IB Geography

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[edit] Introduction - Themes of (Human) Geography

Location (site and situation)

-Absolute location is best described as a unique or exact position on the Earth's surface; for example, a classroom number of home address are absolute locations; the latitude and longitude reference system on maps and globes gives an absolute location

-Relative location is the location of a point expressed in relationship to the location of other points.

Movement

-How people, goods, and ideas travel.

Region

-An area having some characteristic or characteristics that distinguish it from other areas. A territory of interest to people and for which one or more distinctive traits are used as the basis for its identity.

Place

-Human characteristics: These characteristics are derived from the ideas and actions of people that result in changes to the environment, such as buildings, roads, clothing, and food habits.

-Physical characteristics: These include mountains, rivers, soil, beaches, wildlife, soil. (essentially it's nature)

Human and Environmental Interaction

-How humans adapt the environment.

-How humans modify the environment.

-How humans depend on the environment.

[edit] Core Theme

[edit] Population distribution and density at global and local scales

[edit] Population Fertility

[edit] Population Mortality

[edit] Population Movement

Why do people migrate?

Push Factors and Pull Factors

-Economic

-Cultural

-Environmental

Economic Factors

-The lack of opportunity (push)

-Opportunity (pull)

Cultural Factors

-Government

-Religion

-Personal Choice

-Refugees

-War

-Slavery

-Politics

Environmental Factors

-Physically Attractive Region (pull)

-Hazardous Region (push)

-Flood Plains

Intervening Obstacles

-Migrants often do not go to their desired destinations

Environmental or cultural features that keep migrants from desired destination:

Distance of Migration

-Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain within the same country

-Long-distance migrants to other countries usually head for major centers of economic activity

Internal Migration

-Permanent migration within the same country

-Interregional migration between different regions

-Intraregional (within one region)

International Migration

-Voluntary: migrants chose to move normally for economic improvement

-Forced: migrants are compelled by cultural factor (includes but exclusively slavery)

Characteristics of Migrants

-Ravenstein thought,

-most long-distance migrants are male -adult individuals are more likely to move than those with families

-Ravenstein was right until the 1990s when this trend was reversed

[edit] 2.5 Population Structure

There are 3 basic age structures:

Progressive Type (Brazilian) It has a wide base that quickly narrows upwards to a point. It indicates a large birth rate, but poor conditions mean people rapidly die off, hence the triangular shape of the structure. The population is increasing.

Stationery Type (American) The shape of this structure is more "square." All age groups are well represented.It indicates that the birth rate is moderate, and few people die off as they get older. The population is stagnant.

Regressive Type (European) The structure has a fairly wide top with a bulging middle and narrow base. The birth rate is low, hence the low base, and there are more adults than children. The population is decreasing.

The Dependency Ratio

It is calculated with the following formula:

This is the ratio between the non-working population (children and aged) and the workers (adults). It is lowest in regressive populations and highest in progressive populations.In developed countries, the DRs range from 50-70. In most developing countries the DRs are over 100. In more developed countries the Dependency Ratio is often calculated from 16 or 18 years of age to 65.

The Old Age Index

This is the proportion of aged to adults. It is calculated using the formula: (aged)/(adults) * 100 Resources

[edit] Population and Resources

[edit] Specific Resource Production and Consumption

[edit] Food as a Resource

[edit] Food production, Trade and Aid

[edit] Development

Quantitative Indicators • Use statistics to try and measure certain aspects of a country: Economic - Percentage of labour force in agriculture - Energy consumption/capita - Gross Domestic Product (GDP)/capita Social - Literacy rates - Population/doctor Demographic - Average life expectancy - Infant mortality rates Most common: GDP/capita and GNP/capita

Gross Domestic Product GDP is a broad measure of an economy’s performance. It measures all economic output of a country in a given year, quantifying the total value of all goods and services produced in the country. When GDP is divided by population, GDP/capita is calculated.

Gross National Product This differs from GDP by trying to isolate economic activity of foreign-owned firms. It is the GDP - output produced by foreign owned firms + income earned overseas of country’s own firms.

