Political Theory
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Contents |
[edit] Introduction
Political theory is the categorization of social thought by a group or by the persuasion or beliefs of a geo-political mass. Many political theories are founded as critiques toward existing political, economic and social conditions of the theorist’s time. Political theory can also be considered as a critical tradition of discourse that provides a reflection on collective life, the uses of collective power, and resources within a collectivity. The emphasis of political theory changes over time. As you will read, there are many different elements that create the foundation for theoretical analysis towards political science.
This book is still under construction.
[edit] Empirical vs. normative theories
These two concepts are the crux of what every theory is built upon. When attempting to develop a concrete theoretical approach to politics, one can ask two different kinds of questions. Empirical questions (What happened and why?) and normative questions (What should have happened).it is however important to note that some of this claims are not always practical and for that inapplicable to some extents
The fundamental principle of human understanding is to interpret how and why various aspects of the world operate. Both natural and social sciences utilize this method of understanding to interpret the answers to empirical questions; which results in competing empirical theories.
Normative theories are based on empirical assumptions to interpret how or what the world (or country) should be. Along with empirical assumptions, normative theories also encompass the social value systems or morals judgments of a mass to base their normative questions. For instance, many normative theorists question the phenomenon of war. Not only are empirical assumptions used to explain why war occurs or how to ascertain peace, but they also utilize normative judgments on whether or not the means of war are ever really justified (i.e. Pacifists vs. Realists).
[edit] Normative theory elements
When approaching normative theory, one must realize that different assumptions lead to conflicting theoretical approaches. To critically analyze any normative theory, one must be enlightened on what these assumptions are.
[edit] Ontological assumptions about the nature of the world for normative theory
- Epistemological Assumptions: Epistemological questions encompass the
human understanding of how we know aspects of the world. For example Liberal theory and Realist theory both believe that humans derive objective information of the world through observations and methodologies like the “scientific method.” While there are other theories (variants of Critical Theories) feel that subjective bias distorts people’s observation process.
- Nature of Man: Is the nature of man good? Is it bad? Is it rational or
irrational? Are there definitive differences in gender? These are all assumptions that have implications for any normative theory.
- View of History: The view of history is a very important assumption in normative theory. If one has linear view of history, then they assume that the world is progressing towards a more positive future. In opposition to linear views of history, an entropic view of history assumes that the world is descending into a negative future. Lastly, those with a cyclical view of history are those who believe that nothing changes except for who is on top and how they got there.
- Nature of World Order?:
- Key Actors? States? Civilization? (e.g. Muslim Caliphate), Non- Governmental Organizations or NGO's (e.g. MNCs, Amnesty International, Green Peace, etc)? Inter-governmental Organizations or IGOs (UN? WTO? EU? NATO? OPEC)? Transnational Social Movements? (TSMs) that are loose alliances of NGOs across countries and/or groups of people who identify with a particular group
- Predominant form of Collective Identity? What is the primary identity of a particular group of people? National Identity (e.g. Iraqi); Tribal Identity? Ethnic Identity? Religious Identity? Gender? There is often a close link between key actors and predominate form of collective identity.
- Key Level of Analysis and Factors Behind World Politics? e.g. realist belief that anarchy and struggle for power = fundamental reality and key factors include geography, natural resources, military and economic power.
- Tacit or Formal Rules that Regulate the Actions of Key Actors? If so, what are these?
- Why does War Occur?
[edit] Realist, liberal and critical theories
[edit] Realist theory
This is perhaps the oldest theory in the science of politics. Realist theory generally focuses on three elements:
- The state of world politics is a world of chaos (Hobbes) with a habitual competition for power (political) resources to control scarce natural resources. The most important assets to avoiding a world of chaos are military and economic power and control.
- Life can be “nasty, brutish and short” unless people organize for the power to protect themselves to cope with chaos.
- States act as unitary, rational actors to maximize their own power resources & attempt to acquire greater security and economic wealth.
[edit] Empirical variants
[edit] Structural-Realism or Neo-Realism
This empirical variant believes that structural factors dominate individual and internal/cultural differences. For example, policy creators may make the wrong or different decisions due to the need to make choices in a world of incomplete information; not due to individual or cultural value differences.
[edit] Classical-Realism
This empirical variant believes that the state needs true “statesmen” who understand power politics. The emphasis is that individual actors (decision-makers) can make a difference. Moreover, this variant also feels that if policy makers operate out of normative values (e.g. human rights, promotion of democracy) or respond to internal domestic pressures, it is a big mistake.
