. 5.6) , unused to making voyages.
alendis liberis sueti (Tac. Ann. 14.27) , accustomed to supporting children.
corpora insueta ad onera portanda (B. C. 1.78) , bodies unused to carry burdens.
The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction:
filius intro iit videre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345) , your son has gone in to see what he is doing. [In prose: the supine visum.]
non ferro Libycos populare Penatis venimus (Aen. 1.527) , we have not come to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes.
loricam donat habere viro; ( id. 5.262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear. [In prose: habendam.]
NOTE.--So rarely in prose writers of the classic period.
For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see Sect: 457.
For tempus est abire, see Sect: 504. N. 2.
Peculiar Infinitives
SECTION: #461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a Greek idiom:
durus componere versus (Hor. S. 1.4.8) , harsh in composing verse.
cantari dignus (Ecl. 5.54) , worthy to be sung. [In prose: qui cantetur.]
fortis tractare serpentis (Hor. Od. 1.37.26) , brave to handle serpents.
cantare periti; ( Ecl. 10.32), skilled in song.
faciles aurem praebere (Prop. 3.14.15) , ready to lend an ear.
nescia vinci pectora (Aen. 12.527) , hearts not knowing how to yield.
te videre aegroti; (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.
Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result:
fingit equum docilem magister ire viam qua monstret eques (Hor. Ep. 1.2.64) , the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points out.
hic levare ... pauperem laboribus vocatus audit (Hor. Od. 2.18.38) , he, when called, hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles.
NOTE.--These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infinitive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (Sect: 451). They had been supplanted, however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part through Greek influence.
The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective:
hoc non dolere (Fin. 2.18) , this freedom from pain. [Cf. totum hoc beate vivere (Tusc. 5.33) , this whole matter of the happy life.]
nostrum vivere (Per. 1.9), our life (to live).
scire tuum ( id. 1.27), your knowledge (to know).
Exclamatory Infinitive
SECTION: #462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative,may be used in Exclamations (cf. Sect: 397. d):
te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. 14.1) , alas, that you should have fallen into such grief for me!
mene incepto desistere victam (Aen. 1.37) , what! I beaten desist from my purpose?
NOTE 1.--The interrogative particle - ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as in the second example).
NOTE 2.--The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with their ordinary distinction of time (Sect: 486).
A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the interrogative - ne:
quamquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. 1.22) , yet why do I speak? [the idea] that anything should bend you!
egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. 2.42) , what, I interrupt you?
ego tibi irascerer (Q. Fr. 1.3) , I angry with you?
NOTE.--The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually occurring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.
Historical Infinitive
SECTION: #463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative:
tum Catilina polliceri novas tabulas ( Sall. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers).
ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. 2.188) , I kept urging him to answer me.
pars cedere, alii insequi; neque signa neque ordines observare; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti; nihil consilio neque imperio agi; fors omnia regere (Iug. 51) , a part give way, others press on; they hold neither to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each would stand and fight; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled in confusion; nothing went by counsel or command; chance ruled all.
NOTE.--This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses. Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the historians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius.
.TENSES
SECTION: #464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times, Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic); as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined but as relative to some time which is determined; and the past and future times may be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme:
1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite
INOOMPLETE---- ---COMPLETE------- NARRATIVE
Present: a. I am writing.---- d. I have written.---- g. I write.
Past: b. I was writing.---- e. I had written. ----h. I wrote.
Future: c. I shall be writing. ----f. I shall have written. ----i. I shall write.
Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (the Perfect scripsi), thus losing all distinction of form between d and h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this confusion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived from the same root, DIC), with edeixa, Skr. adiksham, dedeicha, Skr. dides'a. Latin also developed two new forms, those for e ( scripseram) and f ( scripsero), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in Sect: 154. c.
The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they precisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding to I have written (d) is used for those corresponding to I am writing (a) and I write (g) in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to I had written (e) is used in like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (b). Again, the Latin often uses the form for I shall have written (f) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, novi, I have learned, is used for I know; constiterat, he had taken his position, for he stood; cognovero, I shall have learned, for I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his own point of view.
1 The ending -e( amare, monere, regere, audire) was apparently locative, the ending - i ( amari, moneri, regi, audiri) apparently dative; but this difference of case had no significance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the e Ç-infinitives to the passive was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time.
2 In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented as having some quality or belonging to some thing.
3 This construction is elliptical; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad rem natam miseram me memorabo? (Plaut. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction.
.TENSES OF THE .INDICATIVE
INCOMPLETE ACTION: .PRESENT TENSE
SECTION: #465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a general truth:
senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hic tamen vivit (Cat. 1.2) , the senate knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives.
tibi concedo meas sedis (Div. 1.104) , I give you my seat (an offer which may or may not be accepted).
exspecto quid velis (Ter. And. 34) , I await your pleasure (what you wish).
tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 22) , you arrange a case, he arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employment.]
minora di neglegunt (N. D. 3.86) , the gods disregard trifles. [General truth.]
obsequium amicos, veritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68) , flattery gains friends, truth hatred. [General truth.]
NOTE.--The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present.
The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works are extant:
Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. 2.17) , but Epicurus says such things.
apud illum Ulixes lamentatur in volnere ( id. 2.49), in him ( Sophocles) Ulysses laments over his wound.
Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete colloquentem facit ( id. 5.115), Homer brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.
Present with iam diu etc.
SECTION: #466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (especially iam diu, iam dudum) denotes an action continuing in the present, but begun in the past (cf. Sect: 471. b).
In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect in English:
iam diu ignoro quid agas (Fam. 7.9) , for a long time I have not known what you were doing.
te iam dudum hortor (Cat. 1.12) , I have long been urging you.
patimur multos iam annos (Verr. 5.126) , we suffer now these many years. [The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer.]
anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (cf. Clu. 82), it is now eight years that this case has been in hand.
annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. 1.1) , for a year you have been a hearer of Cratippus.
adhuc Plancius me retinet (Fam. 14.1.3) , so far Plancius has kept me here.
NOTE 1.--The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers) with he still suffers (and has suffered long).
NOTE 2.--Similarly the Present Imperative with iam dudum indicates that the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Perfect Imperative in Greek): as,-- iam dudum sumite poenas (Aen. 2.103) , exact the penalty long delayed.
Conative Present
SECTION: #467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun in present time, but never completed at all (Conative Present, cf. Sect: 471. c):
iam iamque manu tenet (Aen. 2.530) , and now, even now, he attempts to grasp him.
densos fertur in hostis ( id. 2.511), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe.
decerno quinquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. 14.29) , I move for fifty days' thanksgiving. [Cf. senatus decrevit, the senate ordained.]
Present for Future
SECTION: #468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, is often used for the Future:
imusne sessum (De Or. 3.17) , shall we take a seat? (are we going to sit?)
hodie uxorem ducis (Ter. And. 321) , are you to be married to-day?
quod si fit, pereo funditus ( id. 244), if this happens, I am utterly undone.
ecquid me adiuvas (Clu. 71) , won't you give me a little help?
in ius voco te. non eo. non is (Pl. Asin. 480) , I summon you to the court. I won't go. You won't?
NOTE.-- Eo and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are you going to-morrow? and the Greek eimi in a future sense). Verbs of necessity, possibility, wish, and the like (as possum, volo, etc.) also have reference to the future.
For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (Sect: 516. a. N.), antequam and priusquam (Sect: 551. c), dum (Sect: 553. N. 2), and Sect: 444. a. N.
Historical Present
SECTION: #469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the Historical Perfect:
affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad praetorium; Cleomenes in publico esse non audet; includit se domi; ( Verr. 5.92), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to headquarters; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad; he shuts himself up at home.
NOTE.--This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events as going on before our eyes ( repraesentatio, Sect: 585. b. N.).
For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see Sect: 556.
The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumeration of past events (Annalistic Present):
Roma interim crescit Albae ruinis: duplicatur civium numerus; Caelius additur urbi mons (Liv. 1.30) , Rome meanwhile grows as a result of the fall of Alba: the number of citizens is doubled; the C?"lian hill is added to the town
.IMPERFECT TENSE
SECTION: #470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued or repeated in past time:
hunc audiebant antea; ( Manil. 13), they used to hear of him before.
[ Socrates] ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. 1.72) , Socrates thought so (habitually), and so he spoke (then).
prudens esse putabatur (Lael. 6) , he was (generally) thought wise. [The perfect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things.]
iamque rubescebat Aurora (Aen. 3.521) , and now the dawn was blushing.
ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. 6.326) , an old altar stood there.
NOTE.--The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rex erat and rex fuit may often be used indifferently; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite:
Haedui graviter ferebant, neque legatos ad Caesarem mittere audebant (B. G. 5.6) , the Haedui were displeased, and did not dare to send envoys to Caesar. [Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But,--
id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus ( id. 5.4), Indutiomarus was displeased at this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vicosque habebant ( id. 4.4), they had buildings and villages.
SECTION: #471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived from the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in reference to past time.
The Imperfect is used in descriptions:
erant omnino itinera duo ... mons altissimus impendebat (B. G. 1.6) , there were in all two ways ... a very high mountain overhung.
With iam diu, iam dudum, and other expressions of duration of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but begun at some previous time (cf. Sect: 466).
In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Pluperfect:
iam dudum flebam (Ov. M. 3.656) , I had been weeping for a long time.
copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. 11.13.5) , the forces which they had long been getting ready.
The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun ( Inceptive Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect; cf Sect: 467):
in exsilium eioiebam quem iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam (Cat. 2.14) , was I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone into war?
hunc igitur diem sibi proponens Milo, cruentis manibus ad illa augusta centuriarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 43) , was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely that he would come), etc.?
si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. 5.129) , they were coming if it had been allowed (they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.).
NOTE.--To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the beginning of an action or state: as,-- iam que arva tenebant ultima (Aen. 6.477) , and now they were just getting to the farthest fields.
The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the resent discovery of a fact already existing:
o tu quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858) , oh, you are here too!
ehem, tun hic eras, mi Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86) , what! you here, Ph?"dria?
a miser! quanta laborabas Charybdi; ( Hor. Od. 1.27.19), unhappy boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it]!
The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets where later writers would employ the Perfect:
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (Pl. Trin. 956) , to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property.
praesagibat mi animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo; ( Pl. Aul. 178), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.
NOTE.--So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf. as I was a-saying) is common in classic prose:
at medici quoque, ita enim dicebas, saepe falluntur (N. D. 3.15) , but physicians also,--for that is what you were saying just now,--are often mistaken.
haec mihi fere in mentem veniebant ( id. 2.67, 168), this is about what occurred to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be venerunt.]
The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the English auxiliary could or would:
itaque ( Damocles) nec pulchros ilios ministratores aspiciebat (Tusc. 5.62) , therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by the overhanging sword.]
nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79) , for, you know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Perfect would refer only to one moment.]
Lentulus satis erat fortis orator, sed cogitandi non ferebat laborem (Brut 268), Lentulus was bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion of thinking hard.
For the Epistolary Imperfect, see Sect: 479; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis contrary to fa<
see Sect: 517. b. c.
.FUTURE TENSE
SECTION: #472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur hereafter.
The Future may have the force of an Imperative (Sect: 449. b).
The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause:
cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. Sect: 547).
sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. 3.13) , we shall be healed if we wish (cf. Sect: 516. a).
NOTE.--But the Present is common in future protases (Sect: 516. a N.).
.PERFECT TENSE: COMPLETED ACTION
Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect
SECTION: #473. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed (Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect).
The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past):
(1) ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. M. 26) , as I have done, who have learned Greek in my old age.
diuturni silenti finem hodiernus dies attulit (Marc. 1) , this day has put an end to my long-continued silence.
(2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit (Manil. 35) , so great a war he made ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer.
NOTE.--The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses.
The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general truth (Sect: 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring to time antecedent to that of the main clause:
qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. 1.75) , they who have always been in the fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly.
simul ac mihi collibitum est, praesto est imago; (N. D. 1.108), as soon as I have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes.
haec morte effugiuntur, etiam si non evenerunt, tamen quia possunt evenire (Tusc. 1.86) , these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet] happened, because they still may happen.
NOTE.--This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General Conditions in present time (Sect: 518. b).
SECTION: #474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists:
fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. 1.3) , there was once such virtue in this commonwealth.
habuit, non habet (Tusc. 1.87) , he had, he has no longer.
filium habeo ... immo habui; nunc habeam necne incertumst ( Ter. Haut. 93), I have a son, no, I had one; whether I have now or not is uncertain.
fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. 2.325) , we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is no more.
Special Uses of the Perfect
SECTION: #475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially with negatives (Gnomic Perfect):
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecit que (Hor. A. P. 412) , he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things.
non aeris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febris ( id. Ep. 1.2.47), the pile of brass and gold removes not fever from the frame.
NOTE.--The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use implies that something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never will (cf. the English "Faint heart never won fair lady‰Û?); or, without a negative that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances.
The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred:
dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 132) , Hortensius spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison: compare the use of quisquam, ullus, etc. (Sect: 311, 312), and the French ne after comparatives and superlatives.]
SECTION: #476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning.
Such are the preteritive verbs odi, I hate; memini, I remember; novi, I know; consuevi, I am accustomed,with others used preteritively, as venerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.), constiterunt, they stand firm (have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see Sect: 263. 1):
qui dies aestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. 4.29) , which day generally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make).
cuius splendor obsolevit (Quinct. 59) , whose splendor is now all faded.
NOTE.--Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as,-- dum oculos certamen averterat (Liv. 32.24) , while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here averterat= tenebat.]
.PLUPERFECT TENSE
SECTION: #477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state completed in past time; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to:
(1) loci natura erat haec, quem locum nostri castris delegerant (B. G. 2.18) , this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp.
Viridovix summam imperi tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae defecerant ( id. 3.17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which had revolted.
(2) neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. 3.16) , but when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done.
quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacritatem (Tusc. 4.15) , if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previously] desired, then it produces joy.
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see Sect: 479.
.FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
SECTION: #478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future:
ut sementem feceris, ita metes (De Or. 2.261) , as you sow (shall have sown), so shall you reap.
carmina tum melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus (Ecl. 9.67) , then shall we sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come).
si illius insidiae clariores hac luce fuerint, tum denique obsecrabo; ( Mil. 6), when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as daylight, then, and not till then, shall I conjure you.
ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. 4.25) , I at least shall have done my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be found to have done it, whatever the event).
NOTE.--Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed:
quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. 2.76) , what has been found out I shall see presently.
qui Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum confecerit (Fam. 10.19) , whoever crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most loathsome war.
.EPISTOLARY TENSES
SECTION: #479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received:
neque tamen, haec cum scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere (Fam. 5.12.2) , nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down.
ad tuas omnis [ epistulas] rescripseram pridie; ( Att. 9.10.1), I answered all your letters yesterday.
cum quod scriberem ad te nihil haberem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. 9.16) , though I have nothing to write to you, still I write this letter.
NOTE.--In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scribebam, dabam, etc.).
1 Cf. detestor, reminiscor, scio, soleo.
.TENSES OF THE .SUBJUNCTIVE
SECTION: #480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker.
The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, the Imperfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either future or past, the Pluperfect always to past.
SECTION: #481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the main verb.
These connections were determined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses.
NOTE.--The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corresponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as exceptional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codified in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from carelessness.
.Sequence of Tenses
SECTION: #482. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses follow special rules for the Sequence of Tenses.
With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independent clauses are divided into two classes,--Primary and Secondary.
1. PRIMARY.--The Primary Tenses include all forms that express present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present and Future Imperative.
2. SECONDARY.--The Secondary Tenses include all forms that refer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinitive.
NOTE.--To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in independent clauses: (1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see Sect: 462, 485. a N.).
The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see Sect: 485. a).
For the Historical Present, see Sect: 485. e; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis, see Sect: 485. h.
SECTION: #483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of Tenses:
In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect:
.PRIMARY TENSES
rogo, I ask, am asking quid facias, what you are doing.
rogabo, I shall ask quid feceris, what you did, were doing, have done, have been doing.
rogavi (sometimes), I have asked
rogavero, I shall have asked quid facturus sis, what you will do.
scribit, he writes ut nos moneat, to warn us.
scribet, he will write
scri be ( scribito), write ut nos moneas, to warn us.
scribit, he writes quasi oblitus sit, as if he had forgotten.
.SECONDARY TENSES
rogabam, I asked, was asking quid faceres, what you were doing.
rogavi, I asked, have asked quid fecisses, what you had done, had been doing.
rogaveram, I had asked quid facturus esses, what you would do.
scripsit, he wrote ut nos moneret, to warn us.
scripsit, he wrote quasi oblitus esset, as if he had forgotten.
SECTION: #484. In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe:/p>
(1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secondary.
(2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. present or future with reference to the main verb). Then:/p>
If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed action.
If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action:
(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us, scribit ut nos moneat.
I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogo quid feceris.
(2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scripsit ut nos moneret.
I asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rogavi quid faceres.
Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect:
He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, demonstrat, si venerint, multos interituros.
He showed that if they should come (should have come), many would perish, demonstravit, si venissent, multos interituros.
SECTION: #485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points are to be noted:
The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the writer's mind:
ut satis esset praesidi provisum est (Cat. 2.26) , provision has been made that there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.]
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. 1.2) , I have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign nations. [Secondary sequence.]
est enim res iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter eorum causas qui dimicant, tamen inter victorias non multum interfuturum putem (Fam. 5.21.3) , for affairs have been brought to such a pass that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference between their victories. [Primary sequence.]
ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitiosissimam naturam excolere possit (Q. Fr. 1.1.7) , such instruction has been given as can train even the faultiest nature. [Primary sequence.]
NOTE.--The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule:
quemquamne fuisse tam sceleratum qui hoc fingeret (Phil. 14.14) , was any one so abandoned as to imagine this? [Secondary.]
adeon rem redisse patrem ut extimescam (Ter. Ph. 153) , to think that things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.]
After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action. This the Perfect Subjunctive may represent:/p>
1. A Perfect Definite:
non dubito quin omnes tui scripserint (Fam. 5.8) , I do not doubt that all your friends have written. [Direct statement: scripserunt.]
qua re non ignoro quid accidat in ultimis terris, cum audierim in I talia querellas civium (Q. Fr. 1.1.33) , therefore I know well what happens at the ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens. [Direct statement: audivi.]
2. A Perfect Historical:
me autem hic laudat quod rettulerim, non quod patefecerim (Att. 12.21) , me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I brought it to light. [Direct statement: rettulit.]
3. An Imperfect:
si forte ceciderunt, tum intellegitur quam fuerint inopes amicorum (Lael. 53) , if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were in friends. [Direct question: quam inopes erant?]
qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedi, scire poteris ex C. Titio Strabone (Fam. 12.6) , what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question: qui status erat?]
quam civitati carus fuerit maerore funeris indicatum est (Lael. 11) , how dear he was to the state has been shown by the grief at his funeral. [Direct question: quam carus erat?]
ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor (Or. 15) , it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato. [Direct question: quam frequens erat?]
NOTE.--Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fecerit may mean (1) I wonder what he has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist. perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing.
In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the Present rarely) used after secondary tenses:
Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo umquam flagrantius studium viderim (Brut. 302) , Hortensius was so hot with desire of speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man.
[ Siciliam Verres] per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit ut ea restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. 1.12) , for three years Verres so racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.]
videor esse consecutus ut non possit Dolabella in Italiam pervenire (Fam. 12.14.2) , I seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into Italy.
NOTE 1.--This construction emphasizes the result; the regular sequence of tenses would subordinate it.
NOTE 2.--There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a Perfect Indicative:
Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut illa plurima in sua et sacrificia et fana contemneret; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. 2.63) , Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised [ contemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country; so little timorous about death that he was killed [ interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the state.
A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses:
ex his quae tribuisset, sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. 3.8.20) , from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant she is. [Direct: mutabilis est.]
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet apparuit (Liv. 33.37) , here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct: habet.]
NOTE.--In English the original tense is more commonly kept.
The Historical Present (Sect: 469) is sometimes felt as a primary, ometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the primary or the secondary sequence:
rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Quinct. 18) , he asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence.]
NOTE.--After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must follow the secondary sequence:
quo cum venisset cognoscit (B. C. 1.34) , when he had come there he learns.
cum esset pugnatum horis quinque, nostrique gravius premerentur, impetum in cohortis faciunt ( id. 1.46), when they had fought for five hours, and our men were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts.
The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary sequence:
interim cotidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum, quod essent polliciti, flagitare (B. G. 1.16) . meanwhile Caesar demanded of the Haedui every day the grain which they had promised.
The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact (Sect: 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive (Sect: 444) are not affected by the sequence of tenses:
quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines vel si obmutuissent (Fin. 2.49) , because it is such that even if men WERE ignorant of it, or HAD BEEN silent about it.
quaero a te cur C. Cornelium non defenderem (Vat. 5) , I ask you why I was not to defend Caius Cornelius? [Direct: cur non defenderem?]
The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to fact (Sect: 517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence:
si alii consules essent, ad te potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eos mihi quam amicissimos redderes (Fam. 15.13.3) , if there were other consuls, I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as friendly to me as possible.
si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperes (Tusc. 1.9) , if you were to call only those wretched who must d<
> you would except no one.
The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time:
sed si res coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selicio nec mihi displice bat: ut neque iacere rem pateremur, etc. ( Fam. 1.5A. 3), but if the case shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the time of displicebat.]
sed tamen ut scires, haec tibi scribo (Fam. 13.47) , but yet that you may know, I write thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect scribebam (Sect: 479).]
cuius praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo tribueretur (Legg. 1.58) , such is the force of this precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an old one.]
When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its sequence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense:
sed tamen qua re acciderit ut ex meis superioribus litteris id suspicarere nescio; ( Fam. 2.16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my previous letter, I don't know.
tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vinceremur (N. D. 1.8) , we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
NOTE.--So regularly after a Perfect Infinitive which depends on a primary tense (Sect: 585. a).
1 The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of subordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not differ in principle from those which we are considering; but for convenience the term Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the usual practice.
.TENSES OF THE .INFINITIVE
SECTION: #486. Except in Indirect Discourse, only the Present and Perfect Infinitives are used.
The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress without distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed.
For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see Sect: 584.
With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility (as debui, oportuit, potui), the Present Infinitive is often used in Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive:
numne, si Coriolanus habuit amicos, ferre contra patriam arma illi cum Coriolano debuerunt (Lael. 36) , if Coriolanus had friends, ought they to have borne arms with him against their fatherland?
pecunia, quam his oportuit civitatibus pro frumento dari (Verr. 3.174) , money which ought to have been paid to these states for grain.
consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem a pueritia; ( Rep. 1.10), how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that course of life?
With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action:
tametsi statim vicisse debeo; ( Rosc. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case at once (to be regarded as having won it).
bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse (Liv. 37.19.5) , a war which we can have completed before winter.
nil ego, si peccem, possum nescisse (Ov. H. 16.47) , if I should go wrong, I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).
NOTE.--With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently due to attraction:
quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. 1.5) , (a thing) which ought to have been done long ago.
haec facta ab illo oportebat (Ter. Haut. 536) , this ought to have been done by him.
tum decuit metuisse (Aen. 10.94) , then was the time to fear (then you should have feared).
In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infinitive is often used with nolo or volo in prohibitions:
Chaldaeum nequem consuluisse velit ( Cato R. R. 5.4) , let him not venture to have consulted a soothsayer.
nolito devellisse (Pl. Poen. 872) , do not have them plucked.
nequis humasse velit Aiacem (Hor. S. 2.3.187) , let no one venture to have buried Ajax.
NEIQVIS EORVM BACANAL HABVISE VELET (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no one of them venture to have had a place for Bacchanalian worship.
With verbs of wishingthe Perfect Passive Infinitive (commonly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present:
domestica cura te levatum volo; ( Q. Fr. 3.9.3), I wish you relieved of private care.
illos monitos volo; ( Cat. 2.27), I wish them thoroughly warned.
qui illam [ patriam] exstinctam cupit (Fin. 4.66) , who is eager for her utter destruction.
illud te esse admonitum volo; ( Cael. 8), I wish you to be well advised of this.
qui se ab omnibus desertos potius quam abs te defensos esse malunt (Caecil. 21) , who prefer to be deserted by all rather than to be defended by you.
NOTE.--The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or without esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly be distinguished from that construction.
