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The guitar is a very popular stringed musical instrument. This book is mainly concerned with standard six-stringed acoustic or electric guitars; twelve string guitars are also applicable in most cases. It is definitely not necessary to understand music theory to read this book, although it can yield a deeper understanding of the principles contained herein.

The purpose of this book is to introduce novice and intermediate players to the basic concepts of good guitar playing. Important techniques are given their own section, and exercises and examples are provided whenever they can. When you have finished reading this book, you should have a good understanding of the fundamentals of guitar, and be on the right track towards mastering the instrument.

Table of Contents

Getting Started

• Different Types of Guitars
• Anatomy of a Guitar
• Buying a Guitar
• Buying an Amplifier
• Setting up the Guitar
• Tablature
• Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar

Playing the Guitar

For Beginners

• The Basics
• Double-stops and Power Chords
• Open Chords
• Muting and Raking
• Learning Songs
• Song Library

Lead Guitar

• Picking and Plucking
• Scales
• Arpeggios and Sweep Picking
• Slides
• Hammer-ons, Pull-offs, and Trills
• Bending and Vibrato
• Harmonics
• Tremolo Bar Techniques
• Tapping

Rhythm Guitar

• Chords
• Barre Chords
• Chord Progressions
• Alternate Picking
• Tremolo Picking
• Rhythm

Playing Styles

• Folk Guitar
• Blues
• Slide Guitar
• Rock Guitar
• Country and Western
• Metal
• Jazz
• Classical Guitar
• Flamenco

General Guitar Theory

• Tone and Volume
• Writing Songs
• Playing With Others
• Recording Music
• Tuning Your Ear
• Harmonica and Guitar Combo

Equipment

• Guitar Accessories
• Effects Pedals
• Cables
• Bass Guitar

Maintenance

• Guitar Maintenance and Storage
• Adjusting the Guitar
• Stringing the Guitar

Appendices

• Dictionary
• Alternate Tunings

Authors

• Authors

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Getting Started

Different Types of Guitars

There are various types of guitar and they all have their own particular sound. Playing different guitars in a music shop is a great way of familiarising yourself with each models unique qualities but don't forget to take off any objects that could scratch the guitar. A music salesman will let you try as many guitars as you like but may not be too happy at the little scratch your coat button left. Your choice of guitar will usually be based on the type of music you wish to play and the aesthetic appeal of the colour and design.

Acoustic guitars

The acoustic guitar is found all over the globe and this cultural adoption and historical evolution has led to many variations in design and purpose. The ukulele, which was based on the four-stringed braginho or cavaquinhos from Portugal is an example of an earlier small-sized European guitar being introduced to a different society; the word ukulele is Hawaiian for “flea”. There are two kinds of acoustic guitar: steel-string and classical. Classical guitars have a wider neck and use nylon strings. Steel-strings have a distinctive sharp sound that is a distinctive component in a wide range of popular music styles; country and rock are two examples. The nylon strings of the classical guitar allows the guitarist to play complicated arrangements and barres with ease. Both types of guitar can be played using a plectrum (pick) or finger-style. The steel-string acoustic is Sometimes referred to as a flat top. The word top refers to the face or front of the guitar which is also sometimes called the table.

The body of any acoustic is large and hollow; acting as a resonating chamber which amplifies the strings. Larger bodied guitars with bigger curves tend to have a deeper or heavier tone, while guitars with a smaller body tend to sound brighter. Acoustic guitars sometimes have cutaways which allows greater access to higher frets but also changes the tone. Acoustic guitars have a weaker sustain than electric guitars but master-built classical or steel-string guitars often feature very good sustain and excellent overall performance. Their are many entry-level acoustic guitar models that are manufactured to a high standard and entirely suitable for beginners. If you wish to buy something more expensive then its important that the table should be made from a single piece of wood; not ply and closely grained.

The timbre of the acoustic guitar lends itself to a variety of tasks and roles. It's a songwriter's tool because of its portability and ease of use and its gentle harp-like arpeggios and rhythmic chordal strumming has always found favour in an ensemble setting. When the performance is in a personal setting or amphitheater, the acoustic guitar can be heard with no additional amplification because the resonating chamber of the guitar itself creates acoustic amplification. In some situations the acoustic guitar is not loud enough to be heard by all the people in an audience and amplification is required. An acoustic guitar can be amplified by placing a microphone several inches from the sound hole or by installing a pickup specifically designed for the acoustic guitar. The need for guitars that retained their acoustic qualities when plugged into an amp or PA has led to the invention of the electro-acoustic guitar.

Electric guitars

The electric guitar is the workhorse of rock music and is used extensively in blues, jazz and pop music. Electric guitars need to be plugged into an amplifier to be heard adequately. Electric guitars are usually solid-body guitars but archtop electric guitars are available with hollow bodies which gives them some acoustic resonance (see below). The timbre of the electric guitar is not comparable to an acoustic guitar. The pickups and amplifier used with a solid-body electric guitar creates a sound that is metallic with a lengthy decay (sustain).

The design of the electric guitar is not determined by the need for a deep resonating body that acoustic guitars possess and this had led to the development of contoured and thin electric guitars which can be more comfortable to play. The design variations amongst electric guitars allows them to produce a wide variety of tones. The two most popular basic shapes of the electric guitar are the Fender Stratocaster style and the Gibson Les Paul style. The strings on an electric guitar are thinner than the strings on an acoustic and closer to the neck; therefore less force is needed to press them down. The electric guitar is capable of producing sounds and effects that would be difficult on an acoustic. The ease of bending strings sometimes used in combination with a whammy bar has created some of the greatest modern guitar solos. Fret-tapping is an electric guitar technique that has led to a different way of using the fretboard; allowing chords and melody lines to be played that would have been impossible using the standard technique of strumming and finger-picking.

The choice of amplifier is a fundamental aspect of the sound created and should be regarded as the second half of the guitar. See the Buying an Amplifier section for details. Seven-string electric guitars have a thicker B string above the thickest E string and are mostly used by guitarists who play metal music.

Electro-acoustic guitars

Electro-acoustic guitars have pickups specifically designed for the subtle nuances of the sound of the acoustic guitar. This allows electro-acoustics to be plugged into a PA and they are essential for many guitarists who rely on using the house PA when they gig. The Ovation range of electro-acoustics is a prime example of the departure in design from ordinary acoustics. Ovation guitars use under-the-saddle piezo pickups and a synthetic bowl-back. Purists were derisory of Ovation's innovations but professional musicians found that the synthetic bowl-back provided a tough construction that stands up to the rigours of the road. Ovation were also the first company to provide on-board equalization and this is now a standard feature found on most electro-acoustics. Electro-acoustic pickups are designed to sound neutral with little alteration to the organic acoustic timbre. Another famous electro-acoustic brand is the Taylor guitar range. Taylor uses the traditional all-wood construction and the necks of these guitars have a reputation for superb action and playability.

Twelve-string guitars

The twelve-string is usually an acoustic though twelve-string electric guitars are available. Some people consider double neck guitars to be twelve-string guitars but they are essentially two guitar necks bolted onto one body. Twelve-string guitars have the regular six strings and a second set of thinner strings with each string of the second set corresponding to its regular string counterpart. The second set of strings are tuned an octave higher. The strings form pairs; so you still play the guitar in the same manner as a standard six string.

Twelve-string guitars produce a brighter and more prominent tone and are harder to play and maintain than a standard six string guitar. They are usually confined to niche roles, such as rhythm guitar. The additional strings requires more pressure to press down and bending notes also requires an extra muscular effort. Twelve-string guitars are more expensive to buy than the standard acoustic or electric and they may need more maintenance because of the additional strain on the neck.

Archtop guitars

An archtop is a hollow or semi-hollow acoustic or electric guitar which uses steel strings. The arched top creates a unique timbre and other elements taken from the design of the mandolin or violin also adds to the distinctive tone of the archtop guitar. The body of the archtop guitar, whether hollow or semi-hollow, has a sound block in the middle and they also have violin f-holes cut into the table.

Archtop guitars may be acoustic or electric and can look very similar with the only distinguishing feature being an electromagnetic pickup. One problem with archtop hollow-bodied guitars is that when played through an amplifier, they tend to generate feedback. The semi-hollow archtop was developed to make feedback less of an issue. Archtop guitars have been particularly popular in jazz music, usually because their thicker strings add tone.

Some solid-body electric guitars have a body shape which includes the arched top but the name is usually reserved for the hollow/semi-hollow body form.

Steel guitars

The steel guitar is distinctive in being played horizontally, either across the players knees or on its own stand. There are two main varieties of the instrument, which is played using the metal slide, or 'steel', from which the guitar takes its name. The steel is held in the left hand, when used by a right-handed player. The two main variations are the lap steel guitar, which typically has six strings, and the pedal steel guitar, which can have more - and sometimes two or even three separate sets, each tuned differently. Pedals and knee levers are used to alter the tuning on particular strings whilst playing which, along with the sliding action of the steel, gives the pedal steel its distinctive voice, most often heard in country music and western swing.

Resonator guitars

Often also called 'steel' guitars due to some models possessing metal bodies and as an acoustic lap steel, the acoustic resonator guitar is distinctive in not having a regular soundhole, but a large—usually circular—plate which conceals the resonator cone. The cone closely resembles an audio loudspeaker, though made from spun aluminium. The bridge of the guitar is connected either to the centre of the cone or to the edge by an aluminium 'spider', and the strings' vibrations are thus amplified and projected outwards through the perforated plate on the guitar's top. The most common resonator guitars have a single cone, although the original model has three. Resonators possess a loud, bright voice, making them easily heard in a large room or in the open air. They are popular with blues musicians and country players and can be played in the conventional style or with a metal or glass slide.

Bass guitars

A bass guitar has a longer scale-length and thicker strings than a standard six-string guitar. These factors create a range of notes that are pitched an octave lower than the guitar. Often the bass is considered part of the rhythm section but there are some players whose skills are comparable to any other soloist . Acoustic and electric bass guitars are available but the electric bass is more common. The standard bass is the four string bass though five and six string basses are also manufactured. The four strings of the bass correspond to the lowest four strings of the guitar.