GDP/capita and GNP/capita Disadvantages • No information on distribution of wealth • Work done on a non-monetary basis, i.e. subsistence agriculture (main food source in LEDC) is not included • Statistics may be unreliable • Measures are most always in $US  international comparisons between countries are affected by changing currency rates • No indication of happiness, satisfaction or welfare • Do not reflect what can be purchased with money in different countriesto overcome this problem, GNP is sometimes expressed as Purchasing Power Parity (PPP); which is the number of units of a country’s currency needed to buy the same amount of goods and services in a country as US$1 would buy in the United States. This provides a measure of what people can afford, regardless of local value and exchange rates

Evaluate the use of GDP/GNP/capita as indicators of development Overall assessmentstrengths and examplesweaknesses and examplessummarise

Qualitative Indicators • Describe a country’s development in terms of factors that influence people’s quality of life, as opposed to measuring people’s quality of life: - Freedom from want - Survival - Welfare - Security This measure is not useful fro ranking countries, but it gives a fuller picture of a country’s situation than a statistic would convey.

Composite Indicators • This combines several features - it presents a measure which focuses on the quality of life of people like qualitative indicators, but is more precise like quantitative indicators.

Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) • This is calculated by obtaining the average of 3 indicators of quality of life: - Literacy - Life expectancy - Infant mortality Each indicator is given a score of 100 (ranked) then an average is found.

Human Development Index (HDI) - Literacy - Life expectancy - GDP/capita on a PPP basis Each is ranked from 0-100; an average is found and expressed as a number between 0-1 (3 d.p.) High HD: >0.800 Med HD: 0.500-7.999 Low HD: <0.500

Global Trends in HDI, 1980 - 2000 • Globally, the Human Development Index has increased • However, from 1990-1995, there was a slight setback in central and eastern Europe and CIS (Soviet Union) • East Asia and the pacific has had the greatest increase in their HDI, whereas the least development occurred in central and eastern Europe and CIS • South Asia was ranked lowest in 1980 with an HDI of 0.445. However, it soon increased past Sub-Saharan Africa. • Most regions, excluding sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Caribbean, central and eastern Europe and CIS and high income OECD have increased by about 0.150 • In 2000, ranking ascending order was: Country HDI Sub-Saharan Africa South Asia Arab States All Developing Countries East Asia and Pacific Latin America and Caribbean Central and Eastern Europe and CIS High Income OECD

