Professional and Technical Writing/Ethics/Cultures
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[edit] Appreciating Different Cultures
Most workplaces in the world today are multicultural. Employees in any workplace are likely to be vastly different, growing up in different parts of the world and in different cultural environments. Professional and technical writing needs to take into account these cultural differences, and effective writers take into account the cultural makeup of their audience.
The following characteristics often vary between cultures and should be considered by effective writers:
Amount of Detail Expected - High-context cultures such as Japan, China, and France provide little detail in their writing. A high-context culture is based on fewer, deeper relations with people; there are many unspoken social rules and understandings within the culture. People in these cultures expect readers to have enough knowledge about the communication before they begin reading. In areas such as instructions, for example, it is assumed that readers have enough background knowledge or experience that there is no need to explain different tools used or walk through the reader every single step from start to finish. People in low-context cultures such as the United States, Great Britain, and Germany assume readers know very little before they begin reading. Low-context cultures have a greater number of surface-level relations; rules are more explicitly defined so others know how to behave. People in low-context cultures expect detailed writing that explains the entire process. Writers should consider the cultural audience of their writing so that readers are not insulted by too much information (in high-context cultures) or frustrated by not enough information (in low-context cultures).
Distance Between the Top and Bottom of Organizational Hierarchies - Many organizations in the United States and Western Europe have great distances and many layers between top-level management and low-level workers. When the distance is large, writing to employees above and below tends to be more formal. In cultures where companies are more flatly organized, communication between layers tends to be less formal.
Individual versus Group Orientation - Many Asian and South American cultures are collectivist, meaning people pursue group goals and pay attention to the needs of the group. In individualistic cultures such as the United States and Northern Europe, people are more interested in personal achievement. Writers should know if they are writing to an audience that is "me-oriented" or one that is "we-oriented."
In-person Business Communications - There are several differences that one should be aware of when meeting a colleague in person with a different cultural background. For instance, some cultures stand very close to each other when talking and some do not. Some cultures make eye contact with each other and some do not. There are also certain cultures where an employee will not disagree or give feedback to their superior. It is seen as disrespectful. In these cultures, it is usually unacceptable to ask a question of the boss.
Preference for Direct or Indirect Statements - People in the United States and Northern Europe prefer direct communications, while people in Japan and Korea typically prefer indirect communications. When denying a request in the U.S., a writer will typically apologize, but firmly state that request was denied. In Japan, that directness may seem rude. A Japanese writer may instead write that the decision has not yet been made, delaying the answer with the expectation that the requester will not ask again. In Japan, this is viewed as more polite than flatly denying someone; however, in the United States this may give false hope to the requester, and the requester may ask again.
Basis of Business Decisions - In the United States and Europe, business decisions are typically made objectively with consideration given to cost, feasibility, timeliness, etc. In Arab cultures, business decisions are often made on the basis of personal relationships. Writers should know if a fact based approach is best, or if a more personable communication would be preferred.
Interpretation of Images, Gestures, and Words - Words, images, and gestures can mean different things in different cultures. Knowing how images will be interpreted in another culture is crucial before sending documents to unfamiliar cultures. Hand gestures are interpreted differently around the world, and graphics showing hands should generally be avoided.
[edit] Gaining Knowledge about Intercultural Readers
It is often difficult to determine the who will be reading your communications. Discovering who your audience is should be the first task before beginning to write. When writing to a wide variety of people, knowing their cultural biases, assumptions, and customs is essential. There are a variety of sources online that give cultural information about countries around the world.
[edit] Online Sources
[edit] Geert Hofstede Cultural Dimensions
Professor Geert Hofstede analyzed data from 50 countries provided by IBM. The study was one of the most comprehensive studies ever conducted about cultures around the world. Professor Hofstede ranks cultures on Power Distance, Individualism, Masculinity, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long-Term Orientation. The information gives insights into different cultures, allowing intercultural writing to be more effective.
[edit] Cyborlink
Cyborlink provides information about international business etiquette and manners. Cyborlink is organized by country, allowing writers to quickly find their target audience. Cyborlink's information draws heavily on the studies performed by Professor Hofstede. Each country page provides information about appearances (clothing and gestures), behavior (dining, gift-giving, meetings, customs, and negotiations), and communication (greetings, introductions, and conversation guidelines) as well as country facts, additional resources, and analysis from Professor Hofstede.
[edit] globalEDGE
globalEDGE gathers information about international business from a wide variety of sources. The site was created by the International Business Center at Michigan State University and is partially funded by the U.S. Department of Education. The site is broken into several categories. The Resource Desk collects thousands of resources organized by topics in international business. It provides research, news, and reference material as well as glossary of terms used in international business. The Country Insights section provides data on 199 different countries. It includes statistics, economic and political conditions, and a brief country history. The culture section is useful for people writing to an intercultural audience. It provides information on business etiquette in each of the countries.
[edit] Other Sources
Coworkers are a great source of intercultural information. People familiar with your audience often provide the best information about the expectations of your audience. If coworkers have previously written to your audience, they may be able to offer insight as to how your writing will be interpreted.
Previous communications kept by your company can also be a useful tool for determining how to write to another culture. If the writing was well received, you will able to look for clues as to how to structure your writing. Writing that resulted in a new partnership or a completed sale may be the best indicator of how to structure your writing.