Double neck guitar

The Double neck guitar is basically two different kinds of guitar sharing one body, allowing the guitarist to easily access and switch between two different guitars. Made famous by Jimmy Page, the double neck guitar typically have a standard six string and a twelve string guitar; however, other combinations exists, such as a six-string and bass, a six string with fret and its fretless version. Steve Vai has been known to play a triple neck guitar.

Anatomy of a Guitar

Acoustic and Electric guitars have many parts in common but Electrics are slightly more complicated due to the need for pickups and controls. This is a general overview of the construction, components and design of guitars and you will always find guitars that break the rules.

Overview of Components

• 1 Headstock
• 2 Nut
• 3 Tuning pegs
• 4 Frets
• 5 Truss rod
• 6 Inlays
• 7 Neck
• 8 Neck joint
• 9 Body
• 10 Pickups
• 11 Knobs (volume and tone)
• 12 Bridge
• 13 Pickguard
• 14 Back
• 15 Sound board (top)
• 16 Sides of the body (ribs)
• 17 Sound hole with rosette inlay
• 18 Strings
• 19 Saddle
• 20 Fretboard (or finger board)

On Acoustics and Electrics

Body

The body of the guitar is the most important characteristic of any guitar. It provides the resonance that shapes the tone of an Acoustic or Electric guitar and provides the volume (or heft) of an Acoustic guitar and the sustain of an Electric. The top smaller curved part closest to the strings is called the "treble" or "upper bout" and the bigger curved part is the "bass" or "lower bout". The waist is the narrow section that divides them.

There are many things that can affect the body's tone: the type of wood used, the construction method (like layered or one-piece, hollow or solid-body) and the shape and size. There is a debate about how much of a difference in tone the types of wood make to the sound of an Electric guitar. It is generally believed that a denser heavier wood gives the guitar a deeper sustain or richer tone but since it is mostly high-end manufacturers that use these kinds of wood it may also be because the instrument is made using better construction methods.

Tone wood

• Agathis (also known as Commercial Grade Mahogany or Poor Man's Mahogany) is a type of pine that grows in East Asia. It is a plantation-wood used mainly for building cabinets. It is cheap and usually used in the construction of budget guitars. Its tone is similar to mahogany but more bland sounding with a less complex response.

• Alder is a light-weight wood that provides a clean balanced tonal response and good resonance. Its soft tight porous structure is similar to basswood but with a bolder hard grain pattern that adds to the stiffness and makes it more robust. It is usually in a medium light tan. Alder provides a balanced tone across the frequency range with a slight upper mid-range producing a clean sound and its resonance provides a good dynamic range.

• Ash offers two varieties which are used for guitar construction. Both are excellent quality but they do sound different. They have an open grain pattern and a lot of lacquer is required to seal the wood which may result in less sustain than other woods. Ash is typically used in mid-range priced guitars.

• • Northern hard ash (also known as Baseball Bat Ash) is hard, heavy and dense. This gives it a bright tone and longer sustain.

• • Swamp Ash (also known as Southern Soft Ash) comes from swamps in the Southern USA. Swamp Ash grows underwater which makes the wood light-weight and porous. Many Fender guitars from the 1950s were built with Swamp Ash. It has hard grain lines between its softer layers and a creamy light tan color with bold darker grain patterns. Its tonal qualities are a very nice balance of brightness and warmth and dynamic range with clear bell-like highs, slightly scooped mids and strong lows. Since it has good resonance across the whole frequency spectrum it can sound quite complex.

• Basswood is a light-weight (lighter than Alder) closed-grain wood with a consistent and tight grain pattern. It is very soft with light colors that range from almost white to medium tan. Because it dents easily, it requires a hard finish (such as polyester) and good engineering so as to allow the screws and screw-holes to hold the parts. The installation of a tremolo system on such a softwood also means the body needs to be thicker to prevent cracking. Tonally, basswood has a warm soft tone which attenuates both the high and extreme low frequencies. It also creates a pronounced midrange fundamental frequency response and a reduced smoother high end response. The tonal response is not as complex and has a limited dynamic range compared to other softwoods such as ash and alder. It is not a wood that excels in clean sounds but when played with distortion or amplifier overdrive it provides the well known metal-lead sound. It is used in the construction of low-end budget guitars to expensive guitars such as Steve Vai's JEM.

• Cedar became popular in the mid twentieth century after master luthier Jose Ramirez III of Madrid pioneered the use of red cedar as a substitute for the increasingly scarce European spruce. It is now considered one of the world's premier tonewoods.

• Mahogany is a highly dense, heavy wood with a fine, open grain and large pores. The color is reddish brown. Tonally, it provide a good low frequencies, a compressed midrange, and smooth sounding highs. Overall, its tone is mellow, soft and warm, with a full and thick quality. Thus, it has a punchy dynamic, and its heaviness provide excellent sustain. Its density also make it very stable and less susceptible to dents and scratches. Due to its heaviness, however, it may not be comfortable to be used while standing, unless it is a guitar with a body similar to those of the Ibanez S series, which have mahogany bodies, but are thinner than most.

• Nato is another type of eastern mahogany, but most current stock now comes from South America, and is also a kind of commercial grade mahogany originally designed for cabinet building. Typically used as a mahogany substitute for budget guitars, it is also brighter with pronounced midrange, but lacking the mahogany's sensitivity and punch. However, B.C. Rich used Nato for their Assassin range, so it's debatable whether it is as bad as many players stated.

• Maple, though rarely employed for body itself, is used as a top. It is usually white in color, with tight pores and thin grain lines. Typically, there are two kinds of maple:
  • Eastern Hard Maple (also known as Hard Rock Maple or Sugar Maple) is usually used for maple syrup, but can also be used as an excellent tonewood. As named, it is very hard and dense, with medium weight, making it harder to work with, and thus is usually reserved for necks. As a body wood, it provides a bright sound, with very strong highs and upper midrange but quieter bass frequencies. Overall, hard maple has a very long sustain.
  • Western Soft Maple (also known as Big Leaf Maple) is much lighter in weight than Hard Maple. It has a bright tone with good bite and attack but is not as brittle as hard maple. Its tonal qualities produce singing highs with a tight low end. Typically these are used in the construction of the guitar top.

• Rosewood, though typically reserved for the back and sides of acoustic instruments is also sometimes used for fingerboards. It possesses an extremely high density making it very reflective acoustically. Its color is dark brown with reddish, purple or orange streaks running through it.

• Poplar was in the past only used for budget guitars; especially by Danelectro as a center block with masonite as top and bottom. However due to the resurgence in popularity of the old garage sounds of the 1950s, the guitars made out of them are relatively expensive for such "budget" wood. It is a closed grain wood with a greyish-green color and similar to alder in weight and tone.

• Spruce For centuries European spruce has been the premium tonewood used for stringed instruments. Increasing scarcity has resulted in the increased use of substitutes such as the North American species of spruce and red cedar.

• Walnut is a medium hard wood, with a strong grain pattern, and its body has a constant density. It is harder, heavier and more dense than Mahogany, closer to maple. Tonally, it is warmer than maple, with a solid low end, while the midrange is relatively complex, and the top end is smooth and bright. Due to its density, it provides good sustain.

Body top

For higher end guitars, luthiers tend to incorporate an additional top to the body to blend the benefits of different types of wood together. Typically, the type of wood used is maple with figuring. While the figuring does not affect the tone, it does provides a much more pronounced look.

Bridge

The bridge is found somewhere between the middle and bottom of the body. Its function is to allow the strings to pass over it and sit at a relative height. Depending on the guitar, the strings may start at the bridge or they may only be supported by it. Most Electric guitars allow the bridge to be raised or lowered, allowing the action of the guitar to be finely adjusted. This is typically done by adjusting screws, either thumbscrews which can be rotated with the fingers, or traditional screws requiring a screwdriver. This is discussed further in the Adjusting the Guitar section.

Acoustic guitar bridges usually have a saddle. A saddle is a piece of plastic or polished bone that is used for the string to rest on. The smoothness prevents the guitar from buzzing, and can also be used for very fine tuning. Synthetic bone substitutes are becoming more common.

Fretboard

On the front side of the neck is the fretboard or fingerboard. These are commonly made of rosewood but many other hard woods are also used. Embedded in the fretboard are a number of metal frets; usually 20 to 24. Strings are pressed down behind a fret to change the note that the open string will produce. There are a variety of fret designs; jumbo frets means tall frets, and thus you do not need to press down to the board, while medium means closer to the board and thus need to be pressed onto the board in order to be heard. The first fret is the one nearest the nut (see below), unless there is one immediately after the nut, which is called a "zero fret". Most fretboards have inlays on the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th and 12th frets which are decorative and also function as markers for quick recognition of guitar positions. Some also have inlays on the 1st, 15th and 17th.

Headstock (Head)

The headstock lies at the end of the guitar's neck. The major mechanical purpose of the headstock is to support the tuners, which terminates the strings of the instrument. The tuners are attached to the tuning pegs, which allows the guitarist to lower or raise the pitch of the string. A secondary purpose of the headstock is identification; many guitar manufacturers use a distinctive headstock shape, often in combination with a logo and model information.

Neck

The neck of a guitar extends from the body. It can be a single piece of wood, but often it is several pieces glued and cut to the proper shape. The fretboard is attached to the neck, along with the head stock at the end. Some necks are glued to the body, which is called a set neck, and others have it bolted on. Set necks are almost universal amongst Acoustic guitars. The bolt-on or screw-on neck are most common in Electric guitars. Most necks are wood, but there are several alternative materials, such as carbon fibre composites. A few guitars are made entirely of one piece of wood, where the body is carved from one piece and sides are attached. These sorts of guitars often do not have truss rods.

See below for more details on electric guitar necks.

Nut

All strings pass through the nut at the end of the fretboard. It roughly divides the fretboard and headstock, and its function is to maintain proper string spacing and provide an endpoint for the string. On Acoustic guitars, the nut and saddle are usually made of similar material. Electric guitars commonly use plastic, synthetics, and sometimes metal nuts. As tremolo bars can cause tuning problems, guitars equipped with them usually have some manner of locking nut, where the strings are clamped down. Fender produces a roller nut, where the nut incorporates a system of ball bearings, making it similar to a locking nut, but without biting into the strings.