[edit] Issues in Development

[edit] Sustainable development and resource management

[edit] Options

[edit] Drainage Basins and their Management

a drainage basin is an area of land drained by a river and its distributaries
Watershed is the boundary of which the water drains, usually marked by a ridge high land
drainage basins are open systems; part of the hydrologic cycle
- inputs à precipitation, outputs à evapotranspiration
- storage à groundwater, lakes
- water movement, like surface runoff, infiltration etc.
Elements of the drainage system
- see hydrologic cycle
- precipitation
  - form the major input, varies over time and space
  - the greater the intensity, the shorter the duration
  - convectional thunderstorms are short and heavy
  - a passing warm from will give a long period of rainfall
- evapotranspiration
  - the physical process where moisture is lost to the atmosphere through the heat vaporizing water or plants or animals emitting moisture
  - evaporation is affected by temperature, wind speed, humidity, hours of sunshine etc.
  - transpiration rates depend on the time of year, type and amount of vegetation, moisture and the growing season
  - potential evapotranspiration – because the amount of moisture that could be lost is greater than that available
hence actual evapotranspiration
- interception
  - interception storage is the dew fall which is captured by leaves
greater when vegetation is abundant
- - up to 30% of precipitation. may be lost to interception
explains how trees prevent erosion
- - through fall is the next step when water drips from the leaves
  - stem flow is water running down the tree trunks
  - secondary interception is shrubbery catching the water again before it reaches the ground
  - surface runoff – when water flows on the surface of the earth
- infiltration
  - infiltration capacity is the max. rate at which water can be absorbed by soil
depends on porosity, type of soil, nature of the surface
- - some water flows laterally as throughflow; underground
  - during dry times, water can flow upwards – capillary action
- channel flow
  - channel precipitation. is when rain falls directly into the river system
  - most water enters the river by runoff, throughflow or groundwater flow
  - channel storage – precipitation in the river; flows down to the mouth to the base level
Water Balance
- P=Q+E +/- Change in storage
  - P – precipitation
  - Q – runoff
  - E – evapotranspiration
- when precipitation. exceeds evapotranspiration there is a positive water balance and vice versa
The Storm Hydrograph
- hydrology is the study of water
- hydrograph is a method to see the discharge over a given short time-period
- discharge is the amount of water originating as precipitation. which reaches the channel
  - Q=AxV
  - Q – discharge, A – cross-sectional area, V – velocity
- interpreting the hydrograph
  - the rising limb is when the throughflow reaches the river
the steeper, the more susceptible to rain
- - peak discharge – when the river reaches highest level
  - time between max. precipitation. and peak discharge
varies by conditions (ie. basin size, drainage density, type/amount of vegetation and water already in storage)
lag time
- - stormflow – discharge on and below the surface
  - baseflow – slow to respond to storms
  - bankfull discharge – when river water level reaches the top of the channel
Controls
- flood can occur after storm discharge, dependent on controls
- Basin size, shape, relief
  - the smaller the faster it reaches the channel
  - the more circular the faster it reaches the channel
  - the steeper the faster
- Types of precipitation.
  - long rainfall – infiltration and runoff occur to slow the process
  - intense storms – more rain than infiltration capacity, extra runoff
  - snowfall – water in storage slowing the process
- Temperature
  - extremes can restrict infiltration and increase runoff
- Land use
  - vegetation acts as storage and decreases lag time
  - urbanization causes increased runoff
- Rock type
  - permeable allows water to infiltrate
  - impermeable increases runoff
- Soil type
  - sandy soils with large pore spaces allow water through
- Drainage density
  - number of surface streams in a given area
  - the grater the number, the more efficient
  - flash flood is a sudden rise in water level
- Tide and storm surges
  - high spring tide prevent water from escaping
  - backflow into a river causes storm surges and flash floods
River regimes
- annual variation in discharge
- average regime
  - determined by climate
- few rivers flow under natural conditions
- regimes can demonstrate seasonal variations
Morphometry of Drainage Basins
- the measurement of shape/form
- allows for comparing between different basins
- law of stream number,
  - within a basin, a constant geometric relationship exists between stream order and number

[edit] Coasts and their Management

The coast is a narrow zone of land where land and water overlap and interact directly
Development is affected by terrestrial, atmospheric, marine and human processes

Waves

created by the transfer of energy from wind blowing over the waters surface
However Tsunamis are an exception as they are caused by disruption in the earths plates or volcanoes
the more wind, the more frictional drag and the larger the waves
Waves from local wind that travel short distances are known as sea
Swells are cause by distant storms and travel long distances
Fetch is the max. dist. of open water where the wind can blow
- Terminology
  - swash
  - backwash
- constructive and destructive
- low energy and high energy
- Constructive waves
  - large fetch
  - low waves, long wavelengths
  - low frequency
  - builds the beach to be less steep

swash greater than backwash

- Destructive waves
  - shorter fetch
  - steep, short waves
  - high frequency
  - backwash stronger than swash to cause a steeper beach
Particle size
- water passes more quickly through shingle grain than fine sand grains
- larger the shingle, the steeper the beach
- sand usually produces beaches with a gentle gradient
  - compact, when wet, thus restricting percolation
Destructive waves carry sand down the beach
Constructive waves carry material up the beach
Material is carried upward on shingle beaches and downward on sand beaches
Sand beaches tend to have gentle slopes
- due to small particles compacted when in contact with water
- thus percolation is hindered
  - Crest and trough are the high and low points of a wave
  - Wave height (H) – dist. between crest and trough
  - Wave period (T) – time for a wave to travel through a wavelength
  - Wave length (L) – dist. between 2 successive crests/troughs
formula – L = 1.56T2
- - Wave velocity (C) – sped of a wave in a given period of time
  - Wave steepness (H / L) – ratio between height and length of the wave
  - Energy (E) – E is proportional to LH2