In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience), rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wishing:
nemo eorum est qui non perisse te cupiat (Verr. 2.149) , there is no one of them who is not eager for your death.
haud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (Liv. 22.59.10) , I would not by crushing another exalt myself.
sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. S. 1.2.28) , there are those who would not touch.
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168) , he is cautious of doing.
nunc quem tetigisse timerent, anguis eras (Ov. M. 8.733) , again you became a serpent which they dreaded to touch.
fratresque tendentes opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo; ( Hor. Od. 3.4.51), and the brothers striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus.
After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially by the poets, to denote a completed action.
So also with satis est, satis habeo, melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important:
non paenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. 16.21) , I was not sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet me non praestitisse ( id. 14.3), I am ashamed not to have shown.
sunt quos pulverem Olympicum collegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. 1.1.3) , some delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia.
quiesse erit melius (Liv. 3.48) , it will be better to have kept quiet.
ac si quis amet scripsisse (Hor. S. 1.10.60) , than if one should choose to have written.
id solum dixisse satis habeo; (Vell. 2.124), I am content to have said only this.
1 Volo, and less frequently nolo, malo, and cupio.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB
SECTION: #487. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed as follows:
I. Participles: a. Present and Perfect: 1. Attributive ( Sect: 494).
2. Simple Predicate (Sect: 495).
3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (Sect: 495. N.).
4. Predicate of Circumstance (Sect: 496).
5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (Sect: 497 d).
b. Future 1. Periphrastic with esse (Sect: 498. a).
2. Periphrastic with fui (=Pluperfect Subjunctive) (Sect: 498. b).
c. Gerundive 1. As Descriptive Adjective (Sect: 500. 1).
2. Periphrastic with esse (Sect: 500. 2).
3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (Sect: 500. 4).
II. Gerund or Gerundive: 1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (Sect: 504).
2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (å ¤ 505).
3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (Sect: 506).
4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (Sect: 507).
III. Supine: 1. Accusative Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (Sect: 509).
Ablative Supine (in -? Ç), chiefly with Adjectives (Sect: 510).
For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see Sect: 451 ff. 486.
.PARTICIPLES
SECTION: #488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may govern a case.
NOTE.--Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with them in gender, number, and case (Sect: 286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time (Sect: 489) and often takes an object.
Distinctions of Tense in Participles
SECTION: #489. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause.
Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, and the Future as still to take place.
SECTION: #490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote:/p>
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (Sect: 466):
quaerenti mihi iam diu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. 4.13) . though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
2. Attempted action (Sect: 467):
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 11) , he resisted Flaminius when attempting to divide the Picene territory.
3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a verb of motion:
Eurypylum scitantem oracula mittimus (Aen. 2.114) , we send Eurypylus to consult the oracle. [Cf. Sect: 468.]
SECTION: #491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present.
Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, arbitratus, fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers:
rem incredibilem rati ( Sall. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible.
insidias veritus (B. G. 2.11) , fearing an ambuscade.
cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. 3.80) , encouraging the men, he showed.
iratus dixisti; ( Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.
ad pugnam congressi (Liv. 4.10) , meeting in fight.
SECTION: #492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive.
The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum:
obiere dum calciantur matutino duo Caesares (Plin. N. H. 7.181), two Caesars died while having their shoes put on in the morning.
meque ista delectant cum Latine dicuntur (Acad. 1.18) , those things please me when they are spoken in Latin.
NOTE.--These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed:
dic, hospes, Spartae nos te hic vidisse iacentis, dum sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur (Tusc. 1.101) , tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here obedient to our country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a translation of the Greek present participle peithomenoi.]
dum [ Ulixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. 1.2.21) , Ulysses, while securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek: arnumenos.]
SECTION: #493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. The deficiency is supplied:/p>
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active meaning:
nam singulas [ navis] nostri consectati expugnaverunt (B. G. 3.15) , for our men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.
NOTE.--The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or passive in meaning (Sect: 190. b).
2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the ablative absolute (Sect: 420. N.) or by a temporal clause (especially with cum or postquam):
itaque convocatis centurionibus milites certiores facit (B. G. 3.5) , and so, having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the centurions having been called together).
cum venisset animadvertit collem ( id. 7.44), having come (when he had come), he noticed a hill.
postquam id animum advertit copias suas Caesar in proximum collem subducit (B. G. 1.24) , having observed this (after he had observed this) Caesar led his troops to the nearest hill.
Uses of Participles
SECTION: #494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used as attributives, nearly like adjectives:
aeger et flagrans animus (Tac. Ann. 3.54) , his sick and passionate mind.
cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. 1.11) , a view at once most ancient and well approved.
signa numquam fere mentientia ( id. 1.15), signs hardly ever deceitful.
auspiciis utuntur coactis ( id. 1.27), they use forced auspices.
Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be compared, or used as nouns:
quo mulieri esset res cautior (Caec. 11) , that the matter might be more secure for the woman.
in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Or. 1.217) , pre-eminent in those arts.
sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Legg. 1.39) , the self-indulgent, and slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body).
recte facta paria esse debent (Par. 22) , right deeds (things rightly done) ought to be like in value (see Sect: 321. b).
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. 2.65) , ill got, ill spent (things ill acquired are ill spent).
consuetudo valentis (De Or. 2.186) , the habit of a man in health.
SECTION: #495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see å ¤ 283):
Gallia est divisa (B. G. 1.1) , Gaul is divided.
locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. 1.8) , the place which is now enclosed.
videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens (Cat. M. 26) , you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something.
nemo adhuc convenire me voluit cui fuerim occupatus ( id. 32), nobody hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been "engaged."
NOTE.--From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive,--the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time: as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-been-killed (i.e. already slain).
The perfect participle used with fui etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expression in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc.
At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing:
cotem quoque eodem loco sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. 1.36.5) , they say that a whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of writing it was no longer there.]
arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. 1.74) , the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground.
But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms with sum etc.
The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy and later writers.
SECTION: #496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would be more natural.
In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant circumstances:
volventes hostilia cadavera amicum reperiebant ( Sall. Cat. 61), while rolling over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.]
paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet ( id. 59), after delaying a little while, he orders them to give the signal. [Time.]
longius prosequi veritus, ad Ciceronem pervenit (B. G. 5.52) , because he feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.]
qui sciret laxas dare iussus habenas (Aen. 1.63) , who might know how to give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.]
damnatum poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. 1.4) , if condemned, punishment must overtake him. [Condition.]
salutem insperantibus reddidisti; ( Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.]
Dardanius caput ecce puer detectus (Aen. 10.133) , the Trojan boy with his head uncovered. [Description.]
nec trepides in usum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. 2.11.5) , be not anxious for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic.]
incitati fuga montis altissimos petebant (B. C. 3.93) , in headlong flight they made for the highest mountains. [Manner.]
milites sublevati alii ab aliis magnam partem itineris conficerent ( id. 1.68), the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of the route. [Means.]
hoc laudans, Pompeiius idem iuravit ( id. 3.87), approving this, Pompey took the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance.]
aut sedens aut ambulans disputabam (Tusc. 1.7) , I conducted the discussion either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.]
NOTE 1.--These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (Sect: 420).
NOTE 2.--A coordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle:
instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit ( Sall. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground.
ut hos traductos necaret (B. G. 5.6) , that he might carry them over and put them to death.
NOTE 3.--A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in English is given by without and a verbal noun: as,-- miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. 3.14) , it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything.
NOTE 4.-- Acceptum and expensum as predicates with ferre and referre are bookkeeping terms: as,--quas pecunias ferebat eis expensas (Verr. 2.170) , what sums he charged to them.
SECTION: #497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea:
ante conditam condendam ve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or building.
illi libertatem imminutam civium Romanorum non tulerunt; vos ereptam vitam neglegetis (Manil. 11) , they did not endure the infringement of the citizens' liberty; will you disregard the destruction of their lives?
post natos homines (Brut. 224) , since the creation of man.
iam a condita urbe (Phil. 3.9) , even from the founding of the city.
The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf. Sect: 411. a):
opus facto est viatico (Pl. Trin. 887) , there is need of laying in provision.
maturato opus est (Liv. 8.13.17) , there is need of haste.
The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) has almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued effect of the action of the verb:
fidem quam habent spectatam iam et diu cognitam (Caecil. 11) , my fidelity, which they have proved and long known.
cohortis in acie LXXX constitutas habebat (B. C. 3.89) , he had eighty cohorts stationed in line of battle.
nefarios duces captos iam et comprehensos tenetis (Cat. 3.16) , you have now captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody.
A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly:
praefectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. 3.134) , many discharged their officers (made dismissed).
hic transactum reddet omne (Pl. Capt. 345) , he will get it all done (restore it finished).
ademptum tibi iam faxo omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341) , I will relieve you of all fear (make it taken away).
illam tibi incensam dabo (Ter. Ph. 974) , I will make her angry with you.
NOTE.--Similarly volo (with its compounds) and cupio, with a perfect participle without esse (cf. Sect: 486. d).
After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of indirect discourse (Sect: 580), but expresses the action more vividly:
ut eum nemo umquam in equo sedentem viderit (Verr. 5.27) , so that no one ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. 3.31.]
NOTE.--The same construction is used after facio, induco, and the like, with the name of an author as subject: as,-- Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. 1.31) , Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.
Future Participle (Active)
SECTION: #498. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets and later writers.
The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse (often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjugation (see Sect: 195):
morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. 1.111) , die, Diagoras, for you are not likely to rise to heaven.
sperat adulescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 68) , the young man hopes to live long (that he shall live long).
neque petiturus umquam consulatum videretur (Off. 3.79) , and did not seem likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.
With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (Sect: 517. d). For futurum fuisse, see Sect: 589. b.
SECTION: #499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express:/p>
1. Likelihood or certainty:
rem ausus plus famae habituram (Liv. 2.10) , having dared a thing which would have more repute.
2. Purpose, intention, or readiness:
egreditur castris Romanus vallum invasurus (Liv. 3.60.8) , the Roman comes out of the camp with the intention of attacking the rampart.
dispersos per agros milites equitibus invasuris ( id. 31.36), while the horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields.
si periturus abis (Aen. 2.675) , if you are going away to perish.
3. Apodosis:
dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, daturus amplius si potuisset (Plin. Ep. 3.21.6) , he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he had been able. [Here daturus is equivalent to dedisset.]
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
NOTE.--The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct uses:
(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (Sect: 500).
(2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund (Sect: 503). This may be called its gerundive use.
.GERUNMDIVE
SECTION: #500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety.
In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be observed:
1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun:
fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 104) , a brave man, and worthy to be preserved.
gravis iniuria facta est et non ferenda (Flacc. 84) , a grave and intolerable wrong has been done.
2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see Sect: 196):
non agitanda res erit (Verr. 5.179) , will not the thing have to be agitated?
3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation.
With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be expressed in the appropriate case; with transitive verbs, an object in the accusative is sometimes found:
tempori serviendum est (Fam. 9.7.2) , one must obey the time.
legibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed.
utendum exercitationibus modicis (Cat. M. 36) , we must use moderate exercise
agitandumst vigilias (Pl. Trin. 869) , I have got to stand guard.
via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6) , the way we have to enter.
4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand,a gerundive in agreement with the object is used to express purpose:
redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. 2.47) , the contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular construction with this class of verbs.]
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. 2.1.150) , he had the temple of Castor to take care of.
navis atque onera adservanda curabat ( id. 5.146), he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept.
.GERUND
SECTION: #501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used substantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
SECTION: #502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun.
As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words; as a verb it may take an object in the proper case:
ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. 2.157) , the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false.
NOTE.--The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare.
The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun (cf. maturato opus est, Sect: 497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc tactio, p. 240, footnote).
1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar, Sect: 1588); and the English "'T was at the royal feast for Persia won"(Dryden), i.e. for the conquest of Persia.
2 The perfect with have, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this use of habeo.
3 Such verbs are accipio, adnoto, attribuo, conduco, curo, denoto, deposco,do, divido, dono, edico, e doceo, fero, habeo, loco, mando, obicio, permitto, peto, pono, praebeo, propono, relinquo, rogo, suscipio, trado, voveo.
.GERUND AND .GERUNDIVE
SECTION: #503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusative, the Gerundiveis generally used instead. The gerundive agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would have had:
paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. 1.5) , readier to undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad subeundum pericula; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative pericula.] For details, see Sect: 504-507.
NOTE 1.--In this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated in the same way, but have really a different construction. The gerundive is a passive participle, and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may translate vigiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept) by I must stand guard.
NOTE 2.--In the gerundive construction the verbs utor, fruor, etc., are treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin (Sect: 410. a. N. 1): as, -- ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. 1.25) , for enjoying pleasures.
The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of Gerund and Gerundive:
GEN. consilium urbem capiendi urbis capiendae a design of taking the city.
DAT. dat operam agros colendo agris colendis he attends to tilling the fields.
ACC. veniunt ad mihi parendum pacem petendam they come to obey me. to seek peace.
ABL. terit tempus scribendo epistulas scribendis epistulis he spends time in writing letters.
NOTE 1.--The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and the Ablative (without a preposition); even in these cases the gerundive is commoner.
NOTE 2.--The gerund or gerundive is often found coordinated with nominal constructions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun:
(1) in foro, in curia, in amicorum periculis propulsandis (Phil. 7.7) , in the forum, in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy.
(2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. 21.4) , for the most widely different things, obeying and commanding.
Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive
SECTION: #504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive:
vivende Ç finis est optimus (Cat. M. 72) , it is the best end of living. [Subjective.]
neque consili habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato; ( B. G. 4.14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Objective.]
non tam commutandarum quam evertendarum rerum cupidos (Off. 2.3) , desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]
NOTE 1.--In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common.
NOTE 2.--In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as,-- tempus est abire, it is time to go.
The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, especially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively:
nulla causa iusta cuiquam esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi; ( Phil. 2.53), no one can have a just cause for taking up arms against his country.
artem vera ac falsa diiudicandi; (De Or. 2.157), the art of distinguishing true from false.
NOTE 1.--The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin) as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose:
quae postquam gloriosa modo neque belli patrandi cognovit (Iug. 88) , when he perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war.
Aegyptum proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. 2.59) , he sets out for Egypt to study old times.
The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causa or gratia expresses purpose (Sect: 533. b):
pabulandi aut frumentandi causa progressi; ( B. C. 1.48), having advanced for the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies.
vitandae suspicionis causa; ( Cat. 1.19), in order to avoid suspicion.
simulandi gratia; (Iug. 37), in order to deceive.
exercendae memoriae gratia; (Cat. M. 38), for the sake of training the memory.
The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective genitive instead of taking a direct object:
reiiciendi trium iudicum potestas (Verr. 2.77) , the power of challenging three jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors).
sui colligendi facultas (B. G. 3.6) , the opportunity to recover themselves.
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive
SECTION: #505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few expressions after verbs:
diem praestitit operi faciendo (Verr. 2.1.148) , he appointed a day for doing the work.
praeesse agro colendo (Rosc. Am. 50) , to take charge of cultivating the land.
esse solvendo, to be able to pay (to be for paying).
NOTE.--The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus.
The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjectives,especially those which denote fitness or adaptability:
genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. 32.10) , a sort of armor suited to the defence of the body.
reliqua tempora demetendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. M. 70) , the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest.
perferendis militum mandatis idoneus (Tac. Ann. 1.23) , suitable for carrying out the instructions of the soldiers.
NOTE.--This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent in classical prose.
The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate the function or scope of the office etc.:
comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. 1.33) , elections for nominating consuls.
triumvir coloniis deducundis (Iug. 42) , a triumvir for planting colonies.
triumviri rei publicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a commission of three) for settling the government.
<
Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive
SECTION: #506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the preposition ad, to denote Purpose (cf. Sect: 533):
me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34) , you summon me to write.
vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. 1.4) , you live not to put off but to confirm your daring.
nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. 1.31) , having found means to undertake these things.
NOTE 1.--Other prepositions appear in this construction; inter and ob a few times, circa, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Ecl. 9.24) , while driving.
NOTE 2.--The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct object in classic Latin.
Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive
SECTION: #507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1) to express manner,means, cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives; and (3) after the propositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro:
(1) multa pollicendo persuadet (Iug. 46) , he persuades by large promises.
Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 128) , equal to any man in speaking Latin.
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 21) , by reading these very things.
obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. 1.8) , calling to them a mean and obscure multitude.
(2) nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. 1.47) , no duty is more important than repaying favors.
(3) in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 17) , to be employed in conducting affairs.
NOTE 1.--The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used with verbs and adjectives: as,-- nec continuando abstitit magistratu (Liv. 9.34) , he did not desist from continuing his magistracy.
NOTE 2.--The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose.
.SUPINE
SECTION: #508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (Sect: 94. b), having no distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um is the Accusative of the end of motion (Sect: 428. i). (2) The form in -u is usually Dative of purpose (Sect: 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it.
SECTION: #509. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. It may take an object in the proper case:
quid est, imusne sessum? etsi admonitum venimus te, non flagitatum (De Or. 3.17) , how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to remind, not to entreat you.
nuptum dare ( collocare), to give in marriage.
venerunt questum iniurias (Liv. 3.25) , they came to complain of wrongs.
NOTE 1.--The supine in -um is especially common with eo, and with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive:
fuere cives qui rem publicam perditum irent ( Sall. Cat. 36), there were citizens who went about to ruin the republic.
si sciret se trucidatum iri (Div. 2.22) , if he ( Pompey) had known that he was going to be murdered. [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of expressing the future passive infinitive, see Sect: 569. 3. a.]
NOTE 2.--The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied.
SECTION: #510. The Supine in -uis used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to denote an action in reference to which the quality is asserted:
rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. 2.63) , a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of.
quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. 2.1.68) , they ask what is best to do.
si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. 5.38) , if this is lawful to say.
videtis nefas esse dictu miseram fuisse talem senectutem (Cat. M. 13) , you see it is a sin to say that such an old age was wretched.
NOTE 1.--The supine in -u is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification (Sect: 418).
NOTE 2.--The supine in -u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, and iucundus, ad with the gerund is more common:
nec visu facilis nec dictu adfabilis ulli; ( Aen. 3.621), he is not pleasant for any man to look at or address.
difficilis ad distinguendum similitudo; (De Or. 2.212), a likeness difficult to distinguish.
NOTE 3.--With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same sense: as,--faciles aurem praebere (Prop. 2.21.15) , indulgent to lend an ear.
NOTE 4.--The supine in -u with a verb is extremely rare: as,-- pudet dictu (Tac. Agr. 32) , it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dictu.]
.CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
SECTION: #511. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that the form of the main clause (APODOSIS) is determined in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS) upon the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought which was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word: my servant shall be healed is a simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak the word, etc.
The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional meaning: thus, si, if, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (si-ce like hi-ce, see Sect: 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or in some way. Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with sic to make a pair of correlatives: thus ... thus (see Sect: 512. b).
In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command; but, as no special sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a statement of fact (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive). From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative, expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally as future--and hence more or less doubtful--or (2) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it as futurum in praeterito,and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus,-- rides, maiore cachinno concutitur, you laugh, he shakes with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and apodosis; si rides originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so, later, IF you laugh. So roges Aristonem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; si roges would mean ask in some way or other. In si rogares, negaret, the Imperfect rogares transfers the command of roges to past time,with the meaning suppose you had asked, and si would have the same meaning as before; while negaret transfers the future idea of neget to past time, and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact,--because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition: for it would then be a simple fact, and as such would be put in the indicative.Such a condition or conclusion
was originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny) it came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were now asking, he would [now] deny--just as in English ought, which originally meant owed,has come to express a present obligation.
For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see Sect: 513.
1 The gerundive construction is probably the original one.
2 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere.
3 Such are accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, utilis, inutilis. But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf. Sect: 385. a).
4 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in medieval writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle: as,-- cum una dierum FLENDO sedisset, quidam miles generosus iuxta eam EQUITANDO venit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [), as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare Sect: 507, fourth example). Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as mandando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages.
5 The only common supines in -u are auditu, dictu, factu, inventu, memoratu, natu, visu. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs. It is never followed by an object-case.
6 The futurum in praeterito is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely past. It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive: thus dixisset, he would have said= dicturus fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express a present condition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact.
7 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said (Sect: 439. b).
8 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise: as,-- deciens centena dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. S. 1.3.15) , if you'd given him a million, there was nothing in his coffers.
9 "There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces.‰Û?--Tyndale's New Testament.
.PROTASIS AND .APODOSIS
SECTION: #512. A complete Conditional Sentence consists of two clauses the Protasis and the Apodosis.
The clause containing the condition is called the PROTASIS the clause containing the conclusion is called the APODOSIS:
si qui exire volunt [ PROTASIS], conivere possum [ APODOSIS] (Cat. 2.27) , if any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut.
si est in exsilio [ PROTASIS], quid amplius postulatis [ APODOSIS] (Lig. 13) , if he is in exile, what more do you ask?
It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the main clause and the Protasis the dependent clause.
The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle si, if, or one of its compounds.
NOTE.--These compounds are sin, nisi, etiam si, etsi, tametsi, tamenetsi (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause: see Conditional Relative Clauses (Sect: 519, 542); Concessive Clauses ( Sect: 527).
The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or phrase: as, ita, tum (rarely sic), or ea condicione etc.:
ita enim senectus honesta est, si se ipsa defendit (Cat. M. 38) , on this condition is old age honorable, if it defends itself.
si quidem me amaret, tum istuc prodesset (Ter. Eun. 446) , if he loved me, then this would be profitable.
sic scribes aliquid, si vacabis (Att. 12.38.2) , if you are (shall be) at leisure, then you will write something.
The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase:
sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari iussisset (Q. C. 8.2.12) , intending also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be interred.
quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione iturum [ esse] (B. G. 1.40.14) , but if no one else should follow, he would go with the tenth legion alone.
si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse ( id. 40.8), if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc.
NOTE.--When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other dependent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above examples, see Sect: 589).
.CLASSIFICATION OF .CONDITIONS
SECTION: #513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General.
1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts occurring at some definite time.
2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
SECTION: #514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences may be exhibited as follows:
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
A. SIMPLE CONDITIONS (nothing implied as to fulfilment)
1. Present Time
Present Indicative in both clauses:
si adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well.
2. Past Time
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses:
si aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well.
si adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] well.
B. FUTURE CONDITIONS (as yet unfulfilled)
1. .More .Vivid
a. Future Indicative in both clauses:
si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well.
b. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodosis:
si adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well
2. .Less .Vivid
a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses:
si adsit, bene sit, if he should be (or were to be) here, it would be well.
b. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod osis:
si adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would [then] be well.
CONDITIONS .CONTRARY TO .FACT
1. Present Time
Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:
si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but he is NOT here).
2. Past Time
Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:
si adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well (but he was NOT here).
NOTE.--The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive; if he were to see me thus is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive; and so <
>o, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.
.GENERAL CONDITIONS
General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular Conditions (A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the cases following:
1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time)
a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject) in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
si hoc dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed.
b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
si quid dixit, creditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed.
2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time)
a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis:
si quid dixerat, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed.
b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis:
si quid diceret, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed (= whatever he said was always believed).
Cf. the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions:
A. 1. ei prassei touto, kal?s echei. 2. ei eprasse touto, kal?s eichen.
B. 1. ean prassei touto, kal?s hexei. 2. ei prassoi touto, kal?s an echoi.
C. 1. ei eprasse touto, kal?s an eichen. 2. ei epraxe touto, kal?s an eschen.
D. 1. ean tis klept
1 In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he would not say this, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was.
PARTICULAR .CONDITIONS
Simple Present and Past Conditions--Nothing Implied
SECTION: #515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose falsity is NOT implied, the Present and Past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis:
si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. 5.2) , if you and the army are well, it is well. [Present Condition.]
haec igitur, si Romae es; sin ades, aut etiam si ades, haec negotia sic se habent (Att. 5.18) , this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are away--or even if you are there--these matters are as follows. [Present Condition.]
si Caesarem probatis, in me offenditis ( B. C. 2.32.10), if you favor Caesar, you find fault with me. [Present Condition.]
si qui magnis in eo genere exstiterunt, non satis Graecorum gloriae responderunt (Tusc. 1.3) , if any have shown themselves of great genius in that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks. [Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.]
accepi Roma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo, si modo valuisti et Romae fuisti, Philotimi duco esse culpam non tuam (Att. 5.17) , I have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, provided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and Present conclusion.]
quas litteras, si Romae es, videbis putesne reddendas ( id. 5.18), as to this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought to be delivered. [Mixed: Present and Future.]
si nemo impetravit, adroganter rogo (Lig. 30) , if no one has succeeded in obtaining it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.]