Pick Guard

This is a flat piece of plastic on the body of the guitar, beneath the sound hole or surrounding pickups. It prevents the body from being scratched by the pick. Some Electric guitars have raised pick guards, so when you strum through a chord, your pick is directed out and away from the volume and tone knobs (but also the strings). Most pick guards can be replaced by players, but it is best to take the guitar to an experienced luthier. The pick guard is also called a scratch plate.

Soundhole

This is where the sound waves made by the strings exits the body. Most sound holes are round, but some Electric guitars (archtop guitars) have violin style, f-shaped sound holes.

Truss Rod

Most Acoustic and Electric guitars have a steel truss rod that runs through the neck under the fretboard. It counteracts the pull of the strings on the neck, strengthening it, and allows the curvature of the neck to be adjusted. Classical guitars do not require a truss rod, because there is less tension from their strings, and some less expensive acoustics do not have truss rods. Adjusting the truss rod is a step in setting up the guitar, but you should know what you're doing before you perform this adjustment.

Tuning Pegs

These are attached to the headstock, and these are where the strings end. They are used to raise and lower the pitch of the strings. There are two main styles, those found on steel string Acoustics and Electric guitars, where the tuning pegs are attached straight into the side of the headstock, and on classicals where they are perpendicular to the headstock. The style of tuning pegs on classicals resembles the tuning pegs on violins.

Electric Guitar Specific

Pickups

On an Electric guitar, a pickup is a magnet wrapped in a coil of copper wire. When the string is plucked, the vibration of the strings cause magnetic flux, which is then amplified and played through a speaker. There are three main kinds: passive single coils, passive humbuckers, and active humbuckers.

Passive single coils have one electromagnet, and are typically found on Stratocasters and their copies. They have a bright ("twangy"), clean sound, but traditionally have less output, resulting in a thinner sound. Also, due to their design, they pickup a background hum caused by the induction of the AC current. Single coils are used by guitarists like Stevie Ray Vaughan. Some single coils, such as P-90, are larger than regular single coils, and thus warmer than a standard single coil. However they still retain more of a single coil sound, and still can pickup background hum. Another single coil style is the “Lipstick” style (commonly found on Danelectro Guitars), where the entire pickup is placed in a metal enclosure with a small gap left between the two metal halves. It tends to be brighter sounding, and the magnetic field caused by the gap in the metal case causes some hum reduction.

Humbuckers, however, use two magnetic coils, operating in opposite magnetic polarity, to cancel out the hum generated by single coils. They provide a warm, fat sound and it is interesting to note that they are used most in metal and blues genres. Humbuckers allow you to use a lot of overdriven gain, and you can make the guitar sound very heavy. Some humbuckers also allowed either coil tap (using only one of the coils) or parallel connection, which provide a sound similar to single coil. Passive humbuckers are for rich, thick, naturally decaying distortion, and they are used by artists like Dimebag Darrell from Pantera. Active humbuckers use battery or phantom power to provide enhanced sensitivity, and thus have longer sustain and can take heavy distortion. Active humbuckers are used most famously by James Hetfield of Metallica.

Ultimately, however, any pickup can and has been used for any genre: some people use humbuckers for blues and jazz, while others may use the single coil for the sound they prefer. It is also important to remember that amplifiers and effect pedals can greatly change the tone of any guitar.

There are many different arrangements for pickups. The most basic is a single pickup, typically near the bridge. There also the following:

• S-S - telecaster style; due to the large spacing between, provide what is typically known as "country twang", a chirpy sound with lots of treble. Even when using thick single coils (eg Jazzmaster and P90 Les Pauls), the tone is more emphasized on the treble side.
• S-S-S - Strat and and Strat copies
• H-S-S - "Fat strat", basically the pickup at the bridge is replaced by a humbucker. A common choice for people who may like both the clean tone and hum-free fat (and dirty) tone.
• H-H - Gibson Les Paul, and common humbucker arrangement. Also known as "Double fat strat" when mounted on a Strat like body.
• H-S-H - "super strat". Typically used for metal, such as Ibanez's Steve Vai signature model.
• H-H-H - Gibson Firebird VII, SG Special, Les Paul Special.

Of course, these are some of the basic configurations, since a S-S-S configuration can be configure into H-S-H or even H-H-H through single-coil sized humbucker. An humbucker slot can easily utilize a much hotter super distortion type humbucker (essentially 2 single-coil sized humbucker connect together), giving output that is as high as an active pickup.

On almost every electric guitar there will be a pickup selector that allows you to choose which pickups to use. A 2 pickup guitar will usually have a 3 way switch, the first for the neck, the third for the bridge and the middle for both.

On guitars with 3 pickups there is usually a five way switch.

• neck
• neck-middle. In the case of H-S-H without coil tap, it will be two single coil in between
• middle
• middle-bridge. In the case of H-S-H without coil tap, it will be two single coil in between
• bridge pickup.

For 2 humbuckers, there could be either 3 ways (as mentioned above for 2 pick ups) or 5 ways:

• neck
• neck at parallel (which produce a tone similar to single coil)
• both humbuckers
• both humbuckers, each in single coil mode (inner coils)
• bridge humbuckers

Sometimes, instead of neck at parallel, it could be both humbuckers, each in single coil mode (outer coils); said to produce more of a telecaster-like tone.

While it is rare, some guitars, such as Fender Jaguar, Fender Mustang, and Red Special utilize independent switches for each pickup, which can provide even more flexibility.

Bridge

For Electric guitars there are basically two kinds of bridge: those that have a tremolo (whammy) bar, and those that do not, (also known as hardtail). For the sake of discussion, we also include the tail end, where the string terminates.

A tremolo bar is a bar that stretches and slack the strings, causing the sound to change pitch. Pushing down on the bar lowers the pitch of the strings, and pulling up will raises the pitch. Rapidly pushing and releasing (or pushing and pulling for exaggerated effect) will produce a modulation in pitch, called vibrato. Vibrato is often confused with tremolo (modulation in volume), hence the misnomer tremolo bar. While traditionally used for vibrato, It is more commonly used for dive bombs and various other guitar tricks.

There are basically four kinds of tremolo:

• Bigsby comes with a tail piece that natch at the bottom end of the body, it usually provide only a half pitch bend on both up and down. Typically installed on Archtop, though its modified version exists as Gibson Vibrola. Despite its limited range, it does go out of tune as easily and other non-locking tremolo.
• Vintage synchronized tremolo, aka strat-type tremeolo, can only down bend. Can go out of tune easily, though not as much as floating
• Floating bridge tremolo Out of all non-locking tremolo, these can go out of tune most easily, due to the fact that it can upbend and downbend for two half-steps or more. On poorly designed version, these can go out of tune even during palm mute. However, it can be convert to downbend only, by tipping the "down" side of the bridge against the body.
• locking tremolos (Floyd Rose). These tremeloes can stay in tune almost indefinitely. However, once set up it's hard to change tuning with these, and changing strings and setting up in the first place is a huge chore, and thus can be overly complicated for a beginner. The way to tell if it's a locking tremolo is to see if it has a set of locks at the nut section. The benefit of having a locking tremolo is that the guitar stays in tune, but you should always tune your guitar every time you play, even if you have locks (In the case of Floyd Rose, by microtuner).

The only way to rarely go out of tune is to either use the Floyd Rose tremolo or a hardtail (no tremolo). If you prefer to ease of setup while staying in tune with a tremolo, you can also try Yamaha's "finger clamp" locking tremolo, which requires no tools when setting up, or use locking tuners and roller nuts, as in Fender's locking tremolo.

As mentioned, a hardtail (no tremolo) bridge is great at staying in tune. However, it also has additional benefits, in that it also improved sound and sustain. The fixed bridge also makes it easier to perform string bends, and gives an altogether warmer and rounder sound than one with tremolo.

Despite such simple concept, there are at least three versions of ending the string:

1. The first kind is the stop bar method, used from cheap budget types to expensive archtop and PRS guitars, where a stop bar that's mounted on top of the body holds the string's end. Sometimes it is also integrated to the bridge.
2. The second kind is known as thru-body, where the string goes into the body; this enhanced sustain, but typically more expensive. the bridge, however, is a separate piece of hardware. Example would be Gibson's tune-o-matic. Despite this, strings still slide over the nut and saddles when playing/bending strings, just not as much as they do on a normal synchronized tremolo.
3. The third kind of tail bridge is the fixed locking bridge, based upon the Floyd Rose tremolo except it is fixed; in this configuration, the string is clamped down, which ensure the string is stay in tune. Due to the fact that it's a fixed bridge, there are no spring cavity in the back; instead, the bridge is more or less mounted directly above the tail piece, which is usually thru-body. This is the best method to stay in tune. Currently, only Ibanez makes fixed locking bridge.

Switches and Knobs

Almost all Electric guitars have a switch that changes which pickups are being used, and at least two knobs, one for the master volume and one for the master tone. If the guitar has four knobs, then it has two volume and two tone, with each-volume-pair assigned to a pick up. Fender stratocaster typically have one master volume, and a tone control for the neck and mid pickup.

Do note that, unless it is active-pickups, the volume and and tone control are much closer to a set of filter for the signal. Even if you turn the amplifier to the eleven, if the guitar's volume is set low, it won't generate enough current to drive the amplifier to overdrive. As for the tone, it acts as a low pass filter, which help "boost" a certain range of frequency.

Neck-joint

This is where the neck is connected to the body, and there are several different kinds of joins:

Bolt-on neck - as the name indicate, the neck is attached to the body by a series of bolts and mounting plate for stability. Typically, there should be no less than 4 bolts, otherwise it will start to be detestable (as demonstrated on CBS Fender guitars). The mounting plate, as well as a square-shaped joint, typically made accessing the upper frets difficult. To rectify it, some manufacturers, such as Ibanez, uses hidden plate bolt on, with the bolts mounted deeper into a smoothed body, while some like MusicMan have a contoured joint that follows the angled contour of joint (though still use metal plate); both results in an easy access for the upper frets. The standard Bolt-on is famously used by Fender, with Ibanez making all its bolt-on joins with hidden plates, even for the budget range.