Beaches

- 3 parts
  - Backshore – upper, Foreshore – lower, and Nearshore – based upon influences of the waves
- Beach shapes adapt easily to wave energy as the ground is loose sediment
- Two beach profile shapes – wide and flat or narrow and steep
- Profile shapes are dependent on wave energy and particle size

Tides

- break point of waves is determined by tide
- controlled by gravitational effects
- mainly the moon but partly the sun, the earths rotation and the local geomorphology determine the tides
- the moon has the largest influence due to its proximity to earth
- the moon attracts the side of the water closest to it, creating a higher water level on the coast
- increase in attraction causes spring tide, the highest tide and lowest
- midway between these maximum and minimum points is called the neap tide
- a tidal bore is a surge of water in a narrow water way cause by the condensed gravitational effects
- Storm surges occur in areas of low pressure with tropical storm conditions and high winds etc.
Processes of Coastal Erosion
- Subaerial – cliff recession is cause by mass failure (non marine factors like rain or wind)
- Wave pounding – waves impacting cliffs and seaside walls with much force
- Hydraulic pressure – an air pocket compressed by a wave applying pressure erodes the cliffs
- Abrasion/corrosion – sediment hurled at cliffs by waves causing erosion
- Attrition – eroded rocks that are further broke down
- Corrosion/solution – dissolving of lime stone by carbonic acid, and the formation of crystals, cause rock to crumble
Rate of erosion factors
- wave breaking point – a wave breaking at the foot of the cliff is most effective
- wave steepness – higher energy waves have greater erosive power
- depth of sea, length/direction of the fetch, coastline configuration – steep beaches create steeper waves, the longer the fetch the greater the energy, headlands cause energy concentration by wave refraction
- beaches prevent coastal erosion
- beach morphology – are a buffer between water and land and decrease erosion
- Rock resistance, structure and dip – strength of rocks determines rate of erosion
- Human activity – increased pressure from man building on cliff tops causes faster erosion
Erosion Landforms
- Headlands and bays
  - less resistant rocks recede and form bays
  - more resistant rock remains for longer creating headlands
- Abrasion or wave-cut platforms
  - a gentle slope cause after a cliff collapses
  - wave-cut notches are formed when high energy waves break at the foot of a cliff cutting underneath it
  - this occurs until it collapses and recedes
- Caves, blowholes, arches and stacks
  - geo is a steep sided inlet
  - Undercutting a cliff forms a cave
  - vertical erosion forms blowholes
  - arches and stacks are formed by the typical backwards erosion
Transport of beach material
- up and down the beach
  - constructive waves bring sand up and destructive down
- longshore (littoral) drift
  - when waves hit at an angle, sediment is carried down the shore
  - Groynes are built to counteract this loss of sand and it keeps it more localized
Coastal deposition
- when sediment accumulation exceeds its depletion
- in sheltered areas with low energy waves
- Spits
  - long narrow accumulation of sand with one end on the mainland and the other projecting into the sea
- Tombolos, bars and barrier islands
  - tombolo is a beach that extends and joins a offshore island
  - bar is a spit linking two headlands
  - barrier islands are sandy islands detached but parallel to the mainland
- Sand dunes
  - dynamic landforms
  - dependent on mineral content and vegetation
  - Embryo dunes are first to develop, stabilized with the growth of lyme and marram grasses (trap sand)
  - foredunes gain a height of 5m (yellow dunes)
  - they become more grey as bacteria and humus increase (grey dunes)
  - wasting dunes are the final stage and are formed by blowouts (winds traveling along the ridges)
- Saltmarshes
  - sheltered water has increasing amounts of mud deposited by tides fluctuating, forming inter-tidal mudflats
  - certain algae form that can survive in such saline water
  - sward zone is the inward par of the marsh where there is a small cliff
  - saltpans are overly saline areas devoid of any vegetation
Case Study – Bangladesh
Location & Contextual Info…
South Asia
Area – 142,000 sq. km.
Bordered by India and the Bay of Bengal
The are several thousand km of shoreline along the Bay and along the many bisecting rivers
The largest of the bisecting rivers is the Ganges
All of this shoreline is vulnerable to erosion, flooding and loss of land
Population – 100 M; 20M live near the coastline and suffer from erosion issues
Density along the coast is much higher
People are losing homes as they are vulnerable to environmental hazards along the coast and as a result there are many socio-economic issues