In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the Indicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense:
si placet ... videamus (Cat. M. 15) , if you please, let us see. [Hortatory Subjunctive, Sect: 439.]
si nondum satis cernitis, recordamini (Mil. 61) , if you do not yet see clearly, recollect. [Imperative.]
si quid habes certius, velim scire (Att. 4.10) , if you have any trustworthy information, I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, Sect: 447. 1.]
NOTE.--Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such implication:
nolite, si in nostro omnium fletu nullam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc minus ei parcere (Mil. 92) , do not, if amid the weeping of us all you have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that.
petimus a vobis, iudices, si qua divina in tantis ingeniis commendatio debet esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Arch. 31) , we ask you, judges, if there ought to be anything in such genius to recommend it to us as by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your protection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used.
Future Conditions
SECTION: #516. Future Conditions may be more vivid or less vivid.
1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the logical result.
2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed.
In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis:
sanabimur, si volemus (Tusc. 3.13) , we shall be healed if we wish.
quod si legere aut audire voletis, ... reperietis (Cat. M. 20) , if you will [shall wish to] read or hear, you will find.
NOTE.--In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, rarely by the Future with SHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. Sect: 468):
si vincimus, omnia nobis tuta erunt; sin metu cesserimus, eadem illa advorsa fient ( Sall. Cat. 58), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield through fear, those same things will become hostile.
si pereo, hominum manibus perlisse iuvabit (Aen. 3.606) , if I perish, it will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men.
In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is used in both protasis and apodosis:
haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. 1.19) , if your country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail?
quod si quis deus mihi largiatur, ... valde recusem (Cat. M. 83) , but if some god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse.
NOTE.--The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future (or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view:
si diligenter attendamus, intellegemus (Inv. 2.44) , if we attend (should attend) carefully, we shall understand.
nisi hoc dicat, " iure feci" non habet defensionem ( id. 1.18), unless he should say this, "I acted justifiably" he has no defence.
If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunctive:
sin cum potuero non venero, tum erit inimicus ( Att. 9.2A. 2), but if I do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly.
si a corona relictus sim, non queam dicere (Brut. 192) , if I should be deserted by the circle of listeners, I should not be able to speak.
NOTE.--The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition: as,--vehementer mihi gratum feceris, si hunc adulescentem humanitate tua comprehenderis (Fam. 13.15) , you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy.
Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and - rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like:
alius finis constituendus est, si prius quid maxime reprehendere Scipio solitus sit dixero; (Lael. 59), another limit must be set, if I first state what Scipio was wont most to find fault with.
si me praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento (Q. C. 9.6.26) , if fate cuts me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this.
nisi oculis videritis insidias Miloni a Clodio factas, nec deprecaturi sumus nec postulaturi (Mil. 6) , unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc.
non possum istum accusare, si cupiam (Verr. 4.87) , I cannot accuse him, if I should (so) desire
Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished:
si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. 21.44) , if this is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.]
si eundem [ animum] habueritis, vicimus ( id. 21.43), if you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered.
A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, without implying that it is contrary to fact (Sect: 517). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used:
non poterat, nisi decertare vellet (B. C. 3.44) , he was not able, unless he wished to fight.
tumulus apparuit, ... si luce palam iretur hostis praeventurus erat (Liv. 22.24) , a hill appeared ... if they should go openly by daylight, the enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discourse, but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example as present would say non potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect discourse would be thought of.]
Caesar si peteret, ... non quicquam proficeret (Hor. S. 1.3.4) , if even Caesar were to ask, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply si petat, non proficiat, thrown into past time.]
Conditions .Contrary to Fact
SECTION: #517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and apodosis.The Imperfect refers to present time, the Pluperfect to past:
si viveret, verba eiius audiretis (Rosc. Com. 42) , if he were living, you would hear his words. [Present.]
nisi tu amisisses, numquam recepissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I should not have recovered it. [Past.]
si meum consilium valuisset, tu hodie egeres, res publica non tot duces amisisset (Phil. 2.37) , if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.]
In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist:
si nihil litteris adiuvarentur, numquam se ad earum studium contulissent (Arch. 16) , if they had not been helped at all by literature, they never would have given their attention to the study of it. [Without the condition, adiuvabantur.]
hic si mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pison. 50) , if he were of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army? [Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.]
non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Verr. 2.3) , [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patebat.]
In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely, or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive:
si licitum esset, matres veniebant (Verr. 5.129) , the mothers were coming if it had been allowed.
in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Tac. Ann. 16.32) , he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed.
iam tuta tenebam, ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset (Aen. 6.358) , I was just reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me.
NOTE 1.--Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus,-- matres veni̬bant ( et venissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if, etc.
NOTE 2.--With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, the Perfect Indicative is used in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact: as,--pons iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset (Liv. 2.10) , the bridge had almost given a passage to the foe, if it had not been for one hero.
Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possibility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative.
Such are oportet, decet, debeo, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Second Periphrastic Conjugation:
non potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset (Fin. 2.103) , he could not have become a sage, if he had not been born.
si privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. 50) , if he were at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed.
quod esse caput debebat, si probari posset (Fin. 4.23) , what ought to be the main point, if it could be proved.
si ita putasset, certe optabilius Miloni fuit (Mil. 31) , if he had thought so, surely it would have been preferable for Milo.
NOTE 1.--In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive ( oporteret, possem, etc.) is the rule, the Indicative being rare; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common.
For par erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see Sect: 521. N.
NOTE 2.--The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as,-- si non alium iactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. 2.133) , it were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor.
The participle in -urus with eram or fui may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact:
quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si ... (Liv. 2.1) , what would have happened if, etc.
relicturi agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus litteras misisset (Verr. 3.121) , they would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter.
neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si ... (Liv. 2.1) , nor is there any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct: fecisset.]
adeo parata seditio fuit ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta noctis timuissent (Tac. H. 1.26) , so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night. [In a main clause: rapuissent, ni timuissent.]
The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact:
ni comes admoneat, inruat (Aen. 6.293) , had not his companion warned him, he would have rushed on. [Cf. tu si hic sis, aliter sentias (Ter. And. 310) , if you were in my place, you would think differently.]
NOTE 1.--This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note).
NOTE 2.--In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect) in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive, like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences. Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the main) to the present contrary to fact, while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction, however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry.
In Plautus and Terence absque me ( te, etc.) is sometimes used to introduce conditions contrary to fact:
absque te esset, hodie nusquam viverem (Pl. Men. 1022) , if it were not for you, I should not be alive to-day.
absque eo esset, recte ego mihi vidissem (Ter. Ph. 188) , if it had not been for him, I should have looked out for myself.
1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not; as in the proverbial "If the sky falls, we shall catch larks"the impossible condition is iron<
> ieally put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condition stated by some one else.
2 The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the subjunctive; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive <
> apodosis in this construction (see c, d, below, and Sect: 511).
3 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf. p. 328, footnote). Thus, decet me [ hodie] ire cras, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow; and, decebat me [ heri] ire hodie, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually with the implication that I have not gone as I was bound to do.
.GENERAL .CONDITIONS
SECTION: #518. General Conditions ( Sect: 513. 2) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished in the following cases:
The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to denote the act of an indefinite subject (you = any one). Here the Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis:
vita humana prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas, conteritur; si non exerceas, tamen robigo interficit ( Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if you use it, it wears away; if you don't use it, rust still destroys it.
virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur (Tusc. 1.91) , glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one's aim.
si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est (Tac. Ann. 3.54) , if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no fear or shame any more.
In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis:
si quos aliqua parte membrorum inutilis notaverunt, necari iubent (Q. C. 9.1.25) , if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, they [always] order them to be put to death. [Present.]
si a persequendo hostis deterrere nequiverant, ab tergo circumveniebant (Iug. 50) , if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.]
In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time (Iterative Subjunctive):
si quis a domino prehenderetur, concursu militum eripiebatur (B. C. 3.110) , if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by a mob of soldiers.
accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Tac. Ann. 6.30) , the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.
si quis collegam appellasset, ab eo ita discedebat ut paeniteret non prioris decreto stetisse (Liv. 3.36.8) , if any one appealed to a colleague, he [always] came off in such case that he repented not having submitted to the decree of the former decemvir. [Cf. S ocrates, quam se cumque in partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile princeps (De Or. 3.60) , in whatever direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if in any. etc.).]
Conditional .Relative Clauses
SECTION: #519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb may express a condition and take any of the constructions of Protasis(Sect: 514):
qui enim vitiis modum adponit, is partem suscipit vitiorum (Tusc. 4.42) , he who [only] sets a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults. [= si quis adponit. Present, nothing implied.]
qui mentiri solet, peierare consuevit (Rosc. Com. 46) , whoever is in the habit of lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [= si quis solet. Present, nothing implied.]
quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per se; (Leg. Agr. 1.20), whatever power she had, she had by herself. [= si quid potuit. Past, nothing implied.]
quod qui faciet, non aegritudine solum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. 4.38) , and he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only, etc. [= si quis faciet. Future, more vivid.]
quisquis huc venerit, vapulabit (Pl. Am. 309) , whoever comes here shall get a thrashing. [= si quis venerit. Future, more vivid.]
quo voles, sequar (Clu. 71) , whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I will follow. [= si quo voles. Future, more vivid.]
philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere (Cat. M. 2) , philosophy, which if any one should obey, he would be able to spend his whole life without vexation. [= si quis pareat. Future, less vivid.]
quaecumque vos causa huc attulisset, laetarer (De Or. 2.15) , I should be glad whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as the one which did). [= si ... attulisset. Contrary to fact.]
The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning, and very often in form.
SECTION: #520. The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes found in Conditional Relative Clauses:
1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (Sect: 518. a):
bonus tantum modo segnior fit ubi neglegas, at malus improbior (Iug. 31.28) , a good man merely becomes less diligent when you don't watch him, but a bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.]
2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (Sect: 518. b):
cum huc veni, hoc ipsum nihil agere me delectat (De Or. 2.24) , whenever I come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition.]
cum rosam viderat, tum incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. 5.27) , whenever he saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past General Condition.]
3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (Sect: 518. c):
ubi imbecillitas materiae postulare videretur, pilae interponuntur (B. C. 2.16) , wherever the weakness of the timber seemed to require, piles were put between. [Past General Condition: interponuntur = interponebantur.]
quocumque se intulisset, victoriam secum trahebat (Liv. 6.8) , wherever he advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.]
Condition Disguised
SECTION: #521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of the thought.
The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle, Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase:
facile me paterer--illo ipso iudice quaerente-- pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rosc. Am. 85) , I should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius if that very judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact: si quaereret, paterer.]
non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. 2.180) , it would not have come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to fact: nisi admonitus essem.]
nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. 22.54) , there is no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster. [Past contrary to fact: si alia fuisset.]
nemo umquam sine magna spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ad mortem (Tusc. 1.32) , no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact: nisi magnam spem haberet.]
quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio iuvare potuisset (Lael. 11) , what good could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added)? [Past contrary to fact: si accessissent.]
quid igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentienti (Tusc. 1.104) , what harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don't feel anything (feeling nothing)? [Future more vivid: si nihil sentiam.]
incitata semel proclivi labuntur sustinerique nullo modo possunt ( id. 4.42), if once given a push, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be checked. [Present General: si incitata sunt.]
NOTE.--In several phrases denoting necessity, propriety, or the like, the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf. 517. c):
quanto melius fuerat promissum non esse servatum (Off. 3.94) , how much better would it have been if the promise had not been kept! [ promissum ... servatum= si promissum non esset servatum.]
mori praeclarum fuit (Att. 8.2.2) , it would have been honorable to die.
sed erat aequius Triarium aliquid de dissensione nostra iudicare (Fin. 2.119) , but it would be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. [ Triarium iudicare= si Triarius iudicaret.]
satius fuit amittere milites (Inv. 2.73) , it would have been better to lose the soldiers. [ amittere= si amisisset.]
The condition may be contained in a wish (Optative Subjunctive), or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive or Imperative):
utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. 12.3) , I wish I had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had been). [Optative Subjunctive.]
naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. 1.10.24) , drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.]
roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. 4.69) , for ask Aristo, he would deny.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22) , old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and diligence (Sect: 528. N.). [Hortatory.]
tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. 1.30) , remove this notion, and you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.]
NOTE.--The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and ne often has the force of protasis (Sect: 527. a. N.): as,-- ut enim rationem Plato nullam adferret, ipsa auctoritate me frangeret (Tusc. 1.49) , even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower me by his mere authority.
Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:
rides: maiore cachinno concutitur (Iuv. 3.100) , you laugh; he shakes with louder laughter (=if you laugh, he shakes).
commove: senties (Tusc. 4.54) , stir him up, [and] you'll find, etc.
de paupertate agitur: multi patientes pauperes commemorantur ( id. 3.57), we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned.
For Conditional Relative Clauses, see Sect: 519, 520.
Condition Omitted
SECTION: #522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument:
poterat Sextilius impune negare: quis enim redargueret (Fin. 2.55) , Sextilius might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he had denied)?
In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future or contrary to fact:
quod contra decuit ab illo meum [ corpus cremari] (Cat. M. 84) , whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him.
nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus (Tusc. 1.115) , for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been born (but we do not).
quanto melius fuerat (Off. 3.94) , how much better it would have been.
illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin. 4.2) , it would be more fitting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. 2.103) , would it have been a great matter to wait for the man himself?
longum est ea dicere, sed ... (Sest. 12) , it would be tedious to tell, etc. [Future.]
NOTE 1.--In this construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time; the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.
NOTE 2.--In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above).
Complex Conditions
SECTION: #523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the parts is sometimes disguised:
si quis horum dixisset ... si verbum de re publica fecisset ... multa plura dixisse quam dixisset putaretur (Rosc. Am. 2) , if any of these had spoken, in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole of the following statement ( si ... putaretur), which is itself conditioned by a protasis of its own: si verbum, etc.].
quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera quidem eosdem motus sine divino ingenio potuisset imitari; (Tusc. 1.63), now if that cannot be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archimedes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine genius. [Here si potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contraryto-fact protasis of its own implied in sine ... ingenio.]
peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. S. 2.1.6) , confound me (may perish wretchedly) if it would n't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary to fact, is omitted.]
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted)
SECTION: #524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive, usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect.
Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam, tamquam si, quasi, ac si, ut si, velut si (later velut), poetic ceu (all meaning as if), and by quam si (than if):
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. 12.9) , as if Asia were closed.
tamquam si claudus sim (Pl. Asin. 427) , just as if I were lame.
ita hos [ honores] petunt, quasi honeste vixerint (Iug. 85) , they seek them (offices) just as if they had lived honorably.
quasi vero non specie visa iudicentur (Acad. 2.58) , as if forsooth visible things were not judged by their appearance.
similiter facis ac si me roges (N. D. 3.8) , you do exactly as if you asked me.
crudelitatem horrerent velut si coram adesset (B. G. 1.32) , they dreaded his cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person.
hic ingentem pugnam cernimus ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (Aen. 2.438) , here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. 5.88.]
magis a me abesse videbare quam si domi esses (Att. 6.5) , you seemed to be absent from me more than if you were at home.
NOTE 1.--These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam si claudus sim the protasis is introduced by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
NOTE 2.--The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles; but the point of view is different in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were lame,--as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means just as [it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honeste vixerint, as if they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive ( Sect: 516. c).
Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of comparison:
aeque a te peto ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. 13.43) , I entreat you as much as if it were my own business.
eiius negotium sic velim suscipias ut si esset res mea ( id. 7.20.1), I would have you undertake his business as though it were my affair.
NOTE.--The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam si the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule.
Use of si and its Compounds
SECTION: #525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows:
Si is used for affirmative, nisi ( ni) and si non for negative conditions.
1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true:
nisi Conon adest, maereo, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which case I am not).
2. With si non (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative) case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made:
si Conon non adest, maereo, if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases in which I may or may not mourn).
NOTE.--It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is stated.
3. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs:
noli putare me ad quemquam longiores epistulas soribere, nisi si quis ad me plura scripsit (Fam. 14.2) , ... except in case one writes more to me.
NOTE.-- Ni is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappearing in poets and later writers.
Nisi vero and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or exception ironically, and take the Indicative:
nisi vero L. Caesar crudelior visus est (Cat. 4.13) , unless indeed Lucius Caesar seemed too cruel.
nisi forte volumus Epicureorum opinionem sequi; (Fat. 37), unless, to be sure, we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.
NOTE.--This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin. Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as,-- nisi unum hoc faciam ut in puteo cenam coquant (Pl. Aul. 365) , unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well.
Sive ( seu) ... sive ( seu), whether ... or, introduce a condition in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they are used without a verb:
nam illo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid scribo aut lego; (Legg. 2.1), for I enjoy myself most in that place, whether I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.
NOTE.--Sive ... seu and seu ... sive are late or poetic.
Sin, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one that precedes:
accusator illum defendet si poterit; sin minus poterit, negabit (Inv. 2.88) , the accuser will defend him if he can; but if he cannot, he will deny.
Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only when a negative (usually nescio) is expressed, or easily understood, in the main clause:
nescio: nisi me dixisse nemini certo scio; ( Ter. Ph. 952), I don't know: only I am sure that I have n't told anybody.
.CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
SECTION: #526. The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms, each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (Sect: 440), but it is more frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a concessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative particle ( tamen, certe) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independ ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and somewhat more frequently than the indicative.
SECTION: #527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although, granting that) are quamvis, ut, licet, etsi, tametsi, etiam si, quamquam, and cum.
Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, according to the nature of the clause which each introduces.
Quamvis and ut take the Subjunctive:
quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen ... (Or. 76) , however incapable of speaking they themselves may be, yet, etc.
quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (De Or. 1.230) , however guilty they might have been.
quamvis comis in amicis tuendis fuerit (Fin. 2.80) , amiable as he may have been in keeping his friends.
ut neminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46) , even if he had asked no other.
ut enim non efficias quod vis, tamen mors ut malum non sit efficies (Tusc. 1.16) , for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, still you will prove that death is not an evil.
ut rationem Plato nullam adferret ( id. 1.49), though Plato adduced no reasons.
NOTE.-- Quamvis means literally as much as you will. Thus in the first example above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quamvis is hortatory, like that with ne (Sect: 440); that with ut ( ut non) is of uncertain origin.
Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive:
licet omnes mihi terrores periculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am. 31) , though all terrors and perils should menace me.
NOTE.-- Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence the subjunctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The concessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substantive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (Sect: 565. N.1).
Etsi, etiam si, tametsi, even if, take the same constructions as si (see Sect: 514):
etsi abest maturitas, tamen non est inutile (Fam. 6.18.4) , though ripeness of age is wanting, yet it is not useless, etc.
etsi numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspicio; ( id. 5.19), although it has never been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc.
etsi statueram ( id. 5.5), though I had determined.
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis, tamen contentos vos esse oportebat (Sull. 90) , even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satisfied.
etiam si quod scribas non habebis, scribito tamen (Fam. 16.26) , even if you [shall] have nothing to write, still write.
sed ea tametsi vos parvi pendebatis ( Sall. Cat. 52.9), but although you regarded those things as of small account.
NOTE 1.-- Tametsi with the subjunctive is very rare.
NOTE 2.--A protasis with si often has a concessive force: as,-- ego, si essent inimicitiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hoc tempore rei publicae consulere ... deberem (Prov. Cons. 47) , as for me, even if I had private quarrels with Caesar, it would still be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis.
Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the Indicative:
omnibus--quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus--pestem denuntiat (Phil. 14.8) , though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens all with destruction.
NOTE.-- Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition in the indicative: as,-- quamquam haec quidem iam tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc. ( Mil. 76), and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quamquam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to the nature of the condition:
quamquam moveretur (Liv. 36.34) , although he was moved.
Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, musam (Ecl. 3.84) , Pollio loves my muse, though she is rustic.
quamvis perveneras (Liv. 2.40) , though you had come.
Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession:
verum ut errare potuisti, sic decipi te non potuisse quis non videt (Fam. 10.20.2) , suppose you could have been mistaken, who does not see that you cannot have been deceived in this way?
For cum concessive, see Sect: 549; for qui concessive, see Sect: 535. e. For concession expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative ne), see Sect: 440.
CLAUSES OF .PROVISO
SECTION: #528. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is ne:
oderint dum metuant (Off. 1.97) , let them hate, if only they fear.
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 64) , provided the health be good.
dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. 1.10) , provided only the wall (of the city) is between us.
tantum ut sciant (Att. 16.11.1) , provided only they know.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. 1.105) , provided [in pleasure] he be not of the herd of cattle.
id faciat saepe, dum ne lassus fiat ( Cato R. R. 5.4) , let him do this often, provided he does not get tired.
dummodo ea ( severitas) ne varietur (Q. Fr. 1.1.20) , provided only it (strictness) be not allowed to swerve.
tantum ne noceat (Ov. M. 9.21) , only let it do no harm.
NOTE.--The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal clauses, Sect: 553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don't care).
The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes expresses a proviso:
sint Maecenates, non deerunt Marones (Mart. 8.56.5 ) , so there be Maecenases, Virgils will not be lacking.
The Subjunctive with ut (negative ne) is sometimes used to denote a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause:
probata condicio est, sed ita ut ille praesidia deduceret (Att. 7.14.1) , the terms were approved, but only on condition that he should withdraw the garrisons.
NOTE.--This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result.
For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see Sect: 535. d.
CLAUSES OF .PURPOSE (.FINAL CLAUSES)
SECTION: #529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see Sect: 592). Thus, misit legatos qui dicerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. who were directed to say; in the direct orders the verb would be dicite, which would become dicant in the Indirect Discourse of narrative (Sect: 588) or dicerent in the past (cf. hortatory subjunctive in past tenses, Sect: 439. b). The Subjunctive with ut and ne is, in general, similar in origin.
SECTION: #530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause.
SECTION: #531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut ( uti), negative ne ( ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb.--
1. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut ( uti) or ne ( ut ne), express the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause:
ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. 2.12) , they brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator.
ut sint auxilio suis, subsistunt (B. C. 1.80) , they halt in order to support (be an aid to) their own men.
ne milites oppidum inrumperent, portas obstruit ( id. 1.27), he barricaded the gates, in order that the soldiers might not break into the town.
scalas parari iubet, ne quam facultatem dimittat ( id. 1.28), he orders scalingladders to be got ready, in order not to let slip any opportunity.
ut ne sit impune (Mil. 31) , that it be not with impunity.
NOTE 1.--Sometimes the conjunction has a correlative ( ideo, idcirco, eo consilio, etc.) in the main clause (cf. Sect: 561. a):
legum idcirco servi sumus, ut liberi simus (Clu 146), for this reason we are subject to the laws, that we may be free.
copias transduxit eo consilio, ut castellum expugnaret (cf. B. G. 2.9), he led the troops across with this design--to storm the fort.
NOTE 2.-- Ut non sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when non belongs to some particular word: as,-- ut plura non dicam (Manil. 44) , to avoid unnecessary talk.
2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pronoun qui or a relative adverb ( ubi, unde, quo, etc.). The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause:
mittitur L. Decidius Saxa qui loci naturam perspiciat (B. C. 1.66) , Lucius Decidius Saxa is sent to examine the ground (who should examine, etc.).
scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 206) , he wrote speeches for other men to deliver.
eo exstincto fore unde discerem neminem (Cat. M. 12) , that when he was dead there would be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn.
huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti; ( Quinct. 73), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.
habebam quo confugerem (Fam. 4.6.2) , I had [a retreat] whither I might flee.
NOTE.--In this construction qui= ut is (etc.), ubi= ut ibi, and so on (Sect: 537. 2).
The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final clauses which contain a comparative:
comprimere eorum audaciam, quo facilius ceterorum animi frangerentur (Fam. 15.4.10) , to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others might be broken more easily (by which the more easily).
libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 11) , he took advantage of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity.
NOTE.--Occasionally quo introduces a final clause that does not contain a comparative: as,--L. Sulla exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, luxuriose habuerat ( Sall. Cat. 11), Lucius Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him.