Set-in neck - For Acoustic guitar, this is the common joining, but for Electric, this is typically reserved for more expensive guitars, as it requires more careful manufacturing to ensure a good result. This method involves joining guitar neck and body with some sort of adhesive. This yields a stronger connection than a bolt-on neck, though not as strong as a neck-thru body joint. Gibson and Epiphone is most famous with set-in neck. It has the following advantage in comparison to bolt on:

• Warmer tone
• More sustain
• Usually better access to top frets in comparsion to bolt-on necks utilizing a metal plate; even on a hidden-plate bolt on, due to the neck join can slope even more, set-in still give more access to the upper frets.

Thru-body necks involves extending the piece (or pieces, in a laminate construction) of wood used for the neck the entire length of the body. The strings, fretboard, pickups and bridge are all mounted on this piece. So-called "ears" or "wings" (i.e. side parts of the body) are glued or laminated to the central "stick". The "wings" may be bookmatched in order to give a symmetrical appearance, and are often cut from one piece of wood. It was pioneered by Les Paul, who made his "The Log" out of the same method.

As this is significantly harder to mass-produce than bolt-on or set neck constructions, it is primarily found on high-end guitars. It is somewhat more common in basses than in guitars. Neck-thru construction allows easier access to upper frets (those nearer the guitar body), because there is no need for a heel – the thickened area on the neck where it bolts to the body. Many musicians also hold the opinion that neck-through construction provides greater sustain, though guitar greats such as Eric Johnson, Eddie Van Halen, Steve Vai (Ibanez JEM) and Joe Satriani (Ibanez JS series) have managed quite well with hidden-plate bolt-on necks. Neck-through instruments supposedly stay in tune longer., and due to the fact that the string is on the entire piece of wood, it has much better sustain.

Set through can be seen as a modification of a thru-body neck, which is done by the following

• A pocket in the instrument's body for insertion of neck, as in bolt-on method. However, the pocket is much deeper than usual one.
• Long neck plank, comparable to the scale length, as in the neck-through method.
• Glueing (setting) the long neck inside the deep pocket, as in the set-in method.

The result is usually told to have combined advantages of all these methods, mostly eliminating their disadvantages. Luthiers frequently cite:

• improved tone and sustain (due to deep insertion and body made of single piece of wood, not laminated as in neck-through),
• "warmer" tone (due to set joint)
• comfortable access to top frets (due to lack of hard heel and bolt plate),
• better wood stability.

The main disadvantage is relatively complex construction that leads to higher manufacturing and servicing costs. Another cited disadvantage is the inability or relative complexity of adding a double-locking tremolo to the guitar, as the routing for cavities would interfere with deeply set neck.

Amplifier and effects

The amplifier is not part of a guitar per se, but it is nevertheless absolutely necessary in playing the Electric guitar, and sometimes also used for an Acoustic guitar. Different amplifiers will give the guitar a different sound, and different amps are more appropriate for different genres of music. Many amplifiers have effects built in, the most common being distortion, often called overdrive. If the amplifier has a "lead" channel, then turning up the pre-amplifier (or "pre-amp") will overdrive the amplifier's tubes or transistors, causing the amplification not to be linear, and thus distorted. The higher it is, the more distortion there will be.

Turning up the pre-amplifier will, by definition, increase the volume of the sound, so to compensate amps also have a "gain" knob, which can be turned down to reduce the volume after overdrive. Heavy amplification can result in sounds loud enough to damage the amp, even on small 25-watt amplifiers, and one should be careful on unfamiliar equipment. Always turn down the gain when plugging in, and slowly and carefully adjust to the appropriate level. Distortion can also be provided by effects pedals, along with other effects like chorus, reverb, wah-wah, compression, and more. Some amplifiers have these effects built in.

Buying a Guitar

There are two things that hold true, whether you are buying a guitar or an amplifier:

1. A guitar that doesn't get played is worthless at any price.
2. There is no such thing as bad tone; There are only tones that you may not like.

A guitar is an excellent instrument for almost anyone. A guitar that is difficult to play is not a good choice for a beginner. While it takes dedication to learn, if the guitar is comfortable for the player, it is easier to learn.

Whether you are buying an entry level guitar for yourself or a parent buying a beginner's guitar for a child; it is not worth spending any money on a guitar that the player won't enjoy. How the guitar feels in the player's hands is more important than how it looks hanging up in a store, and the key to learning to play is being excited about playing.

Be careful about buying a guitar for a person that already plays, unless you know exactly what they want. The best course of action is to buy the guitar with the person. Players who have played long enough know what they like and what they don't like. If it is not possible to shop with the guitarist, then the best option is to give them a gift certificate.

Always remember (and this will be obvious after playing a few dozen guitars) every single guitar is different. Even if the guitar is exactly the same make and model and color, it may play completely differently than the next. This is because wood is an organic material and is subject to variation and also the way a shop or manufacturer sets up a guitar may add to the differences. This means in some cases one guitar will be great and another seemingly identical guitar will be a dud.

Acoustic or Electric?

The first question you should ask is "what kind of guitar do you want to buy?". The player should always make this decision, because if the player does not enjoy playing a particular guitar, then they may lose interest. Instead of being fun, it becomes a chore and the player will get frustrated easily. Acquiring a guitar that the player will not be frustrated with will encourage or allow the player to be the best they can be. Usually the kind of music the guitarist listens to is a good indicator of the kind of guitar they want to play, though other considerations like cost or size also have to be taken into account.

An electric guitar is typically better for a beginner because they are easier to play than a steel string acoustic. Because the strings are easier to push down and pluck, the sense of advancing will be felt much sooner and any frustration they may feel will have less of an impact. These things are important for a beginner. Most guitarists who wish to play lead guitar start on an electric guitar and many skills learnt on the electric guitar can be applied to an acoustic guitar though the guitarist will have to exert some extra muscular effort due to the high tension of acoustic steel strings.

The acoustic guitar has thicker strings that are more difficult to fret and is quieter than an electric guitar played through a powerful amplifier. If the type of material that a player chooses is suited to an acoustic guitar (folk and classical are two examples) then an extra effort and a different learning curve needs to be applied. The extra muscular effort needed to play a steel string acoustic will lead to much easier time playing the electric guitar. On the other hand, the more significant learning curve on the acoustic guitar may be enough to fustrate a guitarist in the early stages and cause them to lose interest.

If the player wants an acoustic, but expects to go out jamming with an electric guitarist and/or drummer, they should buy an electro-acoustic guitar which is an acoustic guitar fitted with a specially designed pickup that allows the guitar to be amplified. There is no way an acoustic guitar can compete with the volume levels of the louder instruments unless it is fitted with an internal pick-up or has a microphone placed in front of the sound-hole.

If the desired guitar is too expensive, there is quite often a more affordable model of the same kind. For example, the Squier-branded guitars look and sound like Fenders, Epiphone makes guitars that look like Gibsons, and Ibanez makes a wide variety of styles. For Ibanez, anything with a "G" as a prefix is the cheaper model. For example, GRG model is the cheaper version of their RG guitar.

Please see Different Types of Guitars and Anatomy of a Guitar for more information.

Acoustic guitar

There are basically two kinds of acoustic: classical guitar and steel-string guitar.

Steel string-guitars, also known as folk guitars, typically have a large sound box, which gives them a big resonating sound. Steel strings are used extensively in country, folk-rock and popular music and occasionally are used for their distinctive timbre in blues, jazz and rock music. Steel strings can be hard to press, especially for beginners that have not developed callouses. Picking also demands an extra muscular effort whether you use a plectrum or finger-style.

Classical guitars have nylon strings and a wider fretboard. The peg box resembles the peg box of a violin, which has tuning pegs that are perpendicular to the neck. The body is also smaller. The tone is mellow when compared to a steel string guitar and is the instrument of choice for players wishing to learn classical music. The nylon strings of a classical guitar are the easiest of all strings to fret though nylon strings normally take longer to settle down to stable tuning than steel strings.

Electric guitar

If you are buying an electric guitar, also read Buying an Amplifier

The electric guitar is the workhorse of rock music and is also used in other genres such as blues, jazz and pop music. Amplified electric guitars sound very different from an acoustic guitar, even when no effects or distortion are used. The pickups and amplifier define the guitar's sound. Electric guitars come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

Pickups are an important part of an electric guitar's sound. There are two main kinds of pickups: passive single coil and humbuckers. Passive single coil pickups have one magnetic coil and are the standard pick-up for Fender Stratocasters. Humbuckers have two magnetic coils, allowing the pick-ups to be over-driven by the use of gain and this generally give a heavier overall sound. Furthermore, as the name implies, humbuckers cancel noise from electrical interference. Ultimately, however, both kinds of pickups are suitable for any kind of music, and you will have to decide what kind of pickup is best for you.

Guitars can have more than one pickup, and it is the arrangement of the pickups that generate the end tone. Another consideration is the "playing area" between the pickups, as too much contact with the pickups can change the tone drastically, if not damage it. The lack of a pickup "sticking out" also allows harder (and slightly less precise) picking. Such a problem is even more prevalent when it is either the Humbucker-Single Coil-Humbucker or Humbucker-Humbucker-Humbucker arrangement, where there is a smaller clean region, if any, and therefore will require a more careful approach to playing, which can be an important concern when buying a guitar for a beginner

A Tremolo bar, also known as a Whammy bar or Vibrato bar, is a bar that is used to slacken and stretch the strings, causing the sound to change pitch rapidly. When used lightly, it can create a vibrato effect, but it is more commonly used for dive bombs and various other guitar tricks. Some whammy bars have locking mechanisms that allow you to stay in tune more easily, but these may be too complicated for beginners to maintain.

Cables

You will also need a cable to connect to your amplifier. Sometimes a shop may throw in a free cable when you buy a guitar, which apart from having poor shielding will also typically have a short head-shell that requires you to unplug it in the wrong way (i.e. grabbing the cable to pull it out, instead of grabbing the head-shell). This is especially true for Fender-type body-front-embedded plugs, which is also used on other big-name guitars. This method of removing the cord could result in damage to the guitar (for those without the plug guard, such as Ibanez S series) or the plug getting stuck in the jack on the guitar.