Areas of Coastal Concern & Management…

Flooding has been the biggest environmental hazard and cause of coastal erosion in Bangladesh
There are over 300 rivers creeks and channels
- Ganges, Bramhaputra and Mehgna are the largest
These are very large compared to the small size of the country
Intense rainy seasons cause flood flow
As well sea-level rising has amplified the problem
The flat low-lying areas, which occupy most of Bangladesh, are at the most risk
As well drainage of the Ganges has been restricted due to aggradations of its distributaries
To combat this problem, the government has implemented embankments along the shores
- However the effectiveness of these is questionable
Another issue is the upstream diversion of water flow
This has reduced sediment influx in the coastal area
- For example, the Ganges produces 67% of Bangladesh’s sediment deposit, however because of upstream diversion, this has been reduced by 30%
- There is a delta at the mouth of the river that was growing from sediment deposit but is now subject to submergence
Thus they cannot be built up and as a result suffer from shoreline erosion and are submerged into the Bay of Bengal
This area also receives cyclonic surges and tornadoes which cause excessive erosion
As stated, there is a lot of concern about coastal erosion in Bangladesh, but very little has been do to manage the situation and more sea defenses must be implemented to stop the escalating problems.

The following are specific examples of coastal area in Bangladesh: Chittagong coastline remained relatively stable over the years. In the north, considerable accretion took place due to a closure dam on the Feni river. The reason for its relative stability is perhaps the near-isolation of Sandwip Channel from the distributary network in recent times. At present, Sandwip Channel is tide-dominated, allowing net import of fine sediments. Noakhali coastline underwent considerable changes over the years. These changes are primarily the result of accretion in the old Lower Mehgna riverbed. The accretion was promoted by its closure by two cross-dams. The total accreted land during the period from 1957 to 1985 was about 52,000 ha. This land area can be compared to the total annual sediment carried by the rivers. Although the overall Noakhali coastline had a south and southwest build-up, there are localized areas of erosion. For example, the Noakhali bankline at the Upper Shahbazpur Channel has places with considerable erosion. Sandwip Island is surrounded by the tide-dominated East Hatiya Channel, the Sandwip Channel, and the channel linking Urirchar. Available data for the last 75 years (1913-1988) show that Sandwip was reduced to about 50% of its original size, with considerable erosion northwest and accretion southeast. Map comparisons show that erosion on the northwest coast of Sandwip accelerated after 1963. It was about 200m per year between 1913 and 1963 and about 350m per year between 1963 and 1984. Urirchar grew from 3 sq km in 1963 to 46 sq km by 1981. Hatiya Island is surrounded by the South and West Hatiya channels and East Shahbazpur Channel. East Shahbazpur is a flood channel and the southwest Hatiya is an ebb channel. Available data on Hatiya Island for the last 36 years (1952-1988) indicates that considerable erosion of the Island took place at the north, with simultaneous accretion at the south. Detailed map comparison indicates that the erosion rate on the north of Hatiya was negligible before 1963 but became one of the highest in the region at a rate of some 400m per year between 1963 and 1984. Bhola Island is surrounded by Tentulia Channel and the north and east Shahbazpur channels. The island is, also, surrounded by ebb currents. Erosion rate in the highly eroded place of the northeast bankline was about 150m per year between 1940 and 1963. Comparison of maps between 1963 and 1989 shows the narrowing and the lengthening tendency of the island by simultaneous erosion and accretion. Erosion is primarily at the northeast bank and accretion at the south.