For quominus (= ut eo minus) after verbs of hindering, see Sect: 558. b.
SECTION: #532. The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is often to be supplied from the context:
ac ne longum sit ... iussimus (Cat. 3.10) , and, not to be tedious, we ordered, etc. [Strictly, in order not to be tedious, I say we ordered.]
sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus (Tusc. 5.63) , but to return to Dionysius.
sed ut eodem revertar, causa haec fuit timoris (Fam. 6.7.3) , but, to return to the same point, this was the cause of fear.
satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. 13.12) , it was the act of one rash enough, not to say daring.
NOTE 1.--By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used with nedum (sometimes ne), still less, not to mention that:
nedum salvi esse possimus (Clu. 95) , much less could we be safe.
nedum isti non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti; (Leg. Agr. 2.97), far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.
nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. 16.8) , still less is it easy at sea and on a journey.
quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatigant; ne illi corruptis moribus victoriae temperarent ( Sall. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the soul even of the wise; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on victory.
NOTE 2.--With nedum the verb itself is often omitted: as,-- aptius humanitati tuae quam tota Peloponnesus, nedum Patrae (Fam. 7.28.1) , fitter for your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of PatrÌ º.
For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see Sect: 563-566.
SECTION: #533. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various ways; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (Sect: 460).
The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered--
(1) venerunt ut pacem peterent. [Final clause with ut (Sect: 531. 1).]
(2) venerunt qui pacem peterent. [Final clause with Relative (Sect: 531. 2).]
(3) [ venerunt ad petendum pacem.] Not found with transitive verbs (Sect: 506, N.2), but cf. ad parendum senatui. [Gerund with ad (Sect: 506).]
(4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (Sect: 506).]
(5) venerunt pacem petendi causa ( gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa (Sect: 504. b).]
(6) venerunt pacis petendae causa ( gratia). [Gen. of Gerundive with causa (Sect: 504. b).]
(7) venerunt pacem petituri. [Future participle (Sect: 499. 2); in later writers.]
(8) venerunt pacem petitum. [Supine in -um (Sect: 509).]
These forms are not used indifferently, but:/p>
The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative ne), unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which case a relative is more common:
legatos ad Dummnorigem mittunt, ut eo deprecatore a Sequanis impetrarent (B. G. 1.9) , they send envoys to Dumnorix, in order through his intercession to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani.
milites misit ut eos qui fugerant persequerentur ( id. 5.10), he sent the soldiers to follow up those who had fled.
Curio praemittit equites qui primum impetum sustineant (B. C. 2.26) , Curio sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack.
The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, and in a few idiomatic expressions (Sect: 509).
The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late construction of inferior authority (Sect: 499. 2).
For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see Sect: 460. c. For the Present Participle in a sense approaching that of purpose, see Sect: 490. 3.
CLAUSES OF .CHARACTERISTIC
SECTION: #534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a fact which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive) defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus,-- non potest exercitum is continere imperator qui se ipse non continet (indicative) means simply, that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army; whereas non potest exercitum is continere imperator qui se ipse non contineat (subjunctive) would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc., that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint.
This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (Sect: 445) Thus, in the example just given, qui se ipse non contineat would mean literally, who would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in some of the examples below.
The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of Characteristic. Thus, non sum ita hebes ut haec dicam means literally, I am not dull in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result, the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic; as,-- tantus in curia clamor factus est ut populus concurreret (Verr. 2.47) , such an outcry was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together.
SECTION: #535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is otherwise undefined:
neque enim tu is es qui nescias (Fam. 5.12.6) , for you are not such a one as not to know. [Here is is equivalent to such, and is defined only by the relative clause that follows.]
multa dicunt quae vix intellegam (Fin. 4.2) , they say many things which (such as) I hardly understand.
paci quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulendum (Off. 1.35) , we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots.
A Relative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expressions of existence or non-existence, including questions which imply a negative.
So especially with sunt qui, there are [some] who; quis est qui, who is there who?--
sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. 1.18) , there are some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.
erant qui censerent (B. C. 2.30) , there were some who were of the opinion, etc.
erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Tac. Ann. 16.29) , there were some who pitied Helvidius. [Cf. est cum (N.3, below).]
quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lael. 24) , who is there that does not extol it with the highest praise?
nihil video quod timeam (Fam. 9.16.3) , I see nothing to fear.
nihil est quod adventum nostrum extimescas (Fam. 9.26.4) , there is no reason why you should dread my coming.
unde agger comportari posset nihil erat reliquum (B. C. 2.15) , there was nothing left from which an embankment could be got together.
NOTE 1.--After general negatives like nemo est qui, the Subjunctive is regular; after general affirmatives like sunt qui, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indicative sometimes occurs; after multi ( non nulli, quidam) sunt qui, and similar expressions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express:
sunt bestiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis (Fin. 5.38) , there are certain animals in which there is something like virtue.
But,-- inventi multi sunt qui vitam profundere pro patria parati essent (Off. 1.84) , many were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for their country.
NOTE 2.--Characteristic clauses with sunt qui etc. are sometimes called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the Indefinite Relative in protasis (Sect: 520).
NOTE 3.--The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc. are used like est qui, sunt qui: as,-- ac fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer (De Or. 1.1) , and there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
A Relative Clause of Characteristic may follow unus and solus:
nil admirari prope res est una solaque quae possit facere et servare beatum (Hor. Ep. 1.6.1) , to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy.
solus es cuius in victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus (Deiot. 34) , you are the only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed.
A clause of Result or Characteristic with quam ut, quam qui (rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives:
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70) , the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).
maiores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. 33.5) , they cut trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry).
NOTE.--This construction corresponds in sense to the English too ... to.
A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or proviso (cf. Sect: 528. b):
quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to what I know).
Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 65) , the speeches of Cato, at least such as I have discovered.
servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis (Cat. 4.16) , there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery.
A Relative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or concession:
peccasse mihi videor qui a te discesserim (Fam. 16.1) , I seem to myself to have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.]
virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 230) , O guileless man, who hides nothing from us! [Causal.]
egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures Athenis dies sum commoratus (De Or. 1.82) , I myself, though I began Greek literature late, yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.]
NOTE 1.--In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is etc. It is often preceded by ut, utpote, or quippe:
nec consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini fecit (Liv. 42.7) , nor did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought that very thing (as [being one] who had sought, etc.).
Lucius, frater eiius, utpote qui peregre depugnarit, familiam ducit (Phil. 5.30) , Lucius, his brother, leads his household, inasmuch as he is a man who has fought it out abroad.
convivia cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro veniret (Rosc. Am. 52) , he did not go to dinner parties with his father, since he did not even come to town except very rarely.
NOTE 2.--The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Characteristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as hindrance in spite of which (ALTHOUGH).
Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus take a subjunctive clause with a relative (rarely ut). The negative is non:
digna in quibus elaborarent (Tusc. 1.1) , (things) worth spending their toil on (worthy on which they should, etc.).
digna res est ubi tu nervos intendas tuos (Ter. Eun. 312) , the affair is worthy of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.).
idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 57) , fit to obtain.
indigni ut redimeremur (Liv. 22.59.17) , unworthy to be ransomed.
NOTE 1.--This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose, but it is more closely related to characteristic.
NOTE 2.--With dignus etc., the poets often use the Infinitive:
fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hor. Ep. 1.16.12) , a source fit to give a name to a stream.
aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov. A. A. 1.10) , a time of life soft and easy to be guided.
vivere dignus eras (Ov. M. 10.633) , you were worthy to live.
CLAUSES OF .RESULT (.CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES)
SECTION: #536. The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in Sect: 534).
SECTION: #537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut non), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
1. Pure Clauses of Result, with ut or ut non, express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause:
tanta vis probitatis est ut eam in hoste diligamus (Lael. 29) , so great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy.
pugnatur acriter ad novissimum agmen, adeo ut paene terga convertant (B. C. 1.80) , there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degree) that they almost take flight.
multa rumor adfingebat, ut paene bellum confectum videretur ( id. 1.53), rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almost ended.
2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pronoun qui or a relative adverb ( ubi, unde, quo, etc.). The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause.
The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre sponding demonstrative: qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on:
nam est innocentia affectio talis animi quae noceat nemini; (Tusc. 3.16), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one.
sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 59) , there are other causes such as to bring to pass.
nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere (Tusc. 1.43) , there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mind.
quis navigavit qui non se mortis periculo committeret (Manil. 31) , who went to sea who did not incur the peril of death?
NOTE 1.--Since the relative clause of Result is a development from the relative clause of Characteristic (Sect: 534), no sharp line can be drawn between the two constructions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause as one of Characteristic.
NOTE 2.--Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tam, talis, tantus, ita, sic, adeo. usque eo, which belong to the main clause.
A Negative Result is introduced by ut non, ut nemo, qui non, etc., not by ne:
multis gravibusque volneribus confectus ut iam se sustinere non posset (B. G. 2.25) , used up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand.
tanta vi in Pompeii equites impetum fecerunt ut eorum nemo consisteret (B. C. 3.93) , they attacked Pompey's cavalry with such vigor that not one of them stood his ground.
nemo est tam senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. M. 24) , nobody is so old as not to think that he can live a year.
NOTE.--When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut ne or ne is sometimes used as being less positive than ut non: [ librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat ( Caecina, Fam. 6.7.6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me.
Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a restrictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf. Sect: 535. d):
hoc ita est utile ut ne plane inludamur ab accusatoribus (Rosc. Am. 55) , this is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful only on this condition, that, etc.).
nihil autem est molestum quod non desideres (Cat. M. 47) , but nothing is troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss.
The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infinitive with TO or SO AS TO or an equivalent:
tam longe aberam ut non viderem, I was too far away to see (so far that I did not see; cf. Sect: 535. c).
NOTE.--Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in a few passages (Sect: 461. a).
SECTION: #538. The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence, Sect: 485. c); but, in the negative, Purpose takes ne, Result ut non etc.:
custoditus est ne effugeret, he was guarded in order that he MIGHT not escape.
custoditus est ut non effugeret, he was guarded so that he DID not escape.
So in negative Purpose clauses ne quis, ne quid, ne- ullus, ne quo, ne quando, necubi, etc. are almost always used; in negative Result clauses, ut nemo, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc.:
(1) cernere ne quis eos, neu quis contingere posset (Aen. 1.413) , that no one might see them, no one touch them. [Purpose.]
ne quando liberis proscriptorum bona patria reddantur (Rosc. Am. 145) , lest at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their children.
ipse ne quo inciderem, reverti Formias (Att. 8.3.7) , that I might not come upon him anywhere, I returned to Formi?".
dispositis exploratoribus necubi Romani copias traducerent (B. G. 7.35) , having stationed scouts here and there in order that the Romans might not lead their troops across anywhere.
(2) multi ita sunt imbecilli senes ut nullum offici munus exsequi possint (Cat. M. 35) , many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform any duty to society. [Result.]
qui summum bonum sic instituit ut nihil habeat cum virtute coniunctum (Off. 1.5) , who has so settled the highest good that it has nothing in common with virtue.
For clauses of Result or Characteristic with quin, see Sect: 559. For Substantive Clauses of Result, see Sect: 567-571.
.CAUSAL CLAUSES
SECTION: #539. Causal Clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to their construction; the idea of cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like propterea), or in the connecting particles.
Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative neuter (cf. Sect: 214. d) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con junction (cf. English that and see Sect: 222). Its use as a causal particle is an early special development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? (so in classical Latin with nam only), and may, like quando, have developed from an interrogative to a relative particle.
Quoniam (for quom iam) is also of relative origin ( quom being a case-form of the pronominal stem quo-). It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf. quom, cum), from which the causal meaning is derived (cf. cum causal). The Subjunctive with quod and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse (Sect: 592).
Quando is probably the interrogative quam (how?) compounded with a form of the pronominal stem do- (cf. dum, do- nec). It originally denoted time (first interrogatively, then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed by the Subjunctive.
SECTION: #540. The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the authority of another:
1. Indicative:
cum tibi agam gratias quod me vivere coegisti (Att. 3.3) , when I may thank you that you have forced me to live.
cur igitur pacem nolo? quia turpis est (Phil. 7.9) , why then do I not wish for peace? Because it is disgraceful.
ita fit ut adsint propterea quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia periculum vitant (Rosc. Am. 1) , so it happens that they attend because they follow duty, but are silent because they seek to avoid danger.
2. Subjunctive:
mihi gratulabare quod audisses me meam pristinam dignitatem obtinere (Fam. 4.14.1) , you congratulated me because [as you said] you had heard that I had regained my former dignity.
noctu ambulabat Themistocles quod somnum capere non posset (Tusc. 4.44) , Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as he said] he could not sleep.
mea mater irata est quia non redierim (Pl. Cist. 101) , my mother is angry because I did n't return.
NOTE 1.-- Quod introduces either a fact or a statement, and accordingly takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact; hence it rarely takes the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has reference to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative.
NOTE 2.--Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive (Sect: 592. 3. N.): as,-- ego laeta visa sum quia soror venisset (Pl. Mil. 387), I seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come.
So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as,-- rediit quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret (Off. 1.40) , he returned because he said he had forgotten something.
NOTE 3.-- Non quod, non quia, non quo, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself true, though not the true reason. In the negative, non quin (with the Subjunctive) may be used in nearly the same sense as non quod non. After a comparative, quam quo or quam quod is used:
pugiles ingemescunt, non quod doleant, sed quia profundenda voce omne corpus intenditur (Tusc. 2.56) , boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but because by giving vent to the voice the whole body is put in a state of tension.
non quia rectior ad Alpis via esset, sed credens (Liv. 21.31.2) , not because the route to the Alps was more direct, but believing, etc.
non quin pari virtute et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam non habuerunt (Phil. 7.6) , not that there were not others of equal courage and good-will, but they had not so strong a reason.
haec amore magis impulsus scribenda ad te putavi, quam quo te arbitrarer monitis et praeceptis egere (Fam. 10.3.4) , this I thought I ought to write to you, rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought that you needed advice and suggestion.
Quoniam and quando, since, introduce a reason given on the authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative:
locus est a me, quoniam ita Murena voluit, retractandus (Mur. 54) , I must review the point, since Murena has so wished.
quando ita vis, di bene vortant (Pl. Trin. 573) , since you so wish, may the gods bless the undertaking.
quando ad maiora nati sumus (Fin. 5.21) , since we are born for greater things.
NOTE.--The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quando, since, in the causal sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quando, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and indefinite: as,-- quando? hodie, when? to-day; si quando, if ever.
Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quando take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent clause (see Sect: 580).
A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Subjunctive (see Sect: 535. e).
Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see Sect: 549).
For Substantive Clauses with quod, see Sect: 572.
.TEMPORAL CLAUSES
SECTION: #541. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of relative origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have developed into special idiomatic constructions.
For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138.
Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows:
I. Conditional Relative Clauses: ubi, ut, cum, quando, in Protasis (Sect: 542).
II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (Sect: 543).
III. Clauses with cum 1. Cum temporal (Sect: 545-548). 2. Cum causal or concessive (Sect: 549).
IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (Sect: 551).
V. Clauses with dum, donec, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) (Sect: 552-556).
1 As in the Greek os an, hotan, etc.; and in statutes in English, where the phrases if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently.
2 With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depending on some other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses. Sect: 591.)
Conditional Relative Clauses
SECTION: #542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone or compounded with - cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the sense of whenever), and have the constructions of Protasis (cf. Sect: 514):
cum id malum negas esse, capior (Tusc. 2.29) , whenever you (the individual disputant) deny it to be an evil, I am misled. [Present general condition.]
quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem (Phil. 5.51) , which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me. [Present, contrary to fact: cf. Sect: 517.]
cum videas eos dolore non frangi, debeas existimare, etc. (Tusc. 2.66) , when you see that those are not broken by pain, you ought to infer, etc. [Present general condition: cf. Sect: 518. a.]
cum rosam viderat, tum incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. 5.27) , whenever he saw a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general condition: cf. Sect: 518. b.]
id ubi dixisset, hastam in finis eorum emittebat (Liv. 1.32.13) , when he had said this, he would cast the spear into their territories. [Past General Condition, repeated action: see Sect: 518. c.]
Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc.
SECTION: #543. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut ( ut primum, ut semel), simul atque ( simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present):
milites postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis fecere ( Sall. Cat. 11), when the soldiers had won the victory, they left nothing to the vanquished.
posteaquam forum attigisti, nihil fecisti nisi, etc. (Fam. 15.16.3) , since you came to the forum, you have done nothing except, etc.
ubi omnis idem sentire intellexit, posterum diem pugnae constituit (B. G. 3.23) , when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), he appointed the next day for the battle.
Catilina, ubi eos convenisse videt, secedit ( Sall. Cat. 20), when Catiline sees that they have come together, he retires.
Pompeiius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C. 3.94) , when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the field.
ut semel e Piraeeo eloquentia evecta est (Brut. 51) , as soon as eloquence had set sail from the Pir?"us.
nostri simul in arido constiterunt, in hostis impetum fecerunt (B. G. 4.26) , our men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an attack on the enemy.
simul atque introductus est, rem confecit (Clu. 40) , as soon as he was brought in, he did the job.
These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things; the Pluperfect, an action completed in past time:
postquam structi utrimque stabant, duces in medium procedunt (Liv. 1.23) , when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into the midst.
P. africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Caecil. 69) , when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and censor.
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi dabatur, ad Pompeiium transierunt (B. C. 3.60) , when this seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey.
post diem quintum quam iterum barbari male pugnaverant [= victi sunt], legati a Boccho veniunt (Iug. 102) , the fifth day after the barbarians were beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus.
haec iuventutem, ubi familiares opes defecerant, ad facinora incendebant ( Sall. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out, etc.
ubi pericula virtute propulerant ( id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by their valor.
For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with - cumque as Indefinite Relatives, see Sect: 542.
USES OF .CUM
SECTION: #544. The conjunction cum ( quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun qui. It inherits from qui its subordinating force, and in general shares its constructions. But it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf. tum, dum), and its range of usage was therefore less wide than that of qui; it could not, for example, introduce clauses of purpose or of result.
With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses,--conditional, explicative, cum inversum--all easily derived from the temporal use.
With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the qui-clause of Characteristic,--a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin. From defining the time the cum-clause passed over to the description of the time by means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, while).
In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past tenses, Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cum-clause (with the Subjunctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf. the qui-clause of Characteristic, Sect: 534).
Cum Temporal
SECTION: #545. A temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb occurred:
eo [ lituo] regiones direxit tum cum urbem condidit (Div. 1.30) , he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the city.
cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi; ( Rosc. Am. 120), when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. [ occiditur is historical present.]
quem quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo; ( Cat. 3.16), when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, I looked forward to this.
fulgentis gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum inruebant (Tusc. 2.59) , the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy when they rushed upon their line.
tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 19) , at that time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
NOTE 1.--This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imperfect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than the Subjunctive use defined below (Sect: 546).
NOTE 2.--This construction must not be confused with that of cum, whenever, in General Conditions (Sect: 542).
When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal clause are absolutely identical, cum takes the Indicative in the same tense as that of the main verb:
maxima sum laetitia adfectus cum audivi consulem te factum esse (Fam. 15.7) , I was very much pleased when I heard that you had been elected consul.
SECTION: #546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb:
cum essem otiosus in Tusculano, accepi tuas litteras (Fam. 9.18.1) , when I was taking my ease in my house at Tusculum, I received your letter.
cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. 30) , when she ( Italy) was under the load of the Servile War.
cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat (B. G. 1.7) , when this had been reported, he made (makes) haste.
cum ad Cybistra quinque dies essem moratus, regem Ariobarzanem insidiis liberavi; ( Fam. 15.4.6), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed King Ariobarzanes from plots.
is cum ad me Laodiceam venisset mecumque ego eum vellem, repente percussus est atrocissimis litteris ( id. 9.25.3), when he had come to me at Laodicea and I wished him to remain with me, he was suddenly, etc.
NOTE 1.--This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in this use is often called narrative cum.
NOTE 2.-- Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coÌÇxistent state of things (Imperfect Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluperfect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postquam etc. (Sect: 543. a).
NOTE 3.--The distinction between the uses defined in Sect: 545, 546, may be illustrated by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere). Here the when-clause defines the time when Caesar had the fever,--namely, in the year of his Spanish campaign (B.C. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to India; here the when-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered,--namely, in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose. In Latin we should use the Imperfect Subjunctive.
NOTE 4.--The distinction explained in Note # is unknown to early Latin. In Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some other reason.
When the principal action is expressed in the form of a temporal clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the main clause, cum takes the Indicative.
Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted; hence cum is in this use called cum inversum:
dies nondum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans necatur (Clu. 28) , ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was killed. [Instead of when ten days had not yet passed, etc.]
iamque lux apparebat cum procedit ad milites (Q. C. 7.8.3) , and day was already dawning when he appears before the soldiers.
hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publicum procurrerunt (B. G. 7.26) , they were preparing to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the streets.
SECTION: #547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Present Indicative; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect Indicative:
incidunt tempora, cum ea, quae maxime videntur digna esse iusto homine, fiunt contraria (Off. 1.31) , times occur when those things which seem especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite.
non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode facere potero (Fam. 13.1) , I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do it conveniently.
longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. 12.18) , that long time when I shall be no more.
cum veneris, cognosces (Fam. 5.7.3) , when you come (shall have come), you will find out.
SECTION: #548. Cum, whenever, takes the construction of a relative clause in a general condition (see Sect: 542).
For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is used; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative.
For est cum etc., see Sect: 535. a. N.3.
Cum Causal or Concessive
SECTION: #549. Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive:
id difficile non est, cum tantum equitatu valeamus (B. C. 3.86) , this is not difficult since we are so strong in cavalry. [Causal.]
cum solitudo insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amicitias comparare (Fin. 1.66) , since solitude is full of treachery and fear, reason itself prompts us to contract friendships. [Causal.]
cum primi ordines concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui resistebant (B. G. 7.62) , though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigorously. [Concessive.]
brevi spatio legiones numero hominum expleverat, cum initio non amplius duobus milibus habuisset ( Sall. Cat. 56), in a short time he had filled out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had not had more than two thousand. [Concessive.]
Cum causal may usually be translated by since; cum concessive by although or while; either, occasionally, by when.
NOTE 1.-- Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim; as,-- nec reprehendo: quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim ( Att. 10.3A), I find no fault; since I myself did not escape that blame.
NOTE 2.--These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are parallel to qui causal and concessive (Sect: 535. e). The attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it.
NOTE 3.--In early Latin cum ( quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indicative: as,-- quom tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (Pl. Trin. 617) , since your property is being torn in pieces, O that I may see, etc.
Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that:
cum tacent, clamant (Cat. 1.21) , when they are silent, they cry out (i.e. their silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments).
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. 9.14.3) , I congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella.
NOTE.--This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time (Sect: 545. a).
Cum ... tum, signifying both ... and, usually takes the Indicative; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Subjunctive is used (Sect: 549):
cum multa non probo, tum illud in primis (Fin. 1.18) , while there are many things I do not approve, there is this in chief. [Indicative.]
cum difficile est, tum ne aequum quidem (Lael. 26) , not only is it difficult but even unjust.
cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, tum ne efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. 1.19) , while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point (accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive; approaching cum causal.]
Antequam and Priusquam
SECTION: #550. Antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb prius, sooner (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a relative clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses) according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of purpose (Sect: 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive. Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante, before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam, but the latter is commoner in classic prose.
SECTION: #551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative sometimes the Subjunctive.
With antequam or priusquam the Perfect Indicative states a fact in past time:
antequam tuas legi litteras, hominem ire cupiebam (Att. 2.7.2) , before I read your letter, I wished the man to go.
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. 39.10) , and she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith.
neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen pervenerunt (B. G. 1.53) , nor did they stop running until they reached the river.
NOTE.--The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and ante-classical, except in Indirect Discourse.
With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is common when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place:
ante pugnari coeptum est quam satis instrueretur acies (Liv. 22.4.7) , the fight was begun before the line could be properly formed.
priusquam tu suum sibi venderes, ipse possedit (Phil. 2.96) , before you could sell him his own property, he took possession of it himself.
priusquam telum abici posset aut nostri propius accederent, omnis Vari acies terga vertit (B. C. 2.34) , before a weapon could be thrown or our men approached nearer, the whole line about Varus took flight.