Therefore, let's start with the headshell. If you are just using one that plugs into the side of the guitar, then a standard AV-sized head plug is good enough. If you are using the body-front plugs, such as Fender and Ibanez S series, you may want to use the ones with the larger head-shell, which should be about three inches including the plug itself. When plugged in, the head-shell should be long enough for you to grab the plug comfortably and easily. The material used in construction of the head-shell also matters: some players endorse the metal head-shell; while others may prefer the injected plastic type.

The minimum cable length greatly depends on how and where you play the guitar. If you play it with the amplifier just next to it, six to ten feet (3m) is enough. In a live or even a normal jamming situation, however, you may need 20 feet (6m) or more. If you want to connect the effect units, you may want cables as short as 3 feet. Also take note of any fraying or kinked sections as the cable's durability is the best indicator of quality; some have plastic-based wrapping and others use a knitted outer shell wrapping.

"Special" guitars

There are a variety of less common guitar types. These include archtop guitars, 12-string guitars, bass guitars, and multi-neck guitars. Each kind of these special guitars has its own characteristics, which may or may not suit the playing style of the guitarist, they are usually used for specific reasons like timbre or for technical reasons. They can be expensive and difficult to maintain and play. This can deter guitarists from adopting them as their main instrument. For more information on these kinds of guitars, please see the Different Type of Guitars article.

What to look for (and what to look out for)

• The height of the strings above the fretboard is called the "action". Action can be extremely low, meaning that the strings buzz when struck, or very high, meaning that it takes much more effort to push the string down to the fret. Guitars with really high or low action could be a sign that the neck is warped. Sometimes this can be fixed, but it can be costly. It is best to buy a guitar that is set up properly.

• When a string is struck, it produces the note you hear, and also a variety of harmonic tones within the note. The harmonics give each guitar a special character to its sound, known as the "intonation". How a particular guitar's intonation sounds depends on the straightness of the neck, nut, bridge, and scale of the frets. You can quickly check if the intonation is setup properly by playing harmonics, with attention paid to the harmonics on the 12th fret. Please see the harmonics chapter for more details.

• The guitar should be played from its first to last fret on all strings, to check for fret buzz, which is undesirable. Frets buzz when the truss rod in the neck is not properly adjusted, when the saddle or nut is too short, or when the frets are not properly filed down. Sometimes strings also go slack if the guitar hasn't been played in a while.

• Stamp of Inspection. These are usually a good indicator of quality, if the stamp hasn't been forged.

• If you are buying a name brand, read reviews on places like www.amazon.com to find out what problems may develop down the road or to find problems that are common to similar types of guitar.

How to get a guitar you love

• The player's hand must fit comfortably around the neck of the guitar. A player with smaller hands may likely prefer wider necks, because the wider space between the strings allows more lenience when arching your fingers. Try as many different necks as you can to find the guitar neck that you feel comfortable with.
• The guitar should be easy to play, meaning the player can strum and move their hand up and down the neck easily without interference from the body of the guitar. The most common beginner's mistake is buying a guitar that is too large or too small.
• Look for a medium action on the frets. Enough to prevent the strings from buzzing, but not so much that the strings feel like they are miles away from the frets. Your personal playing style will usually dictate the height of the strings that you feel comfortable with.
• Check for body and neck damage. Even brand name models can get damaged in shipping, and you should always check the guitar over for cracks, warping, and chips.
• Lastly, feel free to play the guitar for a few minutes. Appearances can be deceiving, and most problems will show themselves quickly with a "test drive". If the seller won't allow it, move on.

Buying the guitar

Where to buy the guitar

In this day and age guitars are sold by many vendors and the place you choose to acquire the guitar can be as important as any other choice you make. A good places to look:

• A trusted friend or relative - often a friend or relative who started with a beginner guitar and has since upgraded. If they recommend that guitar and will sell it for a good price then this is ideal. Simply take this guitar to a local music store and have it professionally 'set up'.
• A local guitar or music store that seems to have plenty of satisfied customers. If you can find a deal on a guitar you are comfortable with from a store like this, go for it. If they tell you that they do 'set up' their guitars before they leave the store then this is a good buying scenario. Look up 'musical instrument retail' in the phone book to find one of these stores. Even a used instrument from a local store can be a good deal.
• Online guitar superstores or mail-order guitars. The major difference between these and a local store is that the player cannot hold the guitar in their hands before they buy it. Luckily the necks of guitars come in all shapes and sizes. An uncomfortable guitar is less likely to get played, so contact a local music store and try to find a similar guitar to try before you buy. If you must buy without ever seeing the guitar, first verify that the business has a liberal and long (preferably 45-day) return policy, then cross your fingers and order. If the return policy works and the guitar didn't fit, you could send it back for the cost of the shipping.

Buying situations to avoid

Here are some "don'ts". While you may buy a guitar at a very low price, it is easy to get stuck with an unplayable piece of wood.

• Don't buy from a pawn shop until you are experienced at spotting faults (possible undetectable damage, often no refunds)
• Don't buy from any department store (difficult to play, damage easily, don't last, poor sound)
• Be careful buying from eBay (undeclared damage, possible forgery, usually no refunds. Read the sellers ratings.)
• Preferably, don't buy from online shops, unless you can return it in 45 days. Even some very good makes may have some deviations, and even good quality guitars from well established manufacturers may not suit the player no matter how good they sound on paper. Some people prefer wider necks, while some prefer narrower necks, and the only way to know whether the guitar is for you is to play it yourself.

What else will you need?

Once you've chosen the guitar there are accessories the dealer will want to sell you. You will probably need:

• Guitar strap to enable the player to play standing up. Make sure that it can be shortened and lengthened appropriately, as some models cannot be short enough for a short person to play, or long enough for a big guy to play.
• Plastic strap lock. Washer made out of durable plastic that can be fitted over the strap buttons and have the hole shrunken to a smaller diameter, creating enough friction to ensure the strap stays on.
• Some picks (Get at least 5, some thin ones for strumming and some thick ones for playing individual notes.
• Thumb and finger picks: while on a nylon string guitar it is not necessary, but on a steel string, finger picking without finger picks will produce a quieter less pronounced sound. Playing steel string with your bare fingers takes practice and presents a more physical challenge. A thumbpick is a good idea in that it frees the rest of the fingers of the hand for other stuff, such as holding the whammy bar or an e-bow.
• A guitar stand to set the guitar on when its not being played, or a guitar hanger to hang the guitar on the wall. The stand should be of the best quality since the guitar falling of the stand is the most common cause of cracks to the body.
• A tuner of some kind - preferably an electronic one with a built-in microphone and guitar cable plug. Especially important for beginners learning to tune the guitar. Buy a good quality brand at the highest cost you can afford. The market is flooded with cheap guitar tuners that do a terrible job and the beginner is advised to avoid these They come in two display types: LED and floating needle. The floating needle type is recommended since it accurately displays the oscillations of a struck string.
• A case or a gig bag - These are protection for the guitar. A Gig Bag is typically a thick padded (1-2" of padding) zipper bag in the shape of the guitar which provides good protection and is necessary to avoid large scrapes and dings. A gig bag is not suitable for airline transportation. The case is a hardshell case suitable for greater protection and one that is ATA-approved even allows you to transport it in an airplane's cargo hold (make sure it is ATA approved!) If you are fine with scrapes and dings or you do not plan on transporting the guitar often, a case might not be necessary. Keep in mind that the case helps protect your guitar from sudden temperature and humidity changes, which can harm the wood.
• A string winder — very useful for changing strings. It's cheap, so may as well as get one now.
• Fine Polishing cloth - either one made for polishing guitars, or those used to wipe glasses. Fabric from an old flannel shirt works well too. Be sure to use 100% cotton.
• You will immediately need an extra set of strings at the time of purchase. Not only will this allow you to find out from the shop which gauge and make of strings is recommended for your guitar but will also give you a set of strings ready for the removal of the old strings in about 2 months time or 30 to 40 hours playing time later. Old strings start to lose their tone and become brittle and they will also show corrosion and discoloration. All professional guitarist have spare sets of strings close at hand for quick changes and if you don't mind the extra cost this is something you should do . Changing old strings is not an absolute necessity unless they break, so if your budget is tight, don't buy too many packs. Also, the difference between the cheaper and more expensive strings is subtle at best, so as long as it is the right gauge, you are good to go. Some people do not like the sound of new strings, which can be "bright and metallic", but this is a matter of preference.

What you don't need:

• You don't need guitar polish. While you should always polish your guitar from time to time, most of the time the polish is mostly water with traces of lemon oil. As long as you have a small spray of water or just a quick dab on the cloth, it's good enough. Besides, what kind of polish is good is a matter of debate amongst guitarists.

Guitar dealers have a slower turnover of stock than most other businesses. Once a player has purchased a guitar it can be many years before they purchase another guitar. This means that the overheads and cost of running an outlet that sells guitars is reflected in the dealer's sale price of the guitar. However, prices are negotiable (consider saying "I've been thinking about this item; what's your best price?"). Most of the accessories (including a gig bag) can be thrown in for free. Just tell a salesperson that you want to buy a guitar and they will probably start suggesting things they can throw in for free, and if not, you can suggest some accessories yourself. The hardshell case is usually an exception. Don't forget to calculate the any sales tax on top of that. For example, dealers will rarely, if ever, bring down the price of the cheaper guitars, but are more than willing to throw in extra accessories with the purchase of a guitar. They will sometimes even offer to set it up for you. Also look for beginner-packs; these include most things a beginner would need to start off with and you will end up saving more money than if you had planned on buying those things separately.

All guitars require some maintenance over time since wood changes with air-pressure and humidity. However, this does not mean you need a humidifier, unless your guitar is very expensive or rare. Guitars at all price ranges are quite resilient to humidity and air pressure changes.