Table 3. List of BMPs and their effects on mitigation of flooding.

BMPs Expected effects on mitigation of flooding Dredging rivers and streams Increase carrying capacity of drainage Re-excavation of abandoned channels, ponds, and lakes Increase carrying capacity of drainage; reduce run-off Dispersal of dredged/excavated sediments on land Increase elevations of earthen roads and village platforms Conservation tillage Reduce soil erosion and run-off Establishment of vegetated buffer zone along rivers and streams Reduce soil erosion, run-off, and bank erosion Silt fence around construction sites Reduce soil erosion and run-off Sediment and run-off detention ponds in construction sites Reduce soil erosion and run-off Removal of coastal polders Increase land elevations by tidal inundation Efficient storm sewer system in cities Increasing carrying capacity and reduce water-logging in cities Planned urbanization and compact township Reduce impervious surface and run-off Watershed-scale land use planning Reduce run-off, soil erosion, and impervious surface; sustainable economic developments Reforestation programs Reduce run-off and soil erosion Good governance, self-reliance, and implementation of environmental acts Implementation of BMPs to mitigate flooding problems; sustainability in economy and environment Integrated regional water resources development plan for Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Basin in Indian Subcontinent Flood/drought control; optimal uses of natural resources in the region; sustainable environment and development

Organizations Involved…

The two major players in the welfare of Bangladesh is its own gov. and the World Bank
The World Bank has sponsored a so-called “flood action plan” (FAP)
The FAP calls for the construction of kilometers of tall embankments along Bangladesh rivers and coastline
The implementation of this projected is expected to cost 25B taka (Bangladesh currency; 65:1)
The effectiveness as previously mentioned is debatable
Similar projects have taken place in Louisiana in the US and have not proved to be very successful
MDC governments have provided aid, but not to the extent of World Bank

Budget & Aid Financing

When Bangladesh became independent, its economy was devastated
Everything had virtually come to a halt
This has caused it to become a LDC
Thus, it is highly dependent on international communities and foreign aid
- Mostly in the form of food and disaster relief
- These disasters centered around coastal hazards
1999 – aid amounted to 42 B USD
- 14% food, 24% commodity, 62% project aid
Aid is 48% grants and 52% loans
4.2% of GDP; approx.
Since the country is very dependent on aid, budget relies on the amount of aid, especially the project aid directed toward coastal management

Management Techniques…

I have touched briefly on them but I will now elaborate
Flood control, being the major issue is what the management techniques are geared towards
- earthen embankments, polders and drainage
Embankments
- Over 5000 km, over 3000 is coastal
Drainage canals
- over 4000 km have been developed by the Bangladesh Water Development Board
Embankments although the do heighten the shore, are easily breached and are subject themselves to erosion
Most have experienced breaching at least once
Example – the breaching of the Gumti embankment caused the extensive property damage in the 1999 flood
To comment on the effectiveness, damage due to flooding has increased over the last several decades even after the implementation of embankments
Damage to the economy was about 600M USD in 1974 and increased to over 1B USD in 1988
This includes crop damage, housing damage, deaths, water contamination and so on
Bangladesh is yet to discover a successful means of preventing damage due to coastal erosion and flooding