[edit] Normative variants
[edit] Hobbesian Realist
This theory assumes that the world is in constant chaos and is rare to find common interests. With emphasis on hard power (military or economic coercion or force), Hobbesian realists feel that compromise is a sign of weakness. This variant prefers unilateral action because of its disdain of the constraints multilateral institutions. Authoritarian rule is accepted because it is an exchange for civil order.
[edit] Machiavellian Realist
While this theory assumes the world is in constant chaos, they feel there is still a positive sum. Because this variant feels that compromises that serve everyone’s interest is possible, skilled diplomacy is just as important as military power. Machiavellian realists are concerned with the possibility of imperial-overstretch (involved with too many conflicts at once), so they always calculate utility of action. Machiavellian Realists are not opposed to multilateralism, however, still go own way if it serves your interests.
[edit] Realist theorists
- Thucydides, Peloponesian War, 431-404 BC – Greek/Athenian.
- Sun Tzu Art of War (China - 2,000 years ago - 1st century BC)
- Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, Italian, 1500s Europe
- Thomas Hobbes, Leviathon, English, 17th Century
- Karl Von Clausewitz, On War, Prussian-German, 19th Century
- Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, American 20th century
- Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, American 20th century
- Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics, American, 20th century
- Paul Kennedy, Rise and Fall of Great Powers, American 20th Century.
- Steven Krasner, Defending the National Interest, American, 20th Century.
- John Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, American, 20th Century
[edit] Ideologies of government
See also: Religion in Political Theory
The content is divided into 9 main ideologies, each which has sub-ideologies, such as one ideology being Communism, and a sub-ideology of it being Stalinism.
The 9 main ideologies we will discuss are:
- Anarchism
- Authoritarianism
- Communism
- Conservatism
- Environmentalism
- Fascism
- Liberalism
- Nationalism
- Socialism
Most political parties will fit into a few of these descriptions, for instance the Democratic Party of the USA would have elements of Democracy, Liberalism, Conservatism and others, to different extents. It is rare that a major political party in any country would only fit into one category. Anarchism, being anti-state, is rarely found in traditional governmental systems.
[edit] Anarchism
Anarchism is anti-state, asserting that all hierarchical power structures are corrupt. Anarchism is similar to the above mentioned destruction of power, currency, and classes. Although, the difference is that there is no Temporary Dictatorship of the Proletariat. Anarchism does not mean chaos; rather it implies localized direct, participatory forms of governance which should challenge whatever forms are agreed upon by those directly affected. In this sense, anarchism might be described as a form of 'ultra-democracy', with the total absence of elements such as centralism, remote representation or entrenched power bases or systems. As anarchism is inconsistent with 'government' as it is most commonly conceptualized, its most potent expression have been through different organizations. The most historically successful Anarchist views are those of Anarcho-Syndicalists, who believe in complete unionization of workers to achieve equal rights and labor value rather than capital. Anarchism is emerging, through means such as the Internet, as a potent ideology in the anti-capitalist movement, where myriad grass-roots, non-hierarchical groups have coordinated direct participatory political actions.
[edit] Authoritarianism
A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.)
[edit] Communism
Communism derives in the most part from the works of Marx & Engels. However, it must be noted that Marx's vision of 'communism' and what emerged as 'Communism' are often in fundamental conflict. The majority of people see Communism as a Stalinist power-hungry regime, which is the model 'communism' took in practice for most of the past century. This is partially wrong with regard to the ideology itself, as there are a few factions within Communism. Communism is the result of the process by which workers, the proletariat, overthrow their capitalist and bourgeois masters and take control of the means of production. The producers become the owners of their production. Lenin applied Marxist ideas to a pre-capitalist context (unlike those late capitalist economies in which Marx predicted a communist revolution would emerge). In Leninism, the Communist revolution is headed by a revolutionary vanguard, basically people who are made to control the revolution and protect it from the capitalists and other threats. Thus, Communism is a temporary dictatorship of the proletariat. Original Marxist Communism states that the Proletariat consists of the ENTIRE working class, as opposed to just one person. This dictatorship is only temporary as it is to ensure the destruction of currency, capital, and multiple classes. This is not a violent stage as neither currency, capital, or classes exist outside of the mind. The Labor Theory Of Value best represents this, as if you are lost and alone, you cannot live off capital, currency, and it does not matter to your class, but if you live off your labor then you will continue to live. No one should privately own anything so everyone will be equal. While top-heavy centralized or Stalinist models of communism are widely considered as 'failed experiments', there is much in original Marxist theory of communism that remains open to new interpretation and application.Some see this as especially relevant to the current phase of globalization of capital.