For an electric guitar, the player has many options in their choice of practice equipment. With a special plug the player can even plug into a home stereo input but that's not an ideal scenario since the sound is not that good and there's also the risk of blowing your home stereo speakers. If you want to sound like your favorite electric guitarist, an amplifier of the sort they use will obviously be necessary. Find out if your favorite guitarist uses a valve or solid state amp. Buying an electric guitar with no amplifier can be a way to get a good guitar without spending too much at first.

Another good substitute for an amplifier can be playing the guitar through a mixer or computer's sound card (especially a sound card or audio interface designed for recording guitar, like those made by M-Audio). There is a large amount of guitar effects software available; these use amplifier modeling and a wide range of effects combinations to create a simulation of the most popular guitar rigs. Amplitude and Guitar Rig are two popular guitar effects modeling software packages. Also, as mentioned in the buying an amplifier article, you can buy a direct box which has been designed for amplifier modeling and because it is a dedicated piece of hardware offers even more accurate recreations of popular guitar rigs than its software equivalent. These modelers/direct boxes can also be used with a guitar amplifier as an effects unit.

External links

Buying an Amplifier

The kind of amplifier you use affects the sound of your guitar. There are several kinds of amps with many different features and it's important to make sure you pick the right kind of amp for the sound you want. So how do know what you need? The first point to understand is that everything that comes out of an amp is all due to the chain of sound. This chain refers to all the factors that comprise a rig: guitar, leads, amp, effects and your playing style. If all the links of the chain are strong then you will you achieve a good sound.

1. The first link of this chain is the player. It's the player's skill that determines the quality of the sound coming out of the guitar. A player whose technique needs improving will make the guitar sound worse then a player who has some technical skills, especially when amplified. Thus, accurate timing, clean intonation, balanced playing technique and optimal handling of the instrument determines the overall sound of the instrument. Almost all of the tone of the guitar comes from the guitarist.
2. The second link is the instrument which the player manipulates. If the guitar is set-up poorly or has old strings; no amount of amplification will help improve the sound.
3. The next link is the pickup. Pickups can sound clean, muddy, fat, or even metallic. This is especially true if you run it through a good clean channel.
4. It's only after all these do we get to the amplifier. Within the amplifier there are a few more stages itself: preamp, equalizer, effects loop, power amp and speakers; all of which contribute to the overall sound. Amps also have different internal parts (tubes, solid state, digital modeling, analog modeling) and different makes of speakers and cabinets. There's also different configurations of the internal circuits and there's always some deviations in electronic parts. All these factors affect the sound of the guitar

Selecting the Right Sound

The output tone will vary depending on the components that the amp manufacturer uses and this section will hopefully guide you through the many choices available.

Tube

Tube amps are often considered "vintage amps" because their design defined the classic sounds of the 50s, 60s, and 70s. The words, "warm, fat tone", are used to describe the jazz, blues, rock and early metal guitar sound of these decades and this is encompassed by the term "vintage amp" – the sound of Hendrix, Led Zeppelin, Eric Clapton, and Deep Purple. Most analog devices have a slight compression that is dependent upon pick attack and this smooths out the attack envelope of the notes being played; which is more suitable for blues and jazz than hard rock. These sounds can only be created by tubes and though old amps from these decades are still available to buy they may be expensive and costly to maintain due to part failure. New amps that are copies of the original vintage amps are available to buy. Examples of these include the Fender Bassman Reissue, Epiphone Valve Junior and Marshall JMP100.

Tubes amps have a very organic tone and are sensitive to their input signal. The harder you dig in with your pick, the more they tend to break up and distort. The softer you strum, the warmer and breathier they appear to sound. This is known as touch sensitivity. Multiple preamp gain stages can sometimes push an amp to the point where you do not hear the pick attack on the string. Finding a balance where pick attack and sustain are clearly articulated is the sign of a superior matched preamp and power section. With a great tube amp, the subtle changes you make with your pick and finger pressure can be heard so that you can create your own identifiable style.

Of course, tube amps are not without drawbacks:

• A tube is based on vacuum technology and requires more energy given the same wattage as a solid state amp.
• Vacuum tubes are expensive and require replacement every one to four years, depending on use.
• Due to the need for a transformer on the power amp, amplifiers using tubes are generally heavier.
• Tube amps are also more expensive to buy than a solid state amplifier. An Epiphone Valve Junior Combo with only a volume knob and one input and one speaker is even more expensive than a Traynor DynaGain 30D (A very good analog modeling amp) by $50 CDN.
• Tubes require a warm-up period before they sound their best.

Within tube amplifiers, there are also three different types of operation: Class A, Class AB and Class B. However, Class B is virtually never used in guitar amplifiers and so will not be discussed.

• True Class A works by having the power tubes running at full power, reguardless of actual sound output. Class A is charecterized by a smoother, sweeter distortion. Most class A amplifiers use a single output tube. Thus, the wattage is generally low, as class A by itself is inefficient. Furthermore, the fact that current constantly flow into the tube will make the tube have a shorter lifespan. Due to the low efficency, mostly only low wattage amplifier, such as Epiphone valve junior or Fender champion 600 use true class A; the typically wattage, is no higher than 5-7watt RMS per power tube.
• Class A can also use a pair or a quad of tubes for more power. A good example of this is the VOX AC-30 or Orange Tiny Terror. These amps, while still Class A, have the tubes operating in opposing pairs, called Push-Pull. Typically, when the power tubes are cathode biased, they are labeled as class A.
• Class AB work by using a pair of tubes, with one always working for the "positive" voltage and another always for "negative" voltage. Due to the nature, class AB is thus more efficent, and has slightly longer tube life. It also have more headroom if needed. Class AB has a different sound than Class A. Class AB, by being push-pull, has less distortion and has a cleaner tone at lower volumes. When pushed into overdrive, it will have a more abrupt transition into distortion than class A. Marshall, as well as many other high power amplifiers, use class AB. In fact, most of the famous Fender amplifiers are class AB.

Both are respectable to even the most hardcore tube enthusiast. However, most will agree that tonally, class AB is less dynamic, and thus is less suited for blues and jazz, but good for high-gain guitar styles, such as hard rock or metal.

Solid State

While it is debatable when solid state amps became most popular, typically it is associated with a hard rock sound. Some attribute this to Eddie Van Halen and his modified Marshall, which allow him to have more gain, and deliver a more in-your-face tone and volume when overdriven. Solid-state amps also have a fast attack time, where the note is immediately present when strumming. They also have the benefit of not needing to warm up, unlike tube amps, which requires 15-30 seconds minimum to play and 30 minutes to an hour to sound their best. This means you can just plug and play.

When played cleanly, solid-state circuitry provides a powerful sound, making it very suitable for jazz or acoustic music. Solid state provides a wide-frequency reproduction, especially with large speakers that provide a full bottom and smooth high end. Examples would be Fender's Jazz-King and Steel-king and the most famous jazz amplifier, the Polytone Mini-Brute. A good quality solid-state amplifier can still provide richness, depth, warmth, color, and dynamics. Those that use FET transistors on the preamp stage are considered to reproduce all these desirable characteristics. Solid-state lends itself to guitar styles that use effects combined with the cleaness of the signal.

Solid state amps are effective because they can take very high gain, and this is used most effectively in heavy genres, especially metal; this is because that at a certain distortion level, solid state amplifier allow a lot of tight Bottom end.. Breaking from the traditional Marshall tube stacks, more and more metal musicians discover the benefits of pure solid-state amplifier, especially those with no build in modeling. Examples of such amps are the Randall Warhead and Fender MetalHead, which at high voltage provide much more gain than its tube equivalent. Basically, they emphasized upon the philosophy of "going to 11", with extreme distortion and extreme loudness. Playing this kind of ultra-high gain amps require a pair of earplug, especially at high volumes.

The most important benefit of Solid State is simple: it's smaller, lighter, and cheaper. Examples of these include Crate's CPB150, Fender's Ultralight Series, and ZT Lunchbox. All these are less than 10lb but output more than 150 clean RMS sound, and with proper pedals will sound well as a backup amp.

Modeling

A deviation of solid state that attempts to mimic the gain-compression on a Valve-based amp, it is basically a combination of a very clean power amplifier and a tone modeling unit producing most of the tone. Some may consider this as the swiss-army knife of amplifier. The best of these amps can roughly mimic the sound of many other units with acceptable accuracy, and quite often than not also have cool effects that make even bad guitarists sound acceptable - delay, chorus, flanger, reverb, etc. Again, there's no substitute for skill.

There are basically three kinds: Analog circuitry, Dedicate DSP, and modeling processor (typically also have many digital effects onboard). Analog circuitry and dedicated DSP are typically the best kind, while modeling processors seems to have a bit of a lag between your pick attack and the sound produced, and you should test one carefully before buying it.

Hybrid

Another attempt to provide a valve sound with a solid-state speed is to use a Hybrid approach, which have the following configurations:

• Tube preamp, solid state power amp
• Solid state preamp, tube power amp

"Solid state" here also include modeling, be it analog or DSP.

Typically, metal players prefer the tube preamp with solid state power amp, believing that it would provide the tube tone with a fast attack. However, in numerous blind test^[1][2], one cannot differentiate between a tube preamp and a solid state preamp, but it is easy to spot whether it is tube or solid state in the power amp. Thus, it was said that one that use tube preamp is no different from a normal solid state power amp, while a well made tube power amp is as good as a true tube amplifier. This is another reason why more and more metal player prefer complete a solid state amplifier with very high wattage.

When using a solid state preamp, particularly of modeling preamp, it provides the versatility of high gain sound while allowing power tube distortion that actually makes it warm and fat with compression of the sound. However, some believe without any tube preamp gain, it will be less warm compare to a true tube preamp.

In order to counteract the aforemention deficiency, a recent trend is to include both a tube preamp and a tube power amp, and couple this with solid-state circuitry. There are two approaches to this:

• all-in-one single-tube circuitry containing both tube preamp and tube power amp, between solid-state preamp and solid state power amp. this is employed in the Vox Valvetronix system. As it typically use a dual-triode tubes, usually designed only as a preamp and not power amp purpose, it is often questionable whether this provide the necessary tube gain.
• Provide some tube preamp gain before feeding into the tube power section, with at least one triode gain stage. Example includes Line 6's Spider Valve, and Fender's Champ XD series; as both are coupled with a modeller, such scheme provide traditional tube sound while having versatility of a modeler.