[edit] Arid Environments and their Management

[edit] Lithospheric Processes and Hazards

[edit] Ecosystems and Human Activity

[edit] 3.8 Settlements

- - training people for jobs
- lots of crime
Cities in developing countries
- inner-zone is wealthy, middle zone is poor housing and the outer-zone is shantytowns
- Industry is along the main lines of communication
- problematic
  - little shelter, illegal shantytowns, poor infrastructure, lack in schools and hospitals and little quality food/water, overcrowded
mechanization in rural areas displaces workers
industrialization focused economic activity in the cities
cost of living is high in the cities
urban sprawl is the outward city growth; occurs mainly in MDC cities
- this encourages the rich to buy large lots of cheap land to buy houses
- makes the inner city more dense
- expensive for a city to supply them with infrastructure
- causes old ares to decay
Brazil is the most urbanized developing country
Rural push/pull factors
- mechanization
- amalgamation of farms
- poor conditions in rural jobs; little money and long hours
- desertification and deforestation
- under/unemployment
- poor social conditions
- cities have variety of employment
- higher wages, medical facilities and infrastructure
Brasilia was made the new capital city to promote growth in the west
- called decentralization
Favellas are makeshift shelters on the outskirts of Brazilian cities
Sao Paulo was originally a coffee producing city
- it received a wave of immigrants in the 1930’s who all formed different ethnic communities
- is a city w/ a mono-nuclear form, grows form a single CBD
- metropolitanization occurred; the increase by natural means along w/ immigration
- began with the motor vehicle industry and others
- conurbation began
- there was mostly horizontal development until recently when they began building high-rises
- busy sections of the CBD were pedestrianized
- car ownership is rising
- rubbish is piled in two main landfills and now there are incinerators
- they are creating barrack like homes to replace favellas
Curitiba
- founded as a gold mining camp
- worlds “Ecological Capital”
- has a successful transport, health and education system
- has favellas but not as extensive
- used much urban planning
- they built parks, they recycle
- they have a separate lane for the transit system
- it is mass transit
- attracts industrial investment form major north American and European companies
- compulsory schooling
- library system
- ‘Green Swap’ is where ppl give sorted rubbish for recycling and in return get food or bus fare
- bike path system
North American cities suffer from sprawling suburbs
- high city congestion, little parking
- sprawl can be curbed but not controlled
Smart Growth Policies
- examples are Portland, Berlin and Vancouver
important to have pedestrian friendly areas, a transit system etc.
Vancouver curbed sprawl because of its unique geography wouldn’t allow it
- also never built an extensive freeway system
- has an Agricultural Land Reserve
good to have shops, cafes, restraints, cinemas along with offices and shops
sprawl forces ppl to use cars, which impedes the process of creating an efficient transit system, which creates congestions
people are willing to commute so they can have better housing for their money
Sprawl means…
- more traffic congestion
- longer commute times
- more pollution
- loss of agricultural land
Smart Growth
- stopping urban sprawl
- gentrification
- transit
- no new freeways
- more green space
- pedestrian friendly developments
- high density housing
- redevelopment of old industrial building into homes
Coehlhos (in Recife)
- favellas on the hillsides in the outskirts
- people live in elevated shacks over rivers
- waste goes into that same river
- high DR
- gov. tries to legalize homes to ensure ppl can keep what they earn

[edit] 3.9 Productive activities: aspects of change

Where Did Industry Originate?'

-The manufacturing of goods, (in a factory) began in the United Kingdom in the late 1700s. (The Industrial Revolution)

-Industry has, since, changed the way goods are produced and the way people obtain food, clothing, and shelter.

The Industrial Revolution

-It was technology involving several inventions that transformed the way goods were manufactured.

-The "revolution" didn't happen overnight and resulted in new social and political inventions.

-Previously goods were produced at home, it was known as the cottage industry system.

-The invention of the steam engine in 1769, caused the system to change.

Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution

-The steam engine caused improvements in the Iron Industry and increased the demand for coal.

-Industry then became centered around coalfields.

-The need to transport bulky industrial goods caused canals to be built and subsequently railroads.

Diffusion from the Textile Industry

-Cotton cloth had to be bleached and dyed before clothing could be made, creating a demand for chemicals

-Canned foods became more widespread with improved techniques that resulted with advancements in the chemical industry

Places to know: Rwanda, Egypt, Sierra Leone, El Salvador, Britain, Solomon Islands, Germany, Italy, France, Somalia, Turkey, Vietnam, Nepal, India, China, Canada, USA, Australia, Czech Republic, Zimbabwe, Brazil, Ivory Coast, Cohelos/Recife, Curtiba

External Links:

ibgeog.net

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Subjects: International Baccalaureate | Social sciences

Hidden categories: Alphabetical/I | Dewey/900 | Library of Congress/G