[edit] Conservatism
Conservatism emerged in response to the rise of liberalism and the liberal challenge to absolutism and social hierarchy based on privilege. Conservatism emphasized a 'natural order' based on tradition and slow evolutionary change. The hierarchical nature of society was seen as part of that natural order, the fitness of the monarch and aristocracy to rule having been 'established' over a long period. Conservatism still tends to resist radical change or attacks on social privilege.
[edit] Environmentalism
Environmentalism (or ecologism) is an ideology which rejects the human-centered core of other political theories, and emphasizes instead the priorities of the planet Earth. It sees humanity as only one part of an interrelated web of life, which incorporates the living planet itself. Environmentalism stresses that human economic and political activity has come with an unacceptable 'price tag'of environmental damage and irreparable harm. It advocates a radical change in humanity's view of 'progress' based on economic expansionism and sees a 'higher morality' of living in harmony with nature, reducing human consumption and accepting a consequent lowering of living standards. As environmental crises such as global warming and depletion of fossil fuels have become more evident, environmental ideology has featured more significantly in political parties in Western nations, particularly in Australasia, where the first 'green parties' emerged, and Europe, where they have experienced significant electoral successes.
[edit] Fascism
Fascism is less a rational or logical theory of ideas than it is a recipe for power and political opportunism. Fascism emerged in the context of post-World War I economic difficulties and social crisis and articulated a rejection of liberalism and parliamentary rule as 'failures'. It also articulated a rejection of communism as a further direct threat to the middle class groups that had felt severely the impact of those economic and social difficulties. In their places, fascism emphasized 'strong' leadership, appealing to a long tradition of autocracy prior to recent and allegedly 'failed' democratic regimes. The ideology is nationalist, authoritarian, militaristic, (somewhat) socialist and action-based rather than theory-based. War, expansionism and totalitarian controls of the populace are all justifiable in terms of power. Under Hitler, fascism acquired elements of racism and 'scapegoating' that in neo-fascist expressions are often directed against immigrants or refugees.
[edit] Liberalism
In this section we will study:
- Individualism - individual freedoms, in a civil society.
- Classic Liberalism - Including natural rights, utilitarianism, economic liberalism and social Darwinism. Emerged alongside the rise of capitalism to reflect the political interests of the burgeoning middle classes. During the transition between absolute monarchies to constitutional governments, liberalism articulated the rights of those outside the traditional power structure to freedom from arbitrary rule and economic restrictions.
- Modern Liberalism - Including Freedom, Welfarism, and Keynesianism. Liberalism first developed a welfare agenda in response to the rampant social inequality and misery that emerged in the wake of the industrial revolution and in response to the articulation of rival ideologies such as socialism.
[edit] Nationalism
[edit] Socialism
In its early forms, socialism was a reaction against the stark inequality and misery produced by the Industrial Revolution and emerging capitalist economies, where those with property had political voice but those without were open to exploitation and oppression. Though many somehow confuse communism and socialism, they are two different things. Socialism is concerned with welfare of the people, and as such is concerned with providing healthcare and education and the provision of other necessities of a healthy life in order to create a more 'level' society. The reasons for nationalization of industry and other aspects of society vary depending on the specific socialist system. Communism also has these goals in mind, but is very anti-capitalistic in nature. Unlike communism, one of the corner stones of socialism is to have the state own all capital and natural resources within its sovereign territory. This means that the people being represented by the government, will control everything and thus social classes would be greatly undermined or eliminated altogether (a Communist ideal). So, increasing education so that people may properly elect representatives, providing high-quality media that is untainted by private interests, and reducing apathy are often socialistic goals. The main difference between Communism and Socialism are that Socialists seek change through government. Communists feel this is slow, this is reflected by Marx in his books, and thus the need for revolution, which would let them quickly change things. Marx argued that the powerful had never, throughout history, willingly relinquished their power and that revolution would be necessary to overthrow capitalism. History has many examples by which socialists have achieved change, and many countries have a democratic socialist party in power.