NOTE 1.--The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by sequence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative (Sect: 484. c): as,-- antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam perrexi (Planc. 98) , before those evil men could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia.
NOTE 2.--After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the Imperfect: as,-- neque ab eo prius Domitiani milites discedunt quam in conspectum Caesaris deducatur (B. C. 1.22) , and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him until he was (is) conducted into Caesar's presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive (as B. G. 3.18).
Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the Present or Future Perfect Indicative; rarely the Present Subjunctive:
priusquam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam (Phil. 2.3) , before I reply to the rest, I will say a little about friendship.
non defatigabor antequam illorum ancipites vias percepero (De Or. 3.145) , I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.
antequam veniat litteras mittet (Leg. Agr. 2.53) , before he comes, he will send a letter.
NOTE 1.--The Future Indicative is very rare.
NOTE 2.--In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with antequam and priusquam (cf. Sect: 518. a): as,--in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio diligens (Off. 1.73) , in all undertakings, before you proceed to action, careful preparation must be used.
Dum, Donec, and Quoad
SECTION: #552. As an adverb meaning for a time, awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly as an enclitic (cf. vixdum, nondum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through correlation (cf. cum ... tum, si ... sic) or through substitution for a conjunction, as in the English the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the relative quo, up to which point, with ad. The origin and early history of donec are unknown.
SECTION: #553. Dum and quoad, until, take the Present or Imperfect Subjunctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy:
exspectas fortasse dum dicat (Tusc. 2.17) , you are waiting perhaps for him to say (until he say). [ Dum is especially common after exspecto.]
dum reliquae naves convenirent, ad horam nonam exspectavit (B. G. 4.23) , he waited till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to join him.
comitia dilata [ sunt] dum lex ferretur (Att. 4.17.3) , the election was postponed until a law should be passed.
an id exspectamus, quoad ne vestigium quidem Asiae civitatum atque urbium relinquatur (Phil. 11.25) , shall we wait for this until not a trace is left of the states and cities of Asia?
Epaminondas exercebatur plurimum luctando ad eum finem quoad stans complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2) , Epaminondas trained himself in wrestling so far as to be able (until he should be able) to grapple standing and fight (in that way).
NOTE 1.-- Donec is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as,-- et duxit longe donec curvata coirent inter se capita ( Aen. 11.860), and drew it (the bow) until the ourved tips touched each other.
NOTE 2.-- Dum, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy; but this construction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin. Donec, until, is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indicative, rarely with the Future:
ego in Arcano opperior dum ista cognosco (Att. 10.3) , I am waiting in the villa at Arcaeuntil I find this out. [This is really dum, while.]
mihi usque curae erit quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero (Fam. 12.19.3) , I shall always feel anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall have known) what you have done.
delicta maiorum lues donec templa refeceris (Hor. Od. 3.6.1) , you shall suffer for the sins of your ancestors until you rebuild the temples.
ter centum regnabitur annos, donec geminam partu dabit I lia prolem (Aen. 1.272) , sway shall be held for thrice a hundred years, until Ilia shall give birth to twin offspring.
SECTION: #554. Donec and quoad, until, with the Perfect Indicative denote an actual fact in past time:
donec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. 23.31.9) , there was silence until he returned.
usque eo timui donec ad reiiciendos iudices venimus (Verr. 2.1.17) , I was anxious until the moment when we came to challenge the jurors.
Romae fuerunt quoad L. Metellus in provinciam profectus est ( id. 2.62), they remained at Rome until Lucius Metellus set out for the province.
NOTE.-- Dum, until, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as,-- mansit in condicione usque ad eum finem dum iudices reiiecti sunt (Verr. 1.16) , he remained true to the agreement until the jurors were challenged.
SECTION: #555. Dum, donec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative:
dum anima est, spes esse dicitur (Att. 9.10.3) , as long as there is life, there is said to be hope.
dum praesidia ulla fuerunt, in Sullae praesidiis fuit (Rosc. Am. 126) , so long as there were any garrisons, he was in the garrisons of Sulla.
dum longius a munitione aberant Galli, plus multitudine telorum proficiebant (B. G. 7.82) , so long as the Gauls were at a distance from the fortifications, they had the advantage because of their missiles.
donec gratus eram tibi, Persarum vigui rege beatior (Hor. Od. 3.9.1) , as long as I enjoyed thy favor, I flourished happier than the king of the Persians.
quoad potuit fortissime restitit (B. G. 4.12) , he resisted bravely as long as he could.
NOTE 1.-- Donec in this use is confined to poetry and later writers.
NOTE 2.-- Quam diu, as long as, takes the Indicative only: as,-- se oppido tam diu tenuit quam diu in provincia Parthi fuerunt (Fam. 12.19.2) , he kept himself within the town as long as the Parthians were in the province.
SECTION: #556. Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative to denote continued action in past time.
In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used:
dum haec geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est (B. G. 1.46) , while this was going on, a message was brought to Caesar.
haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes iam ad Elori litus pervenerat (Verr. 5.91) , while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the coast at Elorum.
hoc dum narrat, forte audivi; ( Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this while she was telling it.
NOTE.--This construction is a special use of the Historical Present (Sect: 469).
A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time emphatic by contrast; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense occur where no contrast is intended:
nec enim dum eram vobiscum, animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79) , for while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the time when he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]
co̦rta est pugna, par dum constabant ordines (Liv. 22.47) , a conflict began, well matched as long as the ranks stood firm.
But,-- dum oculos hostium certamen averterat ( id. 32.24), while the struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away.
dum unum adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in periculum (Mur. 55) , while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger.
NOTE.--In later writers, dum sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical usage would require the Indicative, and donec, until, is freely used in this manner (especially by Tacitus):
dum ea in Samnio gererentur, in Etruria interim bellum ingens concitur (Liv. 10.18) , while this was being done in Samnium, meanwhile a great war was stirred up in Etruria.
illa quidem dum te fugeret, hydrum non vidit (Georg. 4.457) , while she was fleeing from you she did not see the serpent.
dum per vicos deportaretur, condormiebat (Suet. Aug. 78) , while he was being carried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.
Rhenus servat nomen et violentiam cursus ( qua Germaniam praevehitur) donec Oceano misceatur (Tac. Ann. 2.6) , the Rhine keeps its name and rapid course (where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean.
temporibusque Augusti dicendis non defuere decora ingenia donec gliscente adulatione deterrerentur ( id. 1.1), for describing the times of Augustus there was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility of the age.
For dum, provided that, see Sect: 528.
.CLAUSES WITH .QUIN AND .QUOMINUS
SECTION: #557. The original meaning of quin is how not? why not? (qui- ne), and when used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general negative. Thus, quin ego hoc rogem? why should n't I ask this? implies that there is no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause, like nulla causa est or fieri non potest. Hence come the various dependent constructions introduced by quin.
Quominus is really a phrase ( quo minus), and the dependent constructions which it introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with quo and a comparative (see Sect: 531. a).
SECTION: #558. A subjunctive clause with quin is used after verbs and other expressions of hindering, resisting, refusing, doubting, delaying, and the like, when these are negatived, either expressly or by implication:
non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin socios amicos trahant exscindant ( Sall. Ep. Mith. 17) , no human or divine laws prevent them from taking captive and exterminating their friendly allies.
ut ne Suessiones quidem deterrere potuerint quin cum his consentirent (B. G. 2.3) , that they were unable to hinder even the Suessiones from making common cause with them.
non posse milites contineri quin in urbem inrumperent (B. C. 2.12) , that the soldiers could not be restrained from bursting into the city.
non recusat quin iudices (Deiot. 43) , he does not object to your judging.
neque recusare quin armis contendant (B. G. 4.7) , and that they did not refuse to fight.
praeterire non potui quin scriberem ad te; ( Caesar ap. Cic. Att. 9.6A), I could not neglect to write to you.
Treveri totius hiemis nullum tempus intermiserunt quin legatos mitterent (B. G. 5.55) , the Treveri let no part of the winter pass without sending ambassadors. [Cf. B. G. 5.53; B. C. 1.78.]
non cunctandum existimavit quin pugna decertaret (B. G. 3.23) , he thought he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle.
paulum afuit quin Varum interficeret (B. C. 2.35) , he just missed killing Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill).
neque multum afuit quin castris expellerentur ( id. 2.35), they came near being driven out of the camp.
facere non possum quin cotidie ad te mittam (Att. 12.27.2) , I cannot help sending to you every day.
fieri nullo modo poterat quin Cleomeni parceretur (Verr. 5.104) , it was out of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared.
ut effici non possit quin eos oderim (Phil. 11.36) , so that nothing can prevent my hating them.
Quin is especially common with non dubito, I do not doubt, non est dubium, there is no doubt, and similar expressions:
non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. 6.2.3) , he did not doubt that we believed him.
illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. 5.20.6) , do not doubt that I will do all.
quis ignorat quin tria Graecorum genera sint (Flacc. 64) , who is ignorant that there are three races of Greeks?
non erat dubium quin Helvetii plurimum possent (cf. B. G. 1.3), there was no doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful.
neque Caesarem fefellit quin ab iis cohortibus initium victoriae oriretur (B. C. 3.94) , and it did not escape Caesar's notice that the beginning of the victory came from those cohorts.
NOTE 1.-- Dubito without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Question; so sometimes non dubito and the like:
non nulli dubitant an per Sardiniam veniat (Fam. 9.7) , some doubt whether he is coming through Sardinia.
dubitate, si potestis, a quo sit Sex. Roscius occisus (Rosc. Am. 78) , doubt, if you can, by whom Sextus Roscius was murdered.
dubitabam tu has ipsas litteras essesne accepturus (Att. 15.9) , I doubt whether you will receive this very letter. [Epistolary Imperfect (Sect: 479).]
qualis sit futurus, ne vos quidem dubitatis (B. C. 2.32) , and what it (the outcome) will be, you yourselves do not doubt.
non dubito quid sentiant (Fam. 15.9) , I do not doubt what they think.
dubium illi non erat quid futurum esset ( id. 8.8.1), it was not doubtful to him what was going to happen.
NOTE 2.-- Non dubito in the sense of I do not hesitate commonly takes the Infinitive, but sometimes quin with the Subjunctive:
nec dubitare illum appellare sapientem (Lael. 1) , and not to hesitate to call him a sage.
dubitandum non existima vit quin proflcisceretur (B. G. 2.2) , he did not think he ought to hesitate to set out.
quid dubitas uti temporis opportunitate (B. C. 2.34) , why do you hesitate to take advantage of the favorable moment? [A question implying a negative.]
Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with ne or quominus (= ut eo minus), especially when the verb is not negatived:
plura ne dicam tuae me lacrimae impediunt (Planc. 104) , your tears preveni me from speaking further.
nec aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. M. 60) , nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the soil.
nihil impedit quominus id facere possimus (Fin. 1.33) , nothing hinders us from being able to do that.
obstitisti ne transire copiae possent (Verr. 5.5) , you opposed the passage of the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross).
NOTE.--Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive:
nihil obest dicere (Fam. 9.13.4) , there is nothing to prevent my saying it.
prohibet accedere (Caec. 46) , prevents him from approaching.
SECTION: #559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced <
> quin after a general negative, where quin is equivalent to qui ( quae, quod) non:
1. Clauses of Result:
nemo est tam fortis quin [= qui non] rei novitate perturbetur (B. G. 6.39) , no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence.
nemo erat adeo tardus quin putaret (B. C. 1.69) , no one was so slothful as not to think, etc.
quis est tam demens quin sentiat (Balb. 43) , who is so senseless as not to think, etc.?
nil tam difficilest quin quaerendo investigari possiet (Ter. Haut. 675) , nothing's so hard but search will find it out ( Herrick).
2. Clauses of Characteristic:
nemo nostrum est quin [= qui non] sciat (Rosc. Am. 55) , there is no one of us who does not know.
nemo fuit militum quin vulneraretur (B. C. 3.53) , there was not one of the soldiers who was not wounded.
ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret (Verr. 5.121) , was there any one who did not shed tears?
quis est quin intellegat (Fin. 5.64) , who is there who does not understand?
horum nihil est quin [= quod non] intereat (N. D. 3.30) , there is none of these (elements) which does not perish.
nihil est illorum quin [= quod non] ego illi dixerim (Pl. Bac. 1012) , there is nothing of this that I have not told him.
NOTE.-- Quin sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut non: as,-- numquam tam male est Siculis quin aliquid facete et commode dicant (Verr. 4.95) , things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that they have something pleasant or witty to say.
For quin in independent constructions. see Sect: 440
.SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
SECTION: #560. A clause which is used as a noun may be called a Substantive Clause, as certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses.
Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). The fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary; each reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences is to be found in the paratactic use (see Sect: 268) of two verbs like volo abeas, dicamus censeo, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, especially the accusative of cognate meaning (Sect: 390).
SECTION: #561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause.
A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1.--Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may be postulabat ut quaestio haberetur. The common English expression for with the infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as,--it remains for me to speak of the piratic war, reliquum est ut de bello dicam piratico.
NOTE 2.--When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly the so-called expletive IT.
SECTION: #562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows:
1. Subjunctive Clauses ( ut, ne, ut non, etc.). a. Of purpose (command, wish, fear) (Sect: 563, 564). b. Of result (happen, effect, etc.) (Sect: 568).
2. Indicative Clauses with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling (Sect: 572).
3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word (Sect: 573-576).
4. Infinitive Clauses a. With verbs of ordering, wishing, etc. (Sect: 563). b. Indirect Discourse (Sect: 579 ff.).
NOTE.--The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds: (1) in constructions in which it replaces a subjunctive clause with ut etc.; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be discussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (Sect: 563); for Indirect Discourse, see Sect: 579 ff.
Substantive Clauses of Purpose
SECTION: #563. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative ne) are used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the future.
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, decree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish:
monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet (B. G. 1.20) , he warns him to avoid all suspicion.
hortatur eos ne animo deficiant (B. C. 1.19) , he urges them not to lose heart.
te rogo atque oro ut eum iuves (Fam. 13.66) , I beg and pray you to aid him.
his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. 1.28) , he ordered them to search.
persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet ( id. 1.3), he persuades Casticus to usurp royal power.
suis imperavit ne quod omnino telum reiicerent ( id. 1.46), he ordered his men not to throw back any weapon at all.
NOTE.--With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of an object clause:
hortamur fari (Aen. 2.74) , we urge [him] to speak.
ne quaere doceri ( id. 6.614), seek not to be told.
temptat praevertere ( id. 1.721), she attempts to turn, etc.
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see Sect: 565. a.
Iubeo, order, and veto, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject Accusative:
Labienum iugum montis ascendere iubet (B. G. 1.21) , he orders Labienus to ascend the ridge of the hill.
liberos ad se adduci iussit ( id. 2.5), he ordered the children to be brought to him.
ab opere legatos discedere vetuerat ( id. 2.20), he had forbidden the lieutenants to leave the work.
vetuere [ bona] reddi (Liv. 2.5) , they forbade the return of the goods (that the goods be returned).
NOTE.--Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive:
pontem imperant fieri (B. C. 1.61) , they order a bridge to be built.
res monet cavere ( Sall. Cat. 52.3), the occasion warns us to be on our guard.
Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive.
With volo ( nolo, malo) and cupio the Infinitive is commoner, and the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the same as that of the main verb.
With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same.
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing:
augur fieri volui; ( Fam. 15.4.13), I wished to be made augur.
cupio vigiliam meam tibi tradere ( id. 11.24), I am eager to hand over my watch to you.
iudicem me esse, non doctorem volo; (Or. 117), I wish to be a judge, not a teacher.
me Caesaris militem dici volui; ( B. C. 2.32.13), I wished to be called a soldier of Caesar.
cupio me esse clementem (Cat. 1.4) , I desire to be merciful. [But regularly, cupio esse clemens (see Sect: 457).]
omnis homines, qui sese student praestare ceteris animalibus ( Sall. Cat. 1), all men who wish to excel other living creatures.
2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing:
volo te scire (Fam. 9.24.1) , I wish you to know.
vim volumus exstingui (Sest. 92) , we wish violence to be put down.
te tua frui virtute cupimus (Brut. 331) , we wish you to reap the fruits of your virtue.
cupio ut impetret (Pl. Capt. 102) , I wish he may get it.
numquam optabo ut audiatis (Cat. 2.15) , I will never desire that you shall hear.
For volo and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see Sect: 565.
Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; so often sino:
permisit ut faceret (De Or. 2.366) , permitted him to make.
concedo tibi ut ea praetereas (Rosc. Am. 54) , I allow you to pass by these matters.
tabernacula statui passus non est (B. C. 1.81) , he did not allow tents to be pitched.
vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. 4.2) , they do not allow wine to be imported.
Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive:
constituerant ut L. Bestia quereretur ( Sall. Cat. 43), they had determined that Lucius Bestia should complain.
proelio supersedere statuit (B. G. 2.8) , he determined to refuse battle.
de bonis regis quae reddi censuerant (Liv. 2.5) , about the king's goods, which they had decreed should be restored.
decernit uti consules dilectum habeant ( Sall. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls shall hold a levy.
edicto ne quis iniussu pugnaret (Liv. 5.19) , having commanded that none should fight without orders.
NOTE 1.--Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see Sect: 500. 4.
NOTE 2.--Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second Periphrastic conjugation: Regulus captivos reddendos [ esse] non censuit (Off. 1.39) , Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal opinion: captivi non reddendi sunt.]
Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But conor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive:
cura ut quam primum intellegam (Fam. 13.10.4) , let me know as soon as possible (take care that I may understand).
dant operam ut habeant ( Sall. Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their attention that, etc.).
impellere uti Caesar nominaretur ( id. 49), to induce them to name CÌ ºsar (that Caesar should be named).
conatus est Caesar reficere pontis (B. C. 1.50) , Caesar tried to rebuild the bridges.
NOTE 1.-- Conor si also occurs (as B. G. 1.8); cf. miror si etc., Sect: 572. b. N.
NOTE 2.-- Ut ne occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. Sect: 531): cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. 11.3.3) , take care and see that he lacks nothing.
For the Subjunctive with quin and quominus with verbs of hindering etc., see Sect: 558.
SECTION: #564. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirmative and ne non or ut negative.
In this use ne is commonly to be translated by that, ut and ne non by that not:
timeo ne Verres fecerit (Verr. 5.3) , I fear that Verres has done, etc.
ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. 1.19) , he feared that he should hurt the feelings, etc.
ne exheredaretur veritus est (Rosc. Am. 58) , he feared that he should be disinherited.
orator metuo ne languescat senectute (Cat. M. 28) , I fear the orator grows feeble from old age.
vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. 1.35) , I fear that I cannot grant you.
haud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet (Tusc. 5.118) , there is no danger that he will not think death desirable.
NOTE.--The subjunctive in ne-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin. To an independent ne-sentence, as ne accidat, may it not happen, a verb may be prefixed (cf. Sect: 560), making a complex sentence. Thus, vide ne accidat; oro ne accidat; cavet ne accidat; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, timeo ne accidat becomes let it not happen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar.
SECTION: #565. Volo and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet, and the imperatives dic and fac often take the Subjunctive without ut:
volo ames (Att. 2.10) , I wish you to love.
quam vellem me invitasses (Fam. 10.28.1) , how I wish you had invited me!
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. 1.12) , I had rather you feared Cerberus.
sint enim oportet ( id. 1.12), for they must exist.
queramur licet (Caec. 41) , we are allowed to complain.
fac diligas (Att. 3.13.2) , do love! [A periphrasis for the imperative dilige, love (cf. Sect: 449. c).]
dic exeat, tell him to go out.
NOTE 1.--In such cases there is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomatic remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, however, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cave and the subjunctive (without ne) in Prohibitions (Sect: 450), which appears to follow the analogy of fac.
NOTE 2.-- Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut; (2) the simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; (4) the Dative and the Infinitive (see Sect: 455. 1). Thus, I may go is licet eam, licet ire, licet me ire, or licet mihi ire.
For licet in concessive clauses, see Sect: 527. b.
NOTE 3.-- Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus I must go is oportet eam, oportet ire, or oportet me ire.
Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive without ut:
huic mandat Remos adeat (B. G. 3.11) , he orders him to visit the Remi.
rogat finem faciat ( id. 1.20), he asks him to cease.
Mnesthea vocat, classem aptent socii; ( Aen. 4.289), he calls Mnestheus [and orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet.
NOTE.--The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to express a command in Indirect Discourse (Sect: 588).
Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs
SECTION: #566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes the subject when the verb is put in the passive (Impersonal Construction):
Caesar ut cognosceret postulatum est (B. C. 1.87) , Caesar was requested to make an investigation (it was requested that Caesar should make an investigation).
si erat Heraclio ab senatu mandatum ut emeret (Verr. 3.88) , if Heraclius had been instructed by the senate to buy.
si persuasum erat Cluvio ut mentiretur (Rosc. Com. 51) , if Cluvius had been persuaded to lie.
puto concedi nobis oportere ut Graeco verbo utamur (Fin. 3.15) , I think we must be allowed to use a Greek word.
ne quid eis noceatur a Caesare cavetur (B. C. 1.86) , Caesar takes care that no harm shall be done them (care is taken by Caesar lest, etc.).
With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the subject and the object clause is retained:
admoniti sumus ut caveremus ( Att. 8.11D. 3), we were warned to be careful.
cum moneretur ut cautior esset (Div. 1.51) , when he was advised to be more cautious.
moneri visus est ne id faceret ( id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it.
Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the subject of the sentence:
loqui non conceditur (B. G. 6.20) , it is not allowed to speak.
With iubeo, veto, and cogo, the subject accusative of the infinitive becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is retained as complementary (Personal Construction):
adesse iubentur postridie; ( Verr. 2.41), they are ordered to be present on the following day.
ire in exsilium iussus est (Cat. 2.12) , he was ordered to go into exile.
Simonides vetitus est navigare (Div. 2.134) , Simonides was forbidden to sail.
Mandubii exire coguntur (B. G. 7.78) , the Mandubii are compelled to go out.
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses)
SECTION: #567. Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of facio etc. (Sect: 568); (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs and verbal phrases (Sect: 569); (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative etc. (see Sect: 570, 571).
SECTION: #568. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut non) are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort.
Such are especially facio and its compounds ( efficio, conficio, etc.):
efficiam ut intellegatis (Clu. 7) , I will make you understand (lit. effect that you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegatis ( id. 9).]
commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. 2.5) , made it possible that supplies could be brought.
perfeci ut e regno ille discederet (Fam. 15.4.6) , I brought about his departure from the kingdom.
quae libertas ut laetior esset regis superbia fecerat (Liv. 2.1) , the arrogance of the king had made this liberty more welcome.
evincunt instando ut litterae darentur ( id. 2.4), by insisting they gain their point,--that letters should be sent. [Here evincunt = efficiunt.]
NOTE 1.--The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb: as,-- invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 42) , it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate.
SECTION: #569. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of the following:
1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort:
impetratum est ut in senatu recitarentur ( litterae) ( B. C. 1.1), they succeeded in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.).
ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortale sit (N. D. 3.30) , it therefore is made out that every body is mortal.
2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is necessary, it is added, and the like (Sect: 568, footnote):
accidit ut esset luna plena (B. G. 4.29) , it happened to be full moon (it happened that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.]
reliquum est ut officiis certemus inter nos (Fam. 7.31) , it remains for us to vie with each other in courtesies.
restat ut hoc dubitemus (Rosc. Am. 88) , it is left for us to doubt this.
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. 2.81) , the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.).
NOTE 1.--The infinitive sometimes occurs: as,-- nec enim acciderat mihi opus esse (Fam. 6.11.1) , for it had not happened to be necessary to me.
NOTE 2.-- Necesse est often takes the subjunctive without ut: as,-- concedas necesse est (Rosc. Am. 87) , you must grant.
3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic):
est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. 3.1.9) , it is the fact that one man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.
Fore (or futurum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is Often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem:
spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. 1.82) , I hope that will be our happy lot.
cum viderem fore ut non possem (Cat. 2.4) , when I saw that I should not be able.
SECTION: #570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun):
illud etiam restiterat, ut te in ius educerent (Quinct. 33) , this too remained-- for them to drag you into court.
SECTION: #571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate nominative after mos est and similar expressions:
est mos hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere (Brut. 84) , it is the way of men to be unwilling for one man to excel in several things.
A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam after a comparative (but see Sect: 583. c):
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70) , the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. 2.52) , he endured all rather than betray, etc. [Regularly without ut except in Livy.]