Physical size

Just because you can afford to have a very powerful amplifier (in both money and wattage) does not imply you should get said amplifier. A problem for the traveling musician is that you can be very limited by your amp size. For a high wattage, you will have to pick up a big amplifier that can be too cumbersome to carry, while a small enough amplifier may be bad for even a normal jamming section, let alone gigging.

Also, consider your practicing space as well. For example, if you live in a small apartment, you may have to get a smaller and weaker amplifier. Aside from obvious quieter sound, the smaller physical space available may also make storing even a full size 1x12 amplifier difficult.

In another example, Traynor's TRM30 (1 x 10" x 30w) and TRM40 (2 x 8" x 20w ) are both good audition amplifiers. However, the TRM30 is taller, while TRM40 is wider. Furthermore, TRM30 is at 21 pounds, while the TRM40 is at 34 pounds, about one and a half times as heavy. Considering that some people may have to carry their entire recording setup — a laptop, effect units, guitar— the slight difference in mass and dimension may make the difference in the ease of carry.

(Sidenote: If you do have to carry a guitar, amplifier, laptop, and school stuff, get a 5 watt amplifier, such as Vox DA5 or Epiphone Valve Junior. It's small enough to be carried, and as long as your jam buddy understand, it's still loud enough somewhat. Otherwise, just bear with the weight.)

Typical features of an amp

Essential

• Input - where you guitar cable goes in
• Power - turn it off and on
• Volume - adjusts the volume, and at higher levels, how much distortion
• Speaker or Speaker out - where the sound comes out. For speaker out, never plug in a speaker out port with a speaker that has different ohms than what's labeld on the jack (eg, 4 ohm or 16ohm into 8 ohm)

An amplifier that only has these is Epiphone's Valve Junior and Fender Champion 600, both are consider the cheapest new tube amps on the market.

Almost standard

• Gain — determines the amount of distortions. The higher it goes, the more overdrive it has.
• EQ / Tone - Used to control the tone of the sound. May have only 1 knob (simply general tone) or two (treble and bass), but some even have a 7 band EQ that not only control treble, midrange, and bass, but also other including prescene.
• Phone output — used to plug in headphone so you can practice in the middle of the night.
• Channel selection — most modern solid-state practice amp have two channels or more channels; one for clean signal, and one for an overdriven output. Many of the more expensive tube amps have multiple channels as well.

Other stuff

• Additional inputs: On higher end amplifiers, there could be more than one inputs. Some are merely doubling the inputs, while some may have a high and low input; low is for low impedance inputs (eg guitars with active pickup). One way to get a cleaner signal from tube amps is thus to plug into the "low" input; conversely, to get distortion earlier on, plug into the high input.
• Modeling - One way to solve the clipping problem in solid state amp is the use of DSP modeling, which allows one to play tube-like overdriven sound.
• Extra effects — some units have build in effects, such as reverb and chorus, which can be easily controlled right on the panel by one or more knobs
• Effect loop — can be a single plug (and need to be split), or separate plug as "effect send" and "effect return". Used for time-based effects (delay, chorus, looping, phase shift, and flanging), as using the effect loop will preserve the sound and effect of the amp.
• Line in, 1 or 2 — used to plug in external audio sources. they come out without passing through the preamp, and thus just louder.
• Line out - used to connect to another power amplifier or PA system.
• Speaker out - connect to another guitar speaker. Typically only found in head units, but some combo units have them too to provide flexibility in speaker choice.
• Footswitch plug — allow the use of footswitch to control internal effects, or may even select channel.
• Impedence switch (on tube amps only) - allows you to change the impedence of the speaker out jack so you can plug in speakers of different impedences.
• Standby switch (on tube amps only) - allows the tubes to warm up before turning on the high voltage required for operation. This greatly extends tube life. Also functions as a mute switch if needed.

What makes a good amp?

When you buy your amplifier, the shop owners (most who play guitar themselves) may say something along these lines:

• A tube amplifier is always better than solid state amplifier.
• Digital amp/effects are the poor man's substitute.
• A good amplifier makes all the difference in terms of artistic skill.

These are more or less true, depending on the style of music you wish to play.

A solid state amplifier can provide a good tone. In fact, many pedals that are designed to create a metallic tone is designed to use the hardclipping functions that the solid state amps provide, one thing that tube amps cannot do well. Solid state also makes for a great budget amp, as they are often many times less expensive than an otherwise equivelent tube amplifier. Also, for styles, such as heavy metal, a solid state amplifer is better suited for the edge that these players are looking for.

However, a solid state amplifier has not yet been able to recreate the dynamic feel of a tube amp. While a solid state amp can get fairly close in tone, it's many times harder to influence the tone simply by how the guitar is played. A good tube amp will distort on command when digging into the strings, while a lighter touch cleans everything up with seemingly infinite levels in between. Where as, a solid state amp usually requires adjustments to the controls in addition to playing style to have any effect on the tone.

The most important thing to remember is that many of the famous artist just make do with whatever equipment they have, which often is seen as "poor quality". Nirvana used PA amplifiers as this was all they could afford at first. Many artist started out and keep on using cheap Danelectro guitars, which use plywood for body. Hendrix is said to start out with a severely battered acoustic. Thus, in the end, the players makes the tone, and the player decide whether the tone is good or not.

Digital effects are used prominently by many big name artist running solid-state amplifiers, which provide clean tones. Some say that effects are best suited for solid state amplifiers. Ultimately, what sounds right depends on the player; after all, no matter how good a equipment, a poor player will still show his poor skill, while a good skillful player can turn even the "worst" stuff into something decent.

Keep in mind that a the bigger the amp, the more the commission the saleman makes. Remember that bigger is not always better.

Size and Wattage

How big? How many watts? How many speakers? If you are just starting out, you should think carefully about where you want to go in the future with your music, and buy appropriately. As a general rule, doubling the wattage will only increase the volume by about 3db. 3db is not a large difference, however, don't forget that these 3db may make all the difference in a loud band. Multipying the wattage by 10 (ie, 10 watts --> 100 watts) increases the volume by 10db and is perceived as doubling the volume. Many other factors effect final volume including type and amount of speakers, as well as overall tone of the amplifier. For example, doubling the amount of speakers will result in a 3db increase. As well, a really bright sounding amplifier will cut through noise better than a dark sounding amplifier so not as much power will be needed if your amp is bright. 25 watts into a 4x12 cab will be as loud at 100 watts into a 1x12 cab. This is one reason full stacks are so loud, because 100 watts into 8 12in speakers is like 800 watts into 1 12in speaker.

Speaker configuration

Your two main options are single speaker units, and multispeaker (often 2 speaker) units. Most 2 speaker amplifiers, ranging from the smallest 50 watt combo amps to the MG15MSII "Microstack" offered by Marshall, have basically have the same amplification circuit of its single-speaker siblings. Sometimes, such 2 speakers configuration may use smaller diameter speakers than their single speaker cusin (eg: 2 x 10 inch instead of 1 x 12 inch).

The main benefit of having multiple speaker is that it increases volume as well as bass response without sacrificing the higher frequencies. By having more speaker cones, the speakers will move more air. For example, a 2x10 have the surface area of 157sqin, while a 1x12 only have 113sqin. A 4x10 cab is often used for large combo amplifiers as it provides most of the bass response you'd get from a 1x15, but retains the high frequency that the 1x15 can't produce. Also, it will have increase power-handling capability, or more precisely, they split the amp output. Thus, given same amplification head, a 2 speaker configuration will have louder volume, but only half the power to each speaker. This has yet another advantage.

All else being equal, generally a low power speaker is louder at the same power as a high power speaker. This is known as efficency or sensitivity. A 25 watt speaker with a 10 watt amplifier will generally be louder than a 100 watt speaker on the same 10 watt amplifier. Thus, a multi speaker cab will allow the use of low power speakers with a high power amplifier. The original Marshall full stack used a 100 watt amplifier with 8 25 watt speakers.

Lastly, in some styles of music, such as rock and blues, the speakers sound their best when being pushed close to their max power ratings. When buying cabs for your amp, the best power rating is about 150% of your amp's rated output. 150 watt for 100 watt amp, 75 for 50, etc. Any higher and you'll actually loose volume. For harder music, pushing the speakers that hard may cause an unwanted smoothness. If money permits, buy cabs rated for 2-4 times as much as the amp.

Wattage amount

While on the surface, higher wattage means better amplifiers, in reality this isn't true. For example, many 100 watt amplifiers can be too loud when turned up high, and thus the user automatically lowers the volume and try to compensate with more gain. However, it may sound better by having a 50 watt or even 20 watt amplifier, which allows less gain but higher volume, producing the same amount of final volume. Guitar amps are a lot louder than their wattage lets on to. Some guitarists have used 5-10 watt amplifiers successfully on stage. The norm is closer to 20-50 watts. However, each amplifier has a unique tone. If volume is the only issue, consider placing a Sure SM57 mic in front of the speaker and running that through the PA. Many artists use suprisingly small amplifiers (1-5 watt) in the studio because of their more managable sound levels.

Also, due to the way tube amplifiers and solid state amplifiers distort, there is a perceived difference in loudness, with tube sounding louder given the same wattage. The truth is that both are equally loud, but the sustain on solid state amps is not as good, which results in a perceived lose of volume. If you are gong to be in high overdrive all the time, solid state amps will actually sound louder, but often more piercing.

Another question is whether you need the louder wattage. On one head, doubling wattage only increase 3db, which is not a lot in that case. On the other hand, in order to push the lower frequencies of the sound, wattage is important. This is because the idea of a good distortion, in general, is to have an amp that push as much clean bottom end into your overdriven sound as possible without getting flabby or muddy, which is what creates the hugeness of the sound. The lower in wattage that you go, the quicker your bottom end will mud out. This is not always the case.

As a rule of thumb, the amount of wattage need for Solid State amp is of follow:

• 10-30W: practice on your own.
• 30-50W: practice with a band or recording; gigging (small club)
• 50 to 100W (or more): Large Gigs (as much wattage as you ever need). Even using that 500w MetalHead amp for your blues music could be necessary.