The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case], regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the subject of abest; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum:
tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus, ut nobis non satis faciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 104) , so far from admiring my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree that not Demosthenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the subject of abest (Sect: 569. 2); the second, a result clause after tantum (Sect: 537); and the third, after usque eo.]
Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infinitive (Sect: 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes:
praeclarum illud est, ut eos ... amemus (Tusc. 3.73) , this is a noble thing, that we should love, etc.
veri simile non est ut ille anteponeret (Verr. 4.11) , it is not likely that he preferred.
For Relative Clauses with quin after verbs of hindering etc., see Sect: 558.
Indicative with Quod
SECTION: #572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod (in the sense of that, the fact that) with the Indicative.
The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the statement is regarded as a fact:
alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. 1.19) , it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut conferant could be used, meaning that some should bestow; or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly); quod makes it a fact that men do bestow, etc.]
inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal agit aliquid (Acad. 2.37) , this is the chief difference between an inanimate object and an animal, that an animal aims at something.
quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. 3.111) , that he (Regulus) returned seems wonderful to us.
accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti (Att. 1.17.2) , it happened very unluckily that you nowhere saw him.
opportunissima res accidit quod Germani venerunt (B. G. 4.13) , a very fortunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came.
praetereo quod eam sibi domum sedemque delegit (Clu. 188) , I pass over the fact that she chose that house and home for herself.
mitto quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79) , I disregard the fact that they were seized by violence.
NOTE.--Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposition with the subject.
A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or as to the fact that:
quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis praeclaris operibus laetari; ( Fam. 1.7.7), as to your congratulating me on our condition, we are not at all surprised that you are pleased with your own noble works.
quod de domo scribis, ego, etc. (Fam. 14.2.3) , as to what you write of the house, I, etc.
Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod ( quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse):
quod scribis ... gaudeo; ( Q. Fr. 3.1.9), I am glad that you write.
facio libenter quod eam non possum praeterire (Legg. 1.63) , I am glad that I cannot pass it by.
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rosc. Am. 136) , I greatly rejoice that this is finished.
qui quia non habuit a me turmas equitum fortasse suscenset (Att. 6.3.5) , who perhaps feels angry that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.
moleste tuli te senatui gratias non egisse (Fam. 10.27.1) , I was displeased that you did not return thanks to the senate.
NOTE.-- Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si.This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. Sect: 563. e. N. 1). Thus,-- miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 54) , I wonder if he could ever have a friend. [Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.]
.Indirect Questions
SECTION: #573. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from interrogative (see the third example below).
SECTION: #574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive:
quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. 1.10) , I will explain what I think. [Direct: quid sentio?]
id possetne fieri consuluit ( id. 1.32), he consulted whether it could be done. [Direct: potestne?]
quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rosc. Am. 87) , all could understand how bold you are. [Direct: quam es audax!]
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. 2.29) , it is of no account whether I suffer or not. [Double question.]
quaesivi a Catilina in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. 2.13) , I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus L?"ca's or not. [Double question.]
rogat me quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat me sententiam, he asks me my opinion.]
hoc dubium est, uter nostrum sit inverecundior (Acad. 2.126) , this is doubtful, which of us two is the less modest.
incerti quatenus Volero exerceret victoriam (Liv. 2.55) , uncertain how far Volero would push victory. [As if dubitantes quatenus, etc.]
NOTE.--An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth example), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an appositive (as in the seventh).
SECTION: #575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illustrated by the following examples:
dico quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing.
dico quid facturus sim, I tell you what I will (shall) do.
dico quid fecerim, I tell you what I did (have done, was doing).
dixi quid facerem, I told you what I was doing.
dixi quid fecissem, I told you what I had done (had been doing).
dixi quid facturus essem, I told you what I would (should) do (was going to do).
dixi quid facturus fuissem, I told you what I would (should) have done.
Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation:
prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Caecil. 42) , I foresee what throngs there will be. [Direct: qui erunt?]
quid sit futurum cras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. 1.9.13) , forbear to ask what will be on the morrow. [Direct: quid erit or futurum est?]
posthac non scribam ad te quid facturus sim, sed quid fecerim (Att. 10.18) , hereafter I shall not write to you what I am going to do, but what I have done. [Direct: quid facies (or facturus eris)? quid fecisti?]
NOTE.--This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses.
The Deliberative Subjunctive (Sect: 444) remains unchanged in an Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense:
quo me vertam nescio; ( Clu. 4), I do not know which way to turn. [Direct: quo me vertam?]
neque satis constabat quid agerent (B. G. 3.14) , and it was not very clear what they were to do. [Direct: quid agamus?]
nec quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. 22.7.10) , nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future participle with sit could not be used.]
incerto quid peterent aut vitarent ( id. 28.36.12), since it was doubtful (ablative absolute) what they should seek or shun.
Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and in poetry:
vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato; ( Cato R. R. 6.4), in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
Nescio quis, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other), is not followed by the Subjunctive.
So also nescio quo ( unde, an, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases which are practically adverbs:
mirum ( nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how).
mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much).
immane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much).
sane quam, immensely.
valde quam, enormously.
Examples are:
qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. 3.12) , who greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever it is.
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. 2.1) , it helped prodigiously.
ita fato nescio quo contigisse arbitror (Fam. 15.13) , I think it happened so by some fatality or other.
nam suos valde quam paucos habet ( id. 11.13A. 3), for he has uncommonly few of his own.
sane quam sum gavisus ( id. 11.13A. 4), I was immensely glad.
immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. 1.27.5) , is monstrously at variance.
SECTION: #576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object (Accusative of Anticipation):
nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. 8.10.3) , you know how slow Marcellus is. [For nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. "I know thee who thou art.‰Û?]
Cf. potestne igitur earum rerum, qua re futurae sint, ulla esse praesensio; (Div. 2.15), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they will occur? [A similar use of the Objective Genitive.]
NOTE.--In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the result:
quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lael. 63) , it is often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are (some people are often seen through, how unprincipled they are).
quem ad modum Pompeiium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Agr. 1.5) , it has been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown by me, how they attacked).
An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the sense of whether (like if in English, cf. Sect: 572. b. N.):
circumfunduntur hostes si quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. 6.37) , the enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance.
visam si domi est (Ter. Haut. 170) , I will go see if he is at home.
NOTE.--This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the clause is virtually an Indirect Question.
For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see Sect: 447. a.
1 Such verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id venio, caveo ( ne), censeo, cogo, concedo, constituo, curo, decerno, edico, flagito, hortor, impero, insto, mando, metuo ( ne). moneo, negotium do, operam do, oro, persuadeo, peto, postulo, praecipio, precor, pronuntio. quaero, rogo, scisco, timeo ( ne), vereor ( ne), video, volo.
2 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb originally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely complementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb ( ita accidit ut, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or object of the verb with which they are connected.
3 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accedit, accidit, additur, altera est res, committo, consequor, contingit, efficio, evenit, facio, fit, fleri potest, fore, impetro, integrum est, mos est, munus est, necesse est, prope est, rectum est, relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest, and a few others.
4 Cf. the Greek thaumazo ei.
SECTION: #577. The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse ( oratio obliqua) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms like it have grown up in English and German.
The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily conforms to the new relation of persons.
The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any one--whether the speaker or some one else--says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a complete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also be reported indirectly as well as directly.
The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as "The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses.‰Û?
The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was afterwards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses; and in Latin it became a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in English, where only the person and tense are changed.)
The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate; consequently no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple sentences. It is probable that the subjunctive in indirect questions (Sect: 574), in informal indirect discourse (Sect: 592), and in clauses of the integral part (Sect: 593) represents the earliest steps of a movement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a mood of subordination.
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if necessary), as in the reporter's style.
SECTION: #578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer (Oratio Recta).
An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted (?Î ratio Obliqua).
NOTE.--The term Indirect Discourse ( oratio obliqua) is used in two senses. In the wider sense it includes all clauses--of whatever kind--which express the words or thought of any person indirectly, that is, in a form different from that in which the person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Caesar and Livy. In this book the term is used in the restricted sense.
FORMAL .INDIRECT DISCOURSE
SECTION: #579. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving,govern the Indirect Discourse.
NOTE.-- Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry.
Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse
SECTION: #580. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive:
scio me paene incredibilem rem polliceri (B. C. 3.86) , I know that I am promising an almost incredible thing. [Direct: polliceor.]
non arbitror te ita sentire (Fam. 10.26.2) , I do not suppose that you feel thus. [Direct: sentis.]
spero me liberatum [ esse] de metu; (Tusc. 2.67), I trust I have been freed from fear. [Direct: liberatus sum.]
[ dicit] esse non nullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. 1.17) , he says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [Direct: sunt non nulli ... valet.]
nisi iurasset, scelus se facturum [ esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. 2.1.123) , he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. [Direct: nisi iuravero, faciam.]
The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in some word or in the general drift of the sentence:
consulis alterius nomen invisum civitati fuit: nimium Tarquinios regno adsuesse; initium a Prisco factum; regnasse dein Ser. Tullium, etc. (Liv. 2.2) , the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tarquins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power, etc. [Here invisum implies a thought, and this thought is added in the form of Indirect Discourse.]
orantes ut urbibus saltem--iam enim agros deploratos esse-- opem senatus ferret ( id. 41.6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the cities--for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost.
The verb nego, deny, is commonly used in preference to dico with a negative:
[ Stoici] negant quidquam [ esse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. 2.68) , the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right.
Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, contrary to the English idiom:
minatur sese abire (Pl. Asin. 604) , he threatens to go away. [Direct: abeo, I am going away.]
sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lael. 79) , they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct: capiemus.]
sperat se absolutum iri (Sull. 21) , he hopes that he shall be acquitted. [Direct: absolvar.]
quem inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo; ( Mur. 90), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct: erit.]
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. 5.76) , pain threatens to wear down fortitude. [Direct: debilitabo.]
confido me quod velim facile a te impetraturum (Fam. 11.16.1) , I trust I shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct: quod volo, impetrabo.]
NOTE.--These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive (Sect: 456) So regularly in early Latin (except spero):
pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. 4.21) , they promise to give hostages.
promisi dolium vini dare (Pl. Cist. 542) , I promised to give a jar of wine.
Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result, according to the sense.
1. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse): --
laudem sapientiae statuo esse maximam (Fam. 5.13) , I hold that the glory of wisdom is the greatest. [Indirect Discourse.]
res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. 10.8.1) , the thing itself warned that it was time. [Cf. monere ut, warn to do something.]
fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. 1.75) , suppose that I am persuaded of that. [Cf. facere ut, bring it about that.]
hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animas (B. G. 6.14) , they wish to convince that souls do not perish.
2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result):
statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. 7.21) , they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause (cf. Sect: 563).]
huic persuadet uti ad hostis transeat ( id. 3.18), he persuades him to pass over to the enemy.
Pompeiius suis praedixerat ut Caesaris impetum exciperent (B. C. 3.92) , Pompey had instructed his men beforehand to await Caesar's attack.
denuntiavit ut essent animo parati; ( id. 3.86), he bade them be alert and steadfast (ready in spirit).
NOTE.--The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause (Sect: 563. d).
SECTION: #581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly expressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct:
orator sum, I am an orator; dicit se esse oratorem, he says he is an orator.
NOTE 1.--But the subject is often omitted if easily understood:
ignoscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. 4.27) , he said he pardoned their rashness.
eadem ab aliis quaerit: reperit esse vera ( id. 1.18), he inquires about these same things from others; he finds that they are true.
NOTE 2.--After a relative, or quam (than), if the verb would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative:
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri; (Cat. M. 1), I suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as I.
confido tamen haec quoque tibi non minus grata quam ipsos libros futura (Plin. Ep. 3.5.20) , I trust that these facts too will be no less pleasing to you than the books themselves.
NOTE 3.--In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb:
vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. 1.7.22) , a good and wise man says he is prepared, etc. [In prose: ait se esse paratum.]
sensit medios delapsus in hostis (Aen. 2.377) , he found himself fallen among the foe. [In prose: se esse delapsum.]
SECTION: #582. When the verb of saying etc. is passive, the construction may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal construction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of incomplete action:
beate vixisse videor (Lael. 15) , I seem to have lived happily.
Epaminondas fidibus praeclare cecinisse dicitur (Tusc. 1.4) , Epaminondas is said to have played excellently on the lyre.
multi idem facturi esse dicuntur (Fam. 16.12.4) , many are said to be about to do the same thing. [Active: dicunt multos facturos ( esse).]
primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 40) , they first are related to have joined words with a certain skill.
Bibulus audiebatur esse in Syria; ( Att. 5.18), it was heard that Bibulus was in Syria ( Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulus est.]
ceterae Illyrici legiones secuturae sperabantur (Tac. H. 2.74) , the rest of the legions of Illyricum were expected to follow.
videmur enim quieturi fuisse, nisi essemus lacessiti (De Or. 2.230) , it seems that we should have kept quiet, if we had not been molested (we seem, etc.). [Direct: quiessemus ... nisi essemus lacessiti.]
NOTE.--The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs which are not properly verba sentiendi etc.: as,-- colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. 2.6.61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular:
traditum est etiam Homerum caecum fuisse (Tusc. 5.114) , it is a tradition, too, that Homer was blind.
ubi tyrannus est, ibi non vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane nullam esse rem publicam (Rep. 3.43) , where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that the commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all.
NOTE.--An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. 2.299; Liv. 5.41.9).
1 Such are: (1) knowing, scio, cognosco, compertum habeo, etc.; (2) thinking, puto, existimo, arbitror, etc.; (3) telling, dico, nuntio, refero, polliceor, promitto, certiorem facio, etc.; (4) perceiving, sentio, comperio, video, audio, etc. So in general any word that denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the Indirect Discourse.
2 Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.
Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse
SECTION: #583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory, or containing statements which are regarded as true independently of the quotation, takes the Indicative:
quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate administrari; ( Cat. 3.21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of the gods?
cuius ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari; ( Arch. 20), by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to the quotation: quae gessisset would mean, what Marius claimed to have done.]
NOTE.--Such a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect Discourse; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. Sect: 591-593).
A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes the Indicative when the fact is emphasized:
factum eiius hostis periculum ... cum, Cimbris et Teutonis ... pulsis, non minorem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus videbatur (B. G. 1.40) , that a trial of this enemy had been made when, on the defeat of the Cimbri and Teutoni, the army seemed to have deserved no less credit than the commander himself.
Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see Sect: 308. f):
Marcellus requisisse dicitur Archimedem illum, quem cum audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. 4.131) , Marcellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed. [ quem= et eum.]
censent unum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. 3.64) , they say that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this naturally follows.
NOTE.--Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive. as,-- quem ad modum si non dedatur obses pro rupto foedus se habiturum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. 2.13) , [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends.
The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam:
addit se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. 2.20.2) , he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.
nonne adfirmavi quidvis me potius perpessurum quam ex I talia exiturum (Fam. 2.16.3) , did I not assert that I would endure anything rather than leave Italy?
NOTE.--The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see Sect: 535. c).
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse
SECTION: #584. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitiveis used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced:
cado, I am falling.
dicit se cadere, he says he is falling.
dixit se cadere, he said he was falling.
cadebam, I was falling; cecidi, I fell, have fallen; cecideram, I had fallen.
dicit se cecidisse, he says he was falling, fell, has fallen, had fallen.
dixit se cecidisse, he said he fell, had fallen.
cadam, I shall fall.
dicit se casurum [ esse], he says he shall fall.
dixit se casurum [ esse], he said he should fall.
cecidero, I shall have fallen.
dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen.
dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen.
All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct.
NOTE.--Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive.
This is the regular construction after memini when referring to a matter of actual experience or observation: as,-- te memini haec dicere, I remember your saying this (that you said this). [Direct: dixisti or dicebas.]
The present infinitive posse often has a future sense:
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. 1.3) , they hope that they shall be able to get possession of all Gaul.
1 For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see Sect: 164. 3. c.
Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse
SECTION: #585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (Sect: 482). They depend for their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced.
Thus in the sentence, dixit se Romam iturum ut consulem videret, he said he should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, videret follows the sequence of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, iturum [ esse], on which it directly depends.
NOTE.--This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, Sect: 588), and to that in questions (Sect: 586).
A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a primary tense (cf. Sect: 485. j); so regularly when these tenses would have been used in Direct Discourse:
Tarquinium dixisse ferunt tum exsulantem se intellexisse quos fidos amicos habuisset (Lael. 53) , they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile he had found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dixisse and intellexisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.]
tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vinceremur (N. D. 1.8) , we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
NOTE 1.--The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary; if it stands for a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary (Sect: 485. a).
NOTE 2.--The so-called imperfect infinitive after memini (Sect: 584. a. N.) takes the secondary sequence: as,-- ad me adire quosdam memini, qui dicerent (Fam. 3.10.6) , I remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc.
The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying etc. is in a secondary tense:
dicebant ... totidem Nervios ( polliceri) qui longissime absint (B. G. 2.4) , they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many.
NOTE.--This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker ( repraesentatio). In the course of a long pas sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes following the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentatio. Examples may be seen in B. G. 1.13, 7.20, etc.
Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentatio. Such are the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam.
Questions in Indirect Discourse
SECTION: #586. A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying its own answer, is put in the Infinitive:
quid sibi vellet? cur in suas possessiones veniret (B. G. 1.44) , what did he want? why did he come into his territories? [Real question. Direct: quid vis? cur venis?]
num recentium iniuriarum memoriam [ se] deponere posse ( id. 1.14), could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Question. Direct: num possum?]
quem signum daturum fugientibus? quem ausurum Alexandro succedere (Q. C. 3.5.7) , who will give the signal on the retreat? who will dare succeed Alexander? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit ... audebit.]
NOTE 1.--No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view:
utrum partem regni petiturum esse, an totum erepturum (Liv. 45.19.15) , will you ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole?
quid tandem praetori faciendum fuisse ( id. 31.48), what, pray, ought a praetor to have done?
quid repente factum [ esse] cur, etc. ( id. 34.54), what had suddenly happened, that, etc.?
NOTE 2.--Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see Sect: 574). This is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesivit, etc. ( Liv. 37.15).
For the use of tenses, see Sect: 585.
SECTION: #587. A Deliberative Subjunctive (Sect: 444) in the Direct Discourse is always retained in the Indirect:
cur aliquos ex suis amitteret (B. C. 1.72) , why (thought he) should he lose some of his men? [Direct: cur amittam?]
Commands in Indirect Discourse
SECTION: #588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse:
reminisceretur veteris incommodi; ( B. G. 1.13), remember (said he) the ancient disaster. [Direct: reminiscere.]
finem faciat ( id. 1.20), let him make an end. [Direct: fac.]
ferrent opem, adiuvarent (Liv. 2.6) , let them bring aid, let them help.
This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well.
NOTE 1.--Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on the verb of saying etc. (cf. Sect: 483, 585).
NOTE 2.--A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by ne with the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when noli with the infinitive would be used in the Direct: as,-- ne perturbarentur (B. G. 7.29) , do not (he said) be troubled. [Direct: nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Indirect Discourse.]
Conditions in Indirect Discourse
SECTION: #589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed as follows:
1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the Subjunctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive.
The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future conditions (Sect: 516. b) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Future Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions.
Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future conditions in the Indirect Discourse.
Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are:/p>
1. Simple Present Condition (Sect: 515):
( dixit) si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet quem ad modum suo iure uteretur, non oportere sese a populo Romano in suo iure impediri (B. G. 1.36) , he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how they should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct: si non praescribo ... non oportet.]
praedicavit ... si pace uti velint, iniquum esse, etc. ( id. 1.44), he asserted that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct: si volunt ... est. Present tense kept by repraesentatio (Sect: 585. b. N.).]
2. Simple Past Condition (Sect: 515):
non dicam ne illud quidem, si maxime in culpa fuerit Apollonius, tamen in hominem honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tam graviter animadverti, causa indicta, non oportuisse (Verr. 5.20) , I will not say this either, that, even if Apollonius was very greatly in fault, still an honorable man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely without having his case heard. [Direct: si fuit ... non oportuit.]
3. Future Conditions (Sect: 516):
( dixit) quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione iturum (B. G. 1.40) , but if nobody else should follow, still he would go with the tenth legion alone. [Direct: si sequetur ... ibo. Present tense by repraesentatio (Sect: 585. b. N.).]
Haeduis se obsides redditurum non esse, neque eis ... bellum illaturum, si in eo manerent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis penderent: si id non fecissent, longe eis fraternum nomen populi Romani afuturum ( id. 1.36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the Haedui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement which had been made, and paid tribute yearly; but that, if they should not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding them. [Direct: reddam ... inferam ... si manebunt ... pendent: si non fecerint ... aberit. Datames ut audivit, sensit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam necessario se relictum, futurum [ esse] ut ceteri consilium sequantur (Nep. Dat. 6), when Datames heard this, he saw that, if it should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody else would follow his example. [Direct: si exierit ... sequentur.
( putaverunt) nisi me civitate expulissent, obtinere se non posse licentiam cupiditatum suarum (Att. 10.4) , they thought that unless they drove me out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct: nisi ( Ciceronem) expulerimus, obtinere non poterimus.]
In changing a Condition contrary to fact (Sect: 517) into the Indirect Discourse, the following points require notice:
1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense.
2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by combining the Participle in -? Çrus with fuisse.
3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futurum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used.
4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive.
Examples are:
nec se superstitem filiae futurum fuisse, nisi spem ulciscendae mortis eiius in auxilio commilitonum habuisset (Liv. 3.50.7) , and that he should not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct: non superstes essem, nisi habuissem.]
illud Asia cogitet, nullam a se neque belli externi neque discordiarum domesticarum calamitatem afuturam fuisse, si hoc imperio non teneretur (Q. Fr. 1.1.34) , let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster, etc., would not be hers, if she were not held by this government. [Direct: abesset, si non tenerer.]
quid inimicitiarum creditis [ me] excepturum fuisse, si insontis lacessissem (Q. C. 6.10.18) , what enmities do you think I should have incurred, if I had wantonly assailed the innocent? [ excepissem ... si lacessissem.]
invitum se dicere, nec dicturum fuisse, ni caritas rei publicae vinceret (Liv. 2.2) , that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken, did not love for the state prevail. [Direct: nec dixissem ... ni vinceret.]
nisi eo tempore quidam nuntii de Caesaris victoria ... essent allati, existimabant plerique futurum fuisse uti [ oppidum] amitteretur (B. C. 3.101) , most people thought that unless at that time reports of Caesar's victory had been brought, the town would have been lost. [Direct: nisi essent allati ... amissum esset.]
quorum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futurum fuisse ut omnibus perfectis artibus hominum vita erudiretur (Tusc. 3.69) , if life could have been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in its perfection. [Direct: si potuisset ... erudita esset.]
at plerique existimant, si acrius insequi voluisset, bellum eo die potuisse finire (B. C. 3.51) , but most people think that, if he had chosen to follow up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day. [Direct: si voluisset ... potuit.]
Caesar respondit ... si alicuius iniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuisse difficile cavere (B. G. 1.14) , Caesar replied that if [the Roman people] had been aware of any wrong act, it would not have been hard for them to take precautions. [Direct: si fuisset, non difficile fuit (Sect: 517. c).]
NOTE 1.--In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not distinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may keep them distinct.
NOTE 2.--The periphrasis futurum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in Caesar or Cicero.
NOTE 3.--Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples of this use occur in classic authors: as,-- Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque Carnutes, etc., neque Eburones tanta cum contemptione nostra ad castra venturos esse (B. G. 5.29) , Titurius cried out that if Caesar were present, neither would the Carnutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt, [Direct: si adesset ... venirent.]
SECTION: #590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing principles in a connected address:
.INDIRECT DISCOURSE vs. .DIRECT DISCOURSE
Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem ituros atque ibi futuros Helvetios, ubi eos Caesar constituisset atque esse voluisset: sin bello persequi perseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani, et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum pagum adortus esset, cum ei qui flumen transissent suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob eam rem aut suae magno opere virtuti tribueret, aut ipsos despiceret: se ita a patribus maioribusque suis didicisse, ut magis virtute quam dolo contenderent, aut insidiis niterentur. Qua re ne committeret, ut is locus ubi constitissent ex calamitate populi Romani et internecione exercitus nomen caperet, aut memoriam proderet. -- B. G. 1.13. Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in eam partem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eos tu constitueris atque esse volueris: sin bello persequi perseverabis, reminiscere [ inquit] et veteris incommodi populi Romani, et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum pagum adortus es, cum ei qui flumen transierant suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob eam rem aut tuae magno opere virtuti tribueris, aut nos despexeris: nos ita a patribus maioribusque nostris didicimus, ut magis virtute quam dolo contendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. Qua re noli committere, ut hic locus ubi constitimus ex calamitate populi Romani et internecione exercitus nomen capiat, aut memoriam prodat.
.INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES
SECTION: #591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive:/p>
1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer (Informal Indirect Discourse), or
2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive (Attraction).
1 See note on Indirect Discourse (Sect: 577).
Informal Indirect Discourse
SECTION: #592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker:
1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a command, or a question, expressed indirectly, though not strictly in the form of Indirect Discourse:
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. 1.14) , an animal feels what it is that is fit.
huic imperat quas possit adeat civitates (B. G. 4.21) , he orders him to visit what states he can.
hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctisque stimulat ac pungit, ut evellatis postulat (Rosc. Am. 6) , he begs you to pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, but is an assertion made by the subject of postulat.]
2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of saying, or some modifier of it:
si quid de his rebus dicere vellet, feci potestatem (Cat. 3.11) , if he wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance.
tulit de caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Mil. 15) , he passed a law concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the Appian Way.
nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer minatur (Verr. 2.162) , he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause, "that he will inflict punishment" is contained in minatur.]
iis auxilium suum pollicitus si ab Suebis premerentur (B. G. 4.19) , he promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [= pollicitus se auxilium laturum, etc.]
prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni; ( Verr. 3.37), the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the bargain.
3. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relative or by quod (rarely quia) (see Sect: 540):
Paetus omnis libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. 2.1.12) , P?"tus presented to me all the books which (he said) his brother had left.
NOTE.--Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive (Sect: 540. N.2). Here belong also non quia, non quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. (See Sect: 540. N.3.)
ISubjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction)
SECTION: #593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause:
imperat, dum res iudicetur, hominem adservent: cum iudicata sit, ad se ut adducant (Verr. 3.55) , he orders them, till the affair should be decided, to keep the man; when it is judged, to bring him to him.
etenim quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac neglegere possit (Rosc. Am. 32) , for who is so reckless of spirit that, when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ?
mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti; (Or. 151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. [Here laudari is equivalent to ut laudentur.]
But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause:
quodam modo postulat ut, quem ad modum est, sic etiam appelletur, tyrannus (Att. 10.4.2) , in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called, a tyrant.
natura fert ut eis faveamus qui eadem pericula quibus nos perfuncti sumus ingrediuntur (Mur. 4) , nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through.
ne hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suos circumvenire possent (B. G. 2.8) , lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should be able to surround his men.
si mea in te essent officia solum tanta quanta magis a te ipso praedicari quam a me ponderari solent, verecundius a te ... peterem (Fam. 2.6) , if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc.
NOTE 1.--The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infinitive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible.
NOTE 2.--It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse and the Integral Part. Thus in imperavit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions.
IMPORTANT .RULES OF SYNTAX
SECTION: #594.
1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case (Sect: 282).
2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (Sect: 286).
3. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession--also medius, ( ceterus), reliquus--usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant (Sect: 293).
4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively, and that in - i oftenest objectively (Sect: 295. b).
5. The Reflexive Pronoun ( se), and usually the corresponding possessive ( suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause (Sect: 299).
6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (Sect: 302. a).
7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun (Sect: 302. e).
8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands (Sect: 305).
9. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person (Sect: 316).
10. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs (Sect: 321).
11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclicic - ne to the emphatic word (Sect: 332).
12. When the enclitic - ne is added to a negative word,--as in nonne,-- an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer (Sect: 332. b).
13. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (Sect: 339).
14. The Vocative is the case of direct address (Sect: 340).
15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive (Sect: 342).
16. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs (Sect: 343).
17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (Sect: 344).
18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective (Sect: 345).
19. Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the whole to which the part belongs (Partitive Genitive, Sect: 346).
20. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the object (Objective Genitive, Sect: 348).
21. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; participles in -ns when used as adjectives; and verbals in -ax, govern the Genitive (Sect: 349. a, b, c).
22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object (Sect: 350).
23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing (Sect: 351).
24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of the charge or penalty (Sect: 352).
25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action (Indirect Object, Sect: 361).
26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the Dative (Sect: 367).
27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object (Sect: 370).
28. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession (Sect: 373).
29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests (Sect: 374).
30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference, Sect: 376).
31. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation ( Sect: 381).
32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected (Sect: 382).
33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites (Sect: 384).
34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (Sect: 387).
35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner (Cognate Accusative, Sect: 390).
36. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object (Sect: 393).
37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition (Sect: 394).
38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of the Person, and the other of the Thing (Sect: 396).
39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (Sect: 397. e).
40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative (Sect: 424. c, 425).
41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Ablative (Ablative of Separation, Sect: 400).
42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists (Sect: 403).
43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause (Sect: 404).
44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with a or ab (Sect: 405).
45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying than (å ¤ 406).
46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case (Sect: 407).
47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action (Sect: 409).
48. The deponents, utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, with several of their compounds, govern the Ablative (Sect: 410).
49. Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (Sect: 411).
50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with cum unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (Sect: 412).
51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum (Sect: 413).
52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is used to denote the degree of difference (Sect: 414).
53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive Modifier (Sect: 415).
54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative (Sect: 416).
55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done (Sect: 418).
56. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the Ablative (Sect: 418. b).
57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action (Ablative Absolute, Sect: 419).
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the ablative absolute construction (Sect: 419. a).
58. Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative; time how long by the Accusative (Sect: 423).
59. Relations of Place are expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, de, ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative). (Sect: 426.)
60. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rus, the relations of place are expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative. (Sect: 427.)
61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation, a command, or a concession. (Sect: 439, 440).
62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time (Sect: 441).
63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done (Deliberative Subjunctive, Sect: 444).
64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable (Sect: 446).
65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties (Sect: 448).
66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by noli with the Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by ne with the Perfect Subjunctive ( Sect: 450).
67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative (Sect: 452).
68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (Complementary Infinitive, Sect: 456).
69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, see Sect: 459).
70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, Sect: 463).
71. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive in the dependent clause; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect (Sect: 483).
72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause (Sect: 489).
73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions of nouns (Sect: 501-507).
74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose (Sect: 509).
75. The Supine in -u is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to denote Specification (å ¤ 510).
76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive (Sect: 528).
77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut ( uti), negative ne ( ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (Sect: 531).
78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is otherwise undefined (Sect: 535).
79. Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus, take a Subjunctive clause with a relative (rarely with ut) (Sect: 535. f).
80. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut non), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (Sect: 537).
81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of another (Sect: 540).
82. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut ( ut primum, ut semel), simul atque ( simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present) (å ¤ 543).
83. A Temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb occurred (Sect: 545).
84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb (Sect: 546).
85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive (Sect: 549).
For other concessive particles, see Sect: 527.
86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive (Sect: 580).
87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced (Sect: 584).
88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (Sect: 586).
89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse (Sect: 588).
90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal Indirect Discourse, Sect: 592).
91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause (Attraction, Sect: 593).
For Prepositions and their cases, see Sect: 220, 221.
For Conditional Sentences, see Sect: 512 ff. (Scheme in Sect: 514.)
For ways of expressing Purpose, see Sect: 533.
1 The subjunctive in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. In a result clause this is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of the characteristic (Sect: 534), to which category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes the subjunctive.
ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX
SECTION: #595. Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative importance of the ideas in a sentence.
SECTION: #596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the Predicate last. Thus,--
Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus homo sed varius in omni genere vitae fuit (Nep. Paus. 1) , Pausanias the Laced?"monian was a great man, but inconsistent in the whole course of his life.
NOTE.--This happens because, from the speaker's ordinary point of view, the subject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other things to be spoken of.
There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single word of the predicate.
SECTION: #597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence.
This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis).
The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words is illustrated in the following passages:
apud Xenophontem autem moriens Cyrus maior haec dicit (Cat. M. 79) , IN XENOPHON too, on his death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words.
Cyrus quidem haec moriens; nos, si placet, nostra videamus ( id. 82), CYRUS, to be sure, utters these words on his death-bed; let US, if you please, consider our own case.
Cyrus quidem apud Xenophontem eo sermone, quem moriens habuit ( id. 30), CYRUS, to be sure, in Xenophon, in that speech which he uttered on his death-bed.
NOTE.--This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later.
The first chapter of Caesar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus:
GAUL,in the widest sense, is divided into three parts,which are inhabited(as follows): oneby the Belgians, anotherby the Aquitani, the third by a people called in their ownlanguage Celts, in ours Gauls. THESE in their language,institutions, and laws are all of them 10 different. The GAULS 11 (proper) are separated 12 from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, from the Belgians by the Marne and Seine. Of THESE 13 (TRIBES) the bravest of all 14 are the Belgians, for the reason that they live farthest 15 awayfrom the CIVILIZATION and REFINEMENT of the Province, and because they are LEAST 16 of all of them subject to the visits of traders, 17 and to the (consequent) importation of such things as 18 tend to soften 19 their warlike spirit; and are also nearest 20 to the Germans, who live across the Rhine, 21 and with whom they are incessantly 22 at war. For the same reason the HELVETIANS, as well, are superior to all the other Gauls in valor, because they are engaged in almost daily battles with the Germans, either defending their own boundaries from them, or themselves making war on those of the Germans. Of ALL THIS country, one part--the one which, as has been said, the Gauls (proper) occupy--BEGINS at the river Rhone. Its boundaries are the river Garonne, the ocean, and the confines of the Belgians. It even REACHES on the side of the Sequani and Helvetians the river Rhine. Its general direction is towards the north. The BELGIANS begin at the extreme limits of Gaul; they reach (on this side) as far as the lower part of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward. AQUITANIA extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part of the ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward. Gallia est omnis divisa in partis tris, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano; continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur: pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montis et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones.
The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it were, in a new one.
.WORD .ORDER IN LATIN
SECTION: #598. The main rules for the .Order of Words are as follows:
In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes first:
1. Adjective and Noun:
omnis homines decet, EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not).
Lucius Catilina nobili genere natus fuit, magna vi et animi et corporis, sed ingenio malo pravoque ( Sall. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a NOBLE family, with GREAT force of mind and body, but with a NATURE that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns being as yet thought of; but in the second branch the noun is meant to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus making a chiasmus. 23 ]
2. Word with modifying case:
quid magis Epaminondam, Thebanorum imperatorem, quam victoriae Thebanorum consulere decuit (Inv. 1.69) , what should Epaminondas, commander of the THEBANS, have aimed at more than the VICTORY of the Thebans?
lacrima nihil citius arescit ( id. 1.109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR.
nemo fere laudis cupidus (De Or. 1.14) , hardly any one desirous of GLORY (cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, EAGER for glory).
Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words to which they belong:
cum aliqua perturbatione (Off. 1.137) , with SOME disturbance.
hoc uno praestamus (De Or. 1.32) , in THIS one thing we excel.
ceterae fere artes, the OTHER arts.
NOTE.--This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but often the words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the emphatic place:
causa aliqua (De Or. 1.250) , some CASE.
stilus ille tuus ( id. 1.257), that well-known STYLE of yours (in an antithesis; see passage). [ Ille is idiomatic in this sense and position.]
Romam quae apportata sunt (Verr. 4.121) , what were carried to ROME (in contrast to what remained at Syracuse).
When sum is used as the Substantive verb (Sect: 284. b), it regularly stands first, or at any rate before its subject:
est viri magni punire sontis (Off. 1.82) , it is the duty of a great man to punish the guilty.
The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1) because the idea in it is emphatic; or (2) because the predication of the whole statement is emphatic; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic:
(1) dicebat idem Cotta (Off. 2.59), Cotta used to SAY the same thing (opposed to others' boasting).
idem fecit adulescens M. Antonius ( id. 2.49), the same thing was DONE by Mark Antony in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before.]
facis amice; (Lael. 9), you ACT kindly. [Cf. amice facis, you are very KIND (you act KINDLY).]
(2) propensior benignitas esse debebit in calamitosos nisi forte erunt digni calamitate (Off. 2.62) , liberality ought to be readier toward the unfortunate unless perchance they REALLY DESERVE their misfortune.
praesertim cum scribat ( Panaetius) ( id. 3.8), especially when he DOES SAY (in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.]
(3) fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. 2.325) , we have CEASED to be Trojans, Troy is now no MORE.
loquor autem de communibus amicitiis (Off. 3.45) , but I am SPEAKING NOW of common friendships.
Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places:
plures solent esse causae (Off. 1.28) , there are USUALLY SEVERAL reasons.
quos amisimus civis, eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17) , WHAT fellow-citizens we have LOST, have been stricken down by the violence of war.
maximas tibi omnes gratias agimus ( id. 33), we ALL render you the WARMEST thanks.
haec res unius est propria Caesaris ( id. 11), THIS exploit belongs to CÌ ºsar ALONE.
obiurgationes etiam non numquam incidunt necessariae (Off. 1.136) , OCCASIONS FOR REBUKE also SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable.
Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order (chiasmus):
(1) rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. 3.125) , ABUNDANCE of MATTER produces COPIOUSNESS of EXPRESSION.
(2) leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Legg. 2.13) , the laws VISIT PUNISHMENTS upon the WICKED, but the GOOD they DEFEND and PROTECT.
NOTE.--Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inartificial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, "The women were all drowned, they saved the men."
non igitur utilitatem amicitia sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta est (Lael. 51) , it is not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advantage upon friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in the parallel order.] (See also p. 395: longissime, minime, proximi.)
A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within the phrase (cf. a):
de communi hominum memoria; (Tusc. 1.59), in regard to the UNIVERSAL memory of man.
A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis):
et superiecto pavidae natarunt aequore dammae (Hor. Od. 1.2.11) .
NOTE.--This is often joined with chiasmus: as,-- arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus ( id. 2.1.5).
Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance:
dictitabat se hortulos aliquos emere velle (Off. 3.58) , he gave out that he wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliquos is less emphatic than emere, but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulos.]
The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may come in anywhere where it sounds well; but usually under cover of more emphatic words:
consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consilio; ( Rep. 3.28), as consul I held an investigation in which you attended me in council.
falsum est id totum ( id. 2.28), that is all false.
Many expressions have acquired an invariable order:
res publica; populus Romanus; honoris causa; pace tanti viri.
NOTE.--These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus, senatus populusque Romanus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.
The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place:
[ dixit] venalis quidem se hortos non habere (Off. 3.58) , [said] that he did n't have any gardens for sale, to be sure.
Kindred words often come together ( figura etymologica):
ita sensim sine sensu aetas senescit (Cat. M. 38) , thus gradually, without being perceived, man's life grows old.
.Special Rules of .Arrangement
SECTION: #599. The following are special rules of arrangement:
The negative precedes the word it especially affects; but if it belongs to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb; if it is especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598. f. N.)
Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second word is emphatic; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word; igitur usually second; ne ... quidem include the emphatic word or words.
Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more words. So often credo, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor.
(1) Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede their nouns; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun and its adjective or limiting genitive:
quem ad modum; quam ob rem; magno cum metu; omnibus cum copiis; nulla in re; (cf. Sect: 598. i).
In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun:
quos amisimus civis, eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17) , those citizens whom we have lost, etc.
Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the sentence:
cum vos mihi essetis in consilio; ( Rep. 3.28), when you attended me in counsel.
Structure of the Period
SECTION: #600. Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to each other by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word.
An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage:
High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat.--Paradise Lost, ii. 1-5.
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the logical relation among all its parts is carefully indicated.
SECTION: #601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to be observed:
In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not in a subordinate one:
Hannibal cum recensuisset auxilia Gades profectus est (Liv. 21.21) , when Hannibal had reviewed the auxiliaries, he set out for Cadiz.
Volsci exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, praeter cetera adversa, loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam congressi, iniquiore ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine versi dedito imperatore traditisque armis, sub iugum missi, cum singulis vestimentis, ignominiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur (Liv. 4.10) . [Here the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circumstances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in a number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subordinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a complete picture in one sentence.]
Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind of the speaker; so, usually, cause before result; purpose, manner, and the like, before the act.
In coordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some antithesis indicated by the position of words.
A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure,--the less important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles or of subordinate phrases:
quem ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis eminus missis interfecerunt (Nep. Alc. 10) , when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw darts at HIM at long range and killed HIM.
celeriter confecto negotio, in hiberna legiones reduxit (B. G. 6.3) , the matter was soon finished, AND he led the legions, etc.
So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it, is avoided unless a different case is required:
dolorem si non potuero frangere occultabo; ( Phil. 12.21), if I cannot conquer the pain, I will hide IT. [Cf. if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.]
The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succession of long and short syllables. Thus,--
quod scis nihil prodest, quod nescis multum obest (Or. 166) , what you know is of no use, what you do not know does great harm.
NOTE.--In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4.72) lays down the general rule that a clause should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.
PROSODY
SECTION: #602. The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been somewhat like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables; and the Romans borrowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely different system of metrical accent or ictus (see Sect: 611. a). This depends upon the character of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equivalent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity; and a long syllable is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see Sect: 608. c- e).
The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables--as of short a in peater or of long a in mater--can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets; but the ancient grammarians give some assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways,-- by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (Sect: 10. e. N.).
Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek, and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point, the variations will be noticed in the rules below.
.QUANTITY .GENERAL RULES
SECTION: #603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. Sect: 9-11):
1 GAUL: emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like.
2 Divided: opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact that Caesar later speaks of the Galli in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense.
3 Parts: continuing the emphasis begun in divisa. Not three parts as opposed to any other number, but into parts at all.
4 Inhabited: emphatic as the next subject, "The inhabitants of these parts are, etc.‰Û?
5 One: given more prominence than it otherwise would have on accountof its close connection with quarum.
6 Another, etc.: opposed to one.
7 Their own, ours: strongly opposed to each other.
8 THESE (tribes): the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head the names previously mentioned.
9 Language, etc.: these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say "these have a different language, different institutions, different laws.‰Û?
10 All of them: the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the adjective, as if it were uevery one has its own, etc.‰Û?
11 GAULS: emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other tribes.
12 Separated: though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between the Aquitani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other.
13 Of THESE: the subject of discourse.
14 All: emphasizing the superlative idea in "bravest‰Û?; they, as Gauls, are assumed to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians.
15 Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effeminating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has already been anticipated by the construction of cultu and still more by longissime, so that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus,--"because the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) is farthest from them.‰Û?
16 LEAST: made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chiasmus (Sect: 598. f).
17 Traders: the fourth member of the chiasmus, opposed to cultu and humanitate.
18 Such things as: the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in traders.
19 Soften: cf. what is said in note 15, p. 394. They are brave because they have less to soften them, their native barbarity being taken for granted.
20 Nearest: the same idiomatic prominence as in noteabove, but varied by a special usage combining chiasmus and anaphora (Sect: 598. f).
21 Across the Rhine: i.e. and so are perfect savages.
22 Incessantly: the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as if it were "and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them.‰Û?
23 So called from the Greek letter ch (chi), on account of the criss-cross arrangement of the words. Thus, a b
.PROSODY and .QUANTITY
SECTION: #604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows:
Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: as, me, tu, hi, ne.
1. The attached particles -ne, -que, -ve, -ce, -pte, and re- (re ¥d-) are short; se- (sed-) and de Ç- are long. Thus, secedit, seditio, exercitumquereducit, dimitto. But re- is often long in religio ( relligio), retuli ( rettuli), repuli ( reppuli).
Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, sol, os ( oris), bos, par, vas ( vasis), ver, ve Çs.
Exceptions.--cor, fel, lac, mel, os ( ossis), vas (vedis), vir, tot, quot.
Most monosyllabic Particles are short: as, in, in, cis, nec. But cras, cur, en, non, quin, sin--with adverbs in c: as, hic, huc, sic--are long.
Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin gular of the first declension; in all other words final a is long. Thus, eea stellea (nominative), cum ea stella (ablative); frustra, voca (imperative), postea, triginta.
Exceptions.--eiA, ita, quiia, put&put; a (suppose); and, in late use, triginta etc.
Final e is short: as in nube, ducite, saepe ¥.
Exceptions.--Final e is long--1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, with others of like form: as, alte, longe, misere, aperte, saepissime. So fere, ferme.
But it is short in bene, male; inferne, superne.
2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fide (also fame), facie, hodie, quare ( qua re).
3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension: as, cete; and in some other Greek words: Phoebe, Circ e, Andromache, etc.
4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation: as, vide.
But sometimes cave, habe, tace, vale, vide(cf. Sect: 629. b. 1).
Final i is long: as in turri, fili, aude Ç.
Exceptions.--Final i is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi, quasi, sicuti, cui (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives: as, Alexi.
Final o is common: but long in datives and ablatives; also in nouns of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the time of Ovid.
Exceptions.- -cito, modo (dummod? ?), immo, profecto, ego, duo, cedo(the imperative); so sometimes octo, ilico, etc., particularly in later writers.
Final u is long. Final y is short
Final as, es, os, are long; final is, as, ys, are short: as, nefas, rupes, serv os (accusative), honos; hostis, amicus, Tethys.
Exceptions.--1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives: as, lampadeas; and in aneas.
2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short vowel in the stem: as, miles (-e -tis), obses (-è÷ dis),--except abies,aries, paries, pes; in the present of esse (es, ade ¥s); in the preposition penes, and in the plural of Greek nouns: as, he roes, lampades.
3. os is short in comp??s, imp??s; in the Greek nominative ending: as, barbit??s; in the old nominative of the second declension: as, serv??s (later servus).
4. is in plural cases is long: as in bonis, nobis, vobis, omnis (accusative plural).
5. is is long in the verb forms fis, sis, vis (with quivis etc.), velis, malis, nolis, edis; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth conjugation: as, audis; and sometimes in the forms in - eris (future perfect indicative or perfect subjunctive).
6. us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension; and in nouns of the third declension having u (long) in the stem: as, virtus (- utis), incus (-åø dis). But pecus, -udis.
Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short Thus, ameat, amatur; donec, feac, procul, iube ar.
Exceptions.-- hic (also he -c); allec; the ablatives illoc, etc.; certain adverbs in -c: as, illic, istuc; lien, and some Greek nouns: as, aer, aether, crater.
1 The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular.
Perfects and Perfect Participles
SECTION: #605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the first syllable long: as, iuvi, iutum (iuvo), vidi, visum (video); fugi (fugio); veni (venio).
Exceptions.--bibi, dede Ç, fidi, scidi, steti, stiti, tuli; citum, deatum,e -tum, litum, quitum, reatum, rutum, seatum, situm, steatum. In some compounds of sto, statum is found (long), as praestatum.
In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short; the vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cecidi (ceado), didici ( disco), pupuge Ç ( pungo), cucurre Ç ( curro), tetendi ( tendo),m??m??rde Ç ( mordeo). But cecidi from caedo, pepedi from pedo.
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Derivatives
SECTION: #606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are:
Forms from the same stem have the same quantity: as, ea mo, eamaviste Ç; genus, generis.
Exceptions.--1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal,--also arbos,--have a long vowel in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive b??vis etc.).
2. Nouns in -or, genitive - oris, have the vowel shortened before the final r: as, hon??r. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these nominatives are often found long.)
3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m, r, or t: as, ame ¥m, amer, dicerer, ame ¥t (compare amemus), dicere ¥t, audit, fit.
NOTE.--The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in the classic period.
4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened: as, acer, eacerbus. So de-iero and pe-iero, weakened from iuro.
Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel quantity (see Sect: 17): as, dico (cf. malede -cus); duco (dux, d? -cis); fido (perfe -dus) vox, vocis (v??co); lex, legis (lego).
Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them as, oc-cido (ceado), oc- cido ( caedo), in-iquus ( aequus).
NOTE.-- Greek words compounded with pro have o short: as, pr??phe ta, pr??l??gus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o short: as, pr ??ficiscor, pr??fiteor. Compounds with ne vary: as, nefas, nego, nequeo, nequam.
.RHYTHM
SECTION: #607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different degrees; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronunciation of the words.
The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand, --as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse,--was not so restricted. But the purely metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures: and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is disturbed.
The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one
short (see Sect: 608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (Sect: 611. b, c).
Measures
SECTION: #608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet.
The most natural division of musical time is into measures consisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also distinguished measures of five equal parts.
NOTE.--The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent (see Sect: 611. a).
The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called a Mora. It is represented by the sign è÷, or in musical notation by the eighth note or quaver
A long syllable is regularly equal to two morae, and is represented by the sign å ø, or by the quarter note or crotchet
A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three or four morae. Such a syllable, if equal to three morÌ º, is represented by the sign [Figure] (or dotted quarter [Figure] ); if equal to four, by [Figure] (or the half note or minim, [Figure] ).
A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.
A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora.
A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses, to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the sign ^; one of two moraeby the sign [macrcirc].
One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis or prelude.
The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure.
NOTE.--Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music--which in this differs widely from modern--the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to "sing.‰Û?
Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called "Rhythmic" as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but read metrically.
SECTION: #612. A single line of poetry--that is, a series of feet set in a recognized order--is called a Verse.
NOTE.--Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemistichs), but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaie Tetrameter by the Diaeresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Caesura.
A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, having a pause to fill the measure; when the end syllable is not lacking, the verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause.
A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a pause:it is then said to be long by Diastole:
nostrorum obruimur,-- oriturque miserrima caedes.-- Aen. 2.411.
The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short (syllaba anceps).
Scansion and Elision
To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion ( scansio, a climbing or advance by steps, from scando).
NOTE.--In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done m scanning.
In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision (bruising).
In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, however, they should be sounded lightly.
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a consonant (cf. Sect: 15.7):
senio confectus quiescit.--Enn. (Cat. M. 14).
NOTE.--Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synal?"pha (smearing). Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a vowel: this is called Synapheia (binding).
A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner when the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis (squeezing out):
monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cui lumen ademptum.
-- Aen. 3.658.
NOTE 1.--Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before the initial vowel of the following word was easy.
NOTE 2.--The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui (plural), and monosyllabic interjections are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words.
Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus (gaping).
NOTE.--The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases.
.FORMS OF VERSE
1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or proversus), which means straight ahead.
2 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity.
3 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense.--Comus 538.
SECTION: #613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or fundamental foot: as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anap?"stic; and from the number of measures (single or double) which it contains: as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter.
NOTE.--Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not by single feet, but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter.
SECTION: #614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of verses ranged in a fixed order.
Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic (from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian (from Archilochus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.
.DACTYLIC VERSE
Dactylic Hexameter
SECTION: #615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus: [Figure]
NOTE.--The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in reality a trochee standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured.
For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted.
Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot; the verse is then called spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables.
Thus in Ecl. 4.49the verse ends with incrementum.
The hexameter has regularly one principal c? "sura--sometimes two-- almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense.
1. The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See examples in d.
2. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot. In this case there is often another caesura in the second foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts: Aen. 5.277.
NOTE.--Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is the break in the sense.
A caesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the fifth foot of the third and fourth verses in d). A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse, but a proper caesural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth.
When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes improperly called bucolic caesura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry.
The first seven verses of the Aeneid, divided according to the foregoing rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each verse is marked by double lines: Arma virumque cano .....etc.
1. The feminine caesura is seen in the following:
.-- Aen. 6.131.
NOTE.--The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse:
Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward,
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired Ì thiop people,
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver,
Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus,
Lovers of men; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas AthenÌc,
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle;
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo,
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water.
--Kingsley's Andromeda.
Dactylic Hexameter
SECTION: #616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses,--a Hexameter followed by a Pentameter.
The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot: [Figure]
The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half-verses, the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.
The Pentameter has no regular Caesura; but the first half-verse must always end with a word (di?"resis, Sect: 611. c), which is followed by a pause to complete the measure.
The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza:
cum subit | illi|us || tris|tissi mea | noctis i|mago qua mÌÂnÌ- | supre|mum [macrcirc] || tempus in | urbefu|it, [macrcirc]
cum repe|to noc|tem || qua | tot mihi | carea re ¥|liqui, labitur | ex ??cu|lis [macrcirc] || nunc qu??que| guttea me|is. [macrcirc]
iam pr??pe| lux eade|rat || qua | me dis|cedere| Caesar finibus | extre|mae [macrcirc] || iussereat | Aus??ni|ae. [macrcirc]
--Ov. Trist. 1.3.
NOTE.--The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions,--epistolary, amatory, and mournful,--and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German:
In the Hex|ameter | rises || the | fountain's | silvery | column;
In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.
1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows: [ Figure]
2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preceding syllable: [Figure]
Other Dactylic Verses
SECTION: #617. Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasionally used by the lyric poets.
The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the Alcmanian Strophe, as follows:
Hor. Od. 1.7(so 28; Ep. 12).
The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a pentameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First Archilochian Strophe:
diffu|gereOd. 4.7.
For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see Sect: 626. 11.
.IAMBIC VERSE
Iambic Trimeter
SECTION: #618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double Iambus (iambic dipody). The caesura is usually in the third foot. [Figure]
NOTE.--The sign [gtbreve] [acutemacr] denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee (>[acutemacr]) for an iambus (è÷[acutemacr]).
The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an independent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic Strophe, as follows: -Hor. Epod. 17.
The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement in English: -Hor. Epod. 2.
In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee (> [acutemacr]) or its equivalent (a cyclic anapaest è÷ è÷[acutemacr] or an apparent dactyl > [acutebreve] è÷ Sect: 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody A tribrach (è ÷ [acutebreve] è÷) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic (è÷è÷ [acutebreve] è÷) may be substituted in any foot except the last:
The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last iambus: [Figure]
aeque -Catul. 23.15, 16.
NOTE.--The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis: as,-- [Figure]
The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows: [Figure]
It is used in combination with other measures (see Sect: 626. 11), and is shown in the following: -Hor. Od. 1.4.
or in English:
On purple peaks a deeper shade descending.-- Scott.
1 The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies.
Other Iambic Measures
SECTION: #619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following:
The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic ( Septenarius). This consists of seven and a half iambic feet, with diaeresis after the fourth and with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter:
nam Ter. And. 690, 691.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows: [Figure]
The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic ( Octonarius). This consists of right full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter. Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue: -Ter. Ph. 720, 721.
The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used in combination with some longer verse (see Sect: 618. a).
2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet. It is used only in choruses: Sen. Med. 850-853.
NOTE.--Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a downward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verse with anacrusis (Sect: 618. c. N.).
.TROCHAIC VERSE
SECTION: #620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter Catalectic ( Septenarius), consisting of four dipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly diaeresis after the fourth foot:
In musical notation: --Ter. And. 319.
In English verse:
TÌcll me n̸t in mo̼rnful n̼mbers || lÌ-fe is b̼t an Ìcmpty dreÌÁm.
-- Longfellow.
In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach [acutebreve] è÷ è÷, or an irrational spondee [acutemacr] >, cyclic dactyl [acutemacr] è÷è÷, or apparent anapaest [acutebreve] è÷ >, may be substituted for any of the first six feet; a tribrach for the seventh: -Pl. Am. 443-446.
The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows: [Figure]
The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic ( Octonarius), consisting of four complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy.
Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot.
Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in eombination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines: -Hor Od. 2.18.
MIXED MEASURES
SECTION: #621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind (compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music); or (2) single feet of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see Sect: 609.e).
When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.
SECTION: #622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry:
1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic Tripody): Hor. Od. 1.4.
NOTE.--It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure seems more probable.
2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim); Iambic Dimeter:-Hor. Epod. 11.2.
LOGAEIDIC VERSE
SECTION: #623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions irrational measures or irrational feet (cf. Sect: 609. e), are called Logoaedic. The principal logoaedic forms are:/p>
1. Logoaedic Tetrapody (four feet): GLYCONIC.
2. Logoaedic Tripody (three feet): PHERECRATIC (often treated as a syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic).
3. Logoaedic Dipody (two feet): this may be regarded as a short Pherecratic.
NOTE.--This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of prose: hence the name Logoaedic ( logos, aoid<). These measures originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above: viz., Logoaedic systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logoaedic Pentapody consists of five feet but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others.
SECTION: #624. Each logoaedic form contains a single dactyl,which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic:
Glyconic Pherecratic [Figure]
NOTE.--The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) ([acutemacr]è÷è÷ | [acutemacr]è÷), if catalectic, appears t<
> be a simple Choriambus (åøè÷è÷ | åø^); and, in general, the effect of the loga?"di<
> forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They may be read (scanned), therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as logoaedic measures; and that course is followed here.
SECTION: #625. The verses constructed upon the several Logoaedic form or models are the following:
1. Glyconic (Second Glyconic, catalectic):-
NOTE.--In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee (åø>).
2. Aristophanic (First Pherecratic): -Hor. Od. 1.8.
NOTE.--It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding <
> protracting the last two syllables:
3. Adonic (First Pherecratic, shortened): [Figure] --Hor.
4. Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic): --Hor.
5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Pherecratic catalectic): -Hor.
6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logoaedic Dipody interposed): --Hor.
7. Lesser Sapphic (Logoaedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place): Hor.
8. Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pherecratic): Hor.
9. Lesser Alcaic (Logoaedic Tetrapody, two irrational dactyls, two trochees): -Hor.
10. Greater Alcaic (Logoaedic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and dactyl in the third place,--compare Lesser Sapphic): -Hor.
NOTE.--Only the above logoaedic forms are employed by Horace.
11. Phalaecean (Logoaedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place): -Catull. xl.
12. Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second Pherecratic): -Catull. xvii.
.METRES OF HORACE
SECTION: #626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza. These are:
1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9): -Od. 3.3.
(Found in Odes. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.)
NOTE.--The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alcaeus of Lesbos, and was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza.
2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one Adonic (3): -Od. 1.2.
(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; iii. 8, 11, 141820, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.)
NOTE.--The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes-- more frequently than any other except the Alcaic.
3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater Sapphic (8): -Od. 1.8.
4. Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5): (Found in Od. i. 1; 3.30; 4.8.)
5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser Asclepiadic (5): -Od. 1.3.
(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.)
6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one Glyconic (1): -Od. 1.24.
(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; 2.12; 3.10, 16; iv. 5, 12.)
7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1): -Od. 3.13.
(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 13; 4.13.)
8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6): -Od. 1.11.
(Found in Od. 1.11, 18; 4.10.)
9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (Sect: 615) alternating with Tetrameter (Sect: 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28; Epod. 12.)
10. Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with a Dactylic Penthemim (see Sect: 617. b). (Od. 4.7.)
11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter, Sect: 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (Sect: 618. d). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses: Od. 1.4.
12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see Sect: 618). (Epod. 17.)
13. Iambic Strophe (see Sect: 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.)
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter: -Epod. 15. (So in Epod. 14.)
15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (Sect: 618): -Epod. 16.
16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics (Sect: 609. c. 2):
miserarum est Od. 3.12.
17. Iambic Trimeter (Sect: 618); Dactylic Penthemim (Sect: 617. b); Iambic Dimeter: Epod. 11.
18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (Sect: 617. b): -Epod. 13.
19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see Sect: 620. c).
1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dacty<
> and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were im<
> tated by the Romans as distinct metres.
2 The figures refer to the foregoing list (Sect: 625).
SECTION: #627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the abovementioned verses:
a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect): -Catull. xxxiv.
b. Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic: -Sen. Herc. Oet. 1600-1606.
c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number ( id. Herc. Fur. 830-874, 875-894).
SECTION: #628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry.
Anapaestic (Sect: 609. b. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the anapaest: -Pl. Trin. 1115-1119.
Bacchiac (Sect: 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets,-- very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus,--either in verses of two feet ( Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are
all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted: - Pl. Trin. 223-226.
Cretic measures (Sect: 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bacchiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete: Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of which scholars are not agreed.
1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of six feet, and is divided into two parts by a caesura before the fourth thesis. Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables; but the arsis, except at the beginning of the verse and before the caesura, is often entirely suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse:
2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables; but for any unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted in the second foot of the verse: dabunt malum metelli / Naevio poetae
.EARLY .PROSODY
SECTION: #629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several respects from that of the later.
At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether. This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (Sect: 15. 7).
A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may be shortened (iambic shortening):
In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.Such are ille, immo, inde, iste, ??mnis, ne ¥mpe, quippe, unde.
The original long quantity of some final syllables is retained.
1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r- stems or original s-stems): Ovid. Am. 548).
2. The termination - es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in miles, superstes.
3. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection: Pl. Truc. 2.4.79).
e. Hiatus (Sect: 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker.
.MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
Reckoning of Time
SECTION: #630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City ( ab urbe condita, anno urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.U.C. 691 (the year of Cicero's consulship) corresponds to B.C. 63.
Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: March, May, Quintilis ( July), and October having each 31 days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontifices, inserted a month of varying length ( mensis intercalaris) after February 23, and omitted the rest of February.
The " Julian year" by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (VI. Kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: hence the year was called bissextilis. The month Quintilis received the name Iulius ( July), in honor of Julius Caesar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.
SECTION: #631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned as follows:
The first day of the month was called Kalendae ( Calends).
NOTE.: i> Kalendae is derived from calare, to call,--the Calends being the day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata. This they did, originally, from actual observation.
On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, were the Idus ( Ides), the day of Full Moon.
On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths).
From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the following rule for determining the date:
If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the month preceding,--if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall,--and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus,--
VIII. Kal. Feb. (31 + 2 - 8) = Jan. 25.
IV. Non. Mar. (7 + 1 - 4) = Mar. 4.
IV. Id. Sept. (13 + 1 - 4) = Sept. 10.
NOTE.--The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalendae, Nonae, Id? Çs.
For peculiar constructions in dates, see Sect: 424. g.
The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascertained, are given in the following table:
January February March April
1. KAL. IaN. KAL. FEB. KAL. MaRTIAE KAL. APRILIS
2. IV. Non. Ian. IV. Non. Feb. VI. Non. Mart. IV. Non. Apr.
3. III. Non. Ian. III. Non. Feb. V. Non. Mart. III. Non. Apr.
4. prid. Non. Ian. prid. Non. Feb. IV. Non. Mart. prid. Non. Apr.
5. N0N. IaN. N0N. FEB. III. Non. Mart. N0N. APRILeS
6. VIII. Id. Ian. VIII. Id. Feb. prid. Non. Mart. VIII. Id. Apr.
7. VII. Id. Ian. VII. Id. Feb. NON. MARTIAE VII. Id. Apr.
8. VI. Id. Ian. VI. Id. Feb. VIII. Id. Mart. VI. Id. Apr.
9. V. Id. Ian. V. Id. Feb. VII. Id. Mart. V. Id. Apr.
10. IV. Id. Ian. IV. Id. Feb. VI. Id. Mart. IV. Id. Apr.
11. III. Id. Ian. III. Id. Feb. V. Id. Ma rt. III. Id. Apr.
12. prid. Id. Ian. prid. Id. Feb. IV. Id. Mart. prid. Id. Apr.
13. ID?»S IaN. ID?»S FEB. III. Id. Mart. ID?»S APRILIS.
14. XIX. Kal. Feb. XVI. Kal. Martias prid. Id. Mart. XVIII. Kal. Maias.
15. XVIII. Kal. Feb. XV. Kal. Martias ID?»S MaRTIAE XVII. Kal. Maias.
16. XVII. Kal. Feb. XIV. Kal. Martias XVII. Kal. Aprilis. XVI. Kal. Maias.
17. XVI. Kal. Feb. XIII. Kal. Martias XVI. Kal. Aprilis. XV. Kal. Maias.
18. XV. Kal. Feb. XII. Kal. Martias XV. Kal. Aprilis. XIV. Kal. Maias.
19. XIV. Kal. Feb. XI. Kal. Martias XIV. Kal. Aprilis. XIII. Kal. Maias.
20. XIII. Kal. Feb. X. Kal. Martias XIII. Kal. Aprilis. XII. Kal. Maias.
21. XII. Kal. Feb. IX. Kal. Martias XII. Kal. Aprilis. XI. Kal. Maias.
22. XI. Kal. Feb. VIII. Kal. Martias XI. Kal. Aprilis. X. Kal. Maias.
23. X. Kal. Feb. VII. Kal. Martias X. Kal. Aprilis. IX. Kal. Maias.
24. IX. Kal. Feb. VI. Kal. Martias IX. Kal. Aprilis. VIII. Kal. Maias.
25. VIII. Kal. Feb. V. Kal. Martias VIII. Kal. Aprilis. VII. Kal. Maias.
26. VII. Kal. Feb. IV. Kal. Martias VII. Kal. Aprilis. VI. Kal. Maias.
27. VI. Kal. Feb. III. Kal. Martias VI. Kal. Aprilis. V. Kal. Maias.
28. V. Kal. Feb. prid. Kal. Martias V. Kal. Aprilis. IV. Kal. Maias.
29. IV. Kal. Feb. [prid. Kal. Mart. in IV. Kal. Aprilis. III. Kal. Maias.
30. III. Kal. Feb. leap-year, the VI. III. Kal. Aprilis. prid. Kal. Maias.
31. prid. Kal. Feb. Kal. (24th) being prid. Kal. Aprilis. (So June, Sept.,
(So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.) Nov.)
NOTE.--Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (B.C. 46) is to be found not by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the month.
.Measures of Value, etc.
SECTION: #632. The money of the Romans was in early times wholly of copper. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces).
In the third century B.C. the as was gradually reduced to one-half of its original value. In the same century silver coins were introduced,--the denarius and the sestertius. The denarius = 10 asses; the sestertius = 21/2 asses.
SECTION: #633. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2 1/2 asses) was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sestertius (usually abbreviated to HS or HS) came to be used as the unit of value, and nummus, coin, often means simply sestertius. As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the following table:
2 1/2 asses = 1 sestertius or nummus, value nearly 5 cents (2 1/2 d.).
10 asses or 4 sestertii = 1 denarius. value nearly 20 cents (10 d.).
1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium ... value nearlly 50.00 (å£10).
NOTE.--The word sestertius is a shortened form of semis-tertius, the third one, a half. The abbreviation
>S or HS = duo et semis, two and a half.
SECTION: #634. The sestertium (probably originally the genitive plural of sestertius depending on mille) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertia = 150.00.
When sestertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centena milia, hundreds of thousands, is to be understood: thus deciens sestertium ( deciens HS) = deciens centena milia sestertium =
50,000. Sestertium in this combination may also be inflected: deciens sestertii, sestertio, etc.
In the statement of large sums sestertium is often omitted as well as centena milia: thus sexagiens (Rosc. Am. 2) signifies, sexagiens [ centena milia sestertium] = 6,000,000 sesterces= 300,000 (nearly).
SECTION: #635. In the statement of sums of money in Roman numerals, a line above the number indicates thousands; lines above and at the sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus HS DC=600 sestertii; HS DC= 600,000 sestertii, or 600 sestertia; HS |DC|=60,000,000 sestertii, or 60,000 sestertia.
SECTION: #636. The Roman Measures of Length are the following: --
12 inches (unciae) =1 Roman Foot ( pes: 11.65 English inches).
1 1/2 Feet=1 Cubit (cubitum).--2 1/2 Feet=1 Step (gradus).
5 Feet=1 Pace (passus).--1000 Paces ( mille passuum)= 1 Mile.
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet.
The iugerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 ( Roman) feet long and 120 broad; a little less than 2/3 of an English acre.
SECTION: #637. The Measures of Weight are:/p>
12 unciae (ounces) =one pound (libra, about 3/4 lb. avoirdupois).
Fractional parts (weight or coin) are :/p>
1/12, uncia. 5/12, quincunx. 3/4, dodr ans.
1/6, sextans. 1/2, semis. 5/6, dextans.
1/4, quadrans. 7/12, septunx. 11/12, deunx.
1/3, triens. 2/3, bes or bessis. 12/12, as.
The Talent (talentum) was a Greek weight ( talanton) = 60 librae.
SECTION: #638. The Measures of Capacity are --
12 cyathi =1 sextarius (nearly a pint).
16 sextarii=1 modius (peck).
6 sextarii=1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).
8 congii = 1 amphora (6 gallons).
1 The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, particularly of the second theory here stated.
2 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages.
3 Cf. ambo (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the o is retainedbecause of the length of the first syllable.
4 Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity.
5 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars; but in the present state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.
.TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY
SECTION: #639. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using figures at all--as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, "It gave me no little pleasure" he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, "John went up the street, James down" antithesis; when he says, "High as the sky" hyperbole. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus med and ted (Sect: 143. a. N.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge, sumpsi its p to epenthesis. Such a sentence as "See my coat, how well it fits!"was supposed to be an irregularity to be accounted for by prolepsis.
Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often occur; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another.
SECTION: #640.
Grammatical Terms
Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the first part broken or unfinished.
Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words.
Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis).
Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms.
Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (Sect: 323. b).
Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.
Brachylogy: brevity of expression.
Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (Sect: 15. 3).
Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense.
Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another.
Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable.
Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions.
Hendiadys ( hen dia duoin): the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead of a single modified noun.
Hypallage: interchange of constructions.
Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas.
This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative; cf. "Bred and Born in a Brier Bush"(Uncle Remus).
Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word.
Paragoge: addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word.
Parenthesis: insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction.
Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution).
Pleonasm: the use of needless words.
Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions.
Prolepsis: the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would naturally appear (anticipation).
Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (Sect: 512).
Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word.
Synesis ( constructio ad sensum): agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form (Sect: 280. a).
Tmesis: the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words (cutting).
This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from the verbs with which they were afterwards joined; so in per ecastor scitus puer, a very fine boy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in Latin; as in cere- comminuit -brum ( Ennius).
Zeugma: the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to only one of which it strictly applies (yoking).
SECTION: #641.
Rhetorical Figures
Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth.
Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound.
Analogy: argument from resemblances.
Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses (Sect: 598. f).
Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis: Sect: 598. f).
Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse:
sint Maecenates, non deerunt, Flacce, Marones, so there be patrons (like Maecenas), poets (like Virgil) will not be lacking, Flaccus (Mart.Mart. 8.56.5 ).
illa furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homeromaste Çx, scourge of Homer (i.e. Zoilus).
Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect.
Catachresis: a harsh metaphor ( abusio, misuse of words).
Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases (Sect: 598. f).
Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning.
Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea:
si quid ei acciderit, if anything happens to him (i.e. if he dies).
Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound.
Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words.
Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect.
Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is meant.
Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (Sect: 326. c).
Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some resemblance.
Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing
Onomatop?"ia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words.
Oxymoron: the use of contradictory words in the same phrase:
insaniens sapientia, foolish wisdom.
Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound.
Prosopop?"ia: personification.
Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by like, or as).
Synchysis: the interlocked order (Sect: 598. h).
Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse.
SECTION: #642.
Terms of Prosody
Acatalectic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet (Sect: 612. a).
Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures.
Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse (Sect: 608. g)
Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone before (cf. strophe).
Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (Sect: 611).
Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse.
C?"sura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot ( Sect: 611. b).
Catalectic: see Catalexis.
Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series catalectic (incomplete, Sect: 612. a).
Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (Sect: 610).
Correption: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons.
Di?"resis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word within the verse (Sect: 611. c).
Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels ( silÌ1Ú4a = silva, Sect: 603. f. N.4).
Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (Sect: 612. b).
Dimeter: consisting of two like measures.
Dipody: consisting of two like feet.
Distich: a system or series of two verses.
Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning with a vowel (Sect: 612. f.).
Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel (Sect: 612. e).
Heptameter: consisting of seven feet.
Hexameter: consisting of six measures.
Hexapody: consisting of six feet.
Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (Sect: 612. g).
Ictus: the metrical accent (Sect: 611. a).
Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (Sect: 609. e).
Logoaedic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (Sect: 623).
Monometer: consisting of a single measure.
Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (Sect: 608. a).
Pentameter: consisting of five measures.
Pentapody: consisting of five feet.
Penthemimeris: consisting of five half-feet.
Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c).
Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (Sect: 610).
Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated.
Syn?"resis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (Sect: 603. c. N., f. N.4).
Synaleipha: the same as elision (Sect: 612. e. N.).
Synapheia: elision between two verses (Sect: 612. e. N.).
Syncope: loss of a short vowel.
Synizesis: the running together of two vowels without full contraction (Sect: 603 c. N.).
Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long.
Tetrameter: consisting of four measures.
Tetrapody: consisting of four feet.
Tetrastich: a system of four verses.
Thesis: the accented part of a foot (Sect: 611).
Trimeter: consisting of three measures.
Tripody: consisting of three feet.
Tristich: a system of three verses.