For valves, it's a bit more complicated:

• <10W clean:, Self Practice, Recording
• <10W overdriven: Self Practice, Recording, Gigging (small club)
• 10-20W clean: Self and Band practice, Recording, Gigging (small to medium club)
• 10-20W overdriven: Band practice, Recording, Gigging (small to medium club)
• 20-30W: Band practice, Gigging
• 30-50W: Gigging
• 50W-100: Freakin loud. Please use a pair of earplugs.
• 100W+: Earthquake and noise pollution. Prepare to deal with the police.

Power Ratings

When reading an amp's rated watts (this is more the case with solid state amps), not all manufacturers adhere to a universal standard in stating the wattage. For example, an amp manufacturer may say Amp A is rated at 400 Watts. But when you go to an oscilloscope the measure its true wattage, you may find that it is only a 100 watt amp. But at several points of the sound wave it may have spiked (transients) up to 400 watts. So, the manufacturer goes with the max reading. On the other hand, more than a few 100 watt Marshalls (and other brands, I'm sure) have tested at 150 watts clean. Distortion compounds this problem. Due to the nature of distortion, tube and solid state alike, the amp might be putting out 100 watts, but the speaker sees it as 140 watts (see short explanation below). This is why it's important to buy speakers rated for more than your amplifier is rated.

RMS is .707xPeak voltage. In distortion, the sine wave becomes a square wave, resulting in a power output that is closer to the full peak voltage. A 100w RMS sine wave has peak voltage of 141.4w

Types of Unit (smallest to largest)

The combo amps is an one piece unit containing both the preamp, power amp, and the speaker(s). Typically they do not exceed more than 100 watts, are they are designed to be "relatively" portable. Most combos have just a single speaker, ranging from 6" to 15" but some have two or even four speakers. The most common is a single 12" with a pair of 12" being the next most common.

Micro/Headphone amps

Usually 1 watt, and do not exceed 10 watts. This class of amplifiers are known for their small size (no larger than a computer speaker), designed for extreme portability (such as carrying them in your guitar bag). While some may have built-in speakers, they usually cannot be heard during Jam sessions. As they are solid states and generally low wattages, if they do not utilize FET circuitry they tend to go into an unpleasant distortion very quickly. Aside from homemade solutions (such as the famous Ruby amplifier), Danelectro Honeytone and Vox amPlugs are all good choices.

DI Unit (including amp modelers)

Many "amp modelers" or "micro-amps", like the Rockman, are actually DI Unit hybrid with effect units. A DI unit transforms the unbalanced, high impedance signal from the guitar into a balanced, low impedance signal for use with a mixer; however, some desiged for use with guitar have amp modelers within them, and may have multi-effect processors for additional effects. Most often these are used with headphones, but they also allow direct input of the guitar to the mixing desk in a recording studio, while retaining some of the tone and quality of an amp. There are two kinds: analog modelers, which is most common, and digital computer modeling, such as Line6's POD 2.0.

The main benefit of using a DI unit is that they are compact, and they can get "loud enough" and have a particular tone. This is particularly true for amp modelers and "headphone amplifiers", as their embedded electronics frequently have a somewhat decent approximation of a tube amp. You can also use these in recording, or use it like a pre-amp and plug it into a larger amp for volume. Also, if you are often going to hook up to a P.A. system with your amp, these may provide a cheap option and quicker setup than a larger amp. The Behringer V-Amp 2, is a good example at less than $100 USD.

The main downfall of DI units is that they cannot completely capture the tone of a guitar amplifier. The ultimate way to connect an electric guitar to a PA is to use a microphone in front of the speaker.

Practice/Studio amps

Their wattage may range from 5 to 50, though from 30 on it's hard to say whether it is purely practice alone or can also be used for small gig (see below). Generally, they are designed to be used in a small space, because the small size demands a small space for a suitable volume for practice or recording. While they come in various size, for a solid state amplifier, one should need at least a 10-inch, suitable for jam sessions. On the other hand, if you have a 5 watt tube amplifier, most people will accept your amp in a jam session.

Small gig amplifiers

From 30 watts upward, these combo amplifiers the smallest package which is considered suitable as a stand-alone amplifier for small gigs. The standard is usually 50 or more watts of power and one 12 inch speakers, though some manufactures may use less wattages of 30 and 40, while employing more than one speakers. For tube amplifiers, even a 30 watts is enough, though with better models, sound quality of solid state amplifiers begins to approach levels acceptable to professional musicians.

Quality is always important, but perhaps even more so in the case of the 1x12 inch combo - with a good one, you'll prove the doubters wrong, but with one of the many duds, you won't be taken seriously. The 1x12 is not a big amp, and if you want to bring it to a serious audition or gig without enduring a storm of eye-rolling and chuckling, it had better stand out from the crowd. These cost about 180 to 450 USD.

While a 2x12 combo may be seen as simply an amplifier with one more speaker, the volume of air moved essentially double, and thus make it louder. Benefit of using two speaker instead of one is that it allows stereo effects. Some consider these to be the absolute minimum serious amplifier.

Busking amps

In essence, these are practice/small or gig amps that have a battery attached. Naturally, that means they are more expensive. 15 watts on average, but Pignose Hog 30 can go to 30 watts, while Vox's DA20 have 20 watts and 2x 8" speakers, and Crate's Taxi Series have some that have 50 watts with 10 inch speakers.

They will usually provide 6 to 10 hours in one charge, but also, make sure they can take AC power too when needed. Do note that they are actually quite weak in terms of overdrive. On the other hand, rock and metal music is not exactly busking music, either — soft and light music that add to the atmosphere (usually a park or something) is usually preferred, and thus, the watt are usually enough. A good one is Vox's DA series, which uses modeling processors for an approximation of a tube amp while having a small package.

Heads, Cabinets, and Stacks

One of the greatest symbol in rock and metal is the stack combination basically, it was made up of the following:

• The head: Basically the amplifier without the speakers
• The cabinets: Contain the speakers in an enclosure

Due to the fact that they are always at least two pieces (even if they can be locked together), they are bulky and not really known for their mobility.

When purchasing the two, make sure of the ohmage of the cabinet, and the power rating for the head at that ohmage. Make sure the cabs RMS rating is about the same as the head's power output at the ohmage of the cab. A head can be solid-state or tube, the latter being less durable, but sounds better and is more expensive. A good solid-state head costs 200 to 600 dollars and a good tube head costs 500 to 1400 dollars. In general, a single cab would have a 4x12 for guitar, though other arrangements, such as 1x15, a 2x12, a 4x10 or a 6x10 had also appear. A cab typically range from 250 to 650 dollars.

Low wattage

Why would someone want to make an amplififer with low wattage, which is usually 5 to 15 watts – making them practice amplifiers, but in a stack format? Some of them, such as MG15MSII by Marshall, is a mere showpiece, for people who wants to own a stack but do not have space and room for one. While they may be in a stack configuration, these low wattage solid-state heads are still nothing more than a practice amp, and depend upon who you are talking to, they may even invoke an image of wannabe. Then again, Zakk Wylde use a modified Marshall MS15MSII microstack (now available as Microstack Zakk Wylde edition) for his practice, which when played by the demo person (see it in Marshall theater), is quite well for a metal sound.

However, for many <20w tube amplifiers, such as Epiphone Valve Junior's Stack configurations and its numerous clones, such as Crate Blackheart BH5H, or the Marshall 20w Lead and Bass Head, it provide much flexibility that cannot be provided in a combo. A hot rodded class-A tube amp– which can go up to 16 watt RMS with 2x 6v6 and proper output trnsformer, pumped out a 4x12 cabinet, can be as loud as a 50 watt solid-state amp, and thus it provide potentials to upgrade in the future. Furthermore, by seperating the speaker from the amplifier, customizing (hotrodding) the amp is actually easier than a combo. Since pumping through more speaker produce more volume but have a softer sound, it may be even better than a fully cranked 50 watt tub amp during a performance. By seperating amplifier into two piece, it could also be easier to carry, as in the case of Orange Tiny Terror (15 watt), which comes with a shoulder bag. This is due to how human bear a load: the same piece of equipment could be very heavily or "lightweight" depend on where (on the body) and how you carry it.

Serious gig

These are the types that most people talk about, with a head unit of wattage from 50 watts that's good for a small club, to the standard 100 for large auditorium. For a small auditorium, a half stack – connecting to one 4x12 speaker cabinet– is more than enough, and still can establish creditability of seriousness.

For larger avenue, or even arena, you may run a full stack – that is, you have two 4x12 cabinets, one stacked upon another vertically. The size, however, is tremendous; when fully deployed they are as tall as a grown man, and even when disassemble, you will still need a van to carry them. In case the volume is not enough, you can either hook up to even more speakers, or better yet, use another stack as a slave.

Obviously, these are not really good for practice, as not only are they hard to transport, but also too loud. My neighbor received a notice for turning his half stack a bit too high, and I start to get uncomfortable on volume above 2.

One that is good is the Crate's PowerBlock, which is as small as a DI unit, but is actually a 150watt RMS pure solid-state goodness. Plug in any FX you want, and you will have a perfect companion for your guitar.

Unless you need extreme loudness, you probably won't need these 200+ watts amplifiers. On the other hand, that 550watt Fender MetalHead is definitely tempting (it's $900 USD), and so is the Randall Warhead (300 watts). Oh well, if you want metal, you can always just go for the Warhead Combo configuration.

On a sidenote, ALWAYS WEAR EARPLUGS when playing a full stack. In fact, MetalHead have a nice container that is designed for holding earplugs.

Head and cabinet match up

As mentioned before, a speaker out will have a certain acceptable ohmage, and you should only plug in speaker that have the same ohmage, even though larger amount of ohmage is also somewhat acceptable (eg: a 8ohm plug can only accept 8ohm or 16 ohm) Pluggin a speaker with less acceptable ohmage will burn your amp.

Furthermore,having more speaker only increasing the volume somewhat; using a 5w to push a 4x12 cab will be slightly louder than 1x12, as you can push more watt thropugh such cab, and you'll have a broader tone, with the sound thicker and fuller. However, to actually increase the volume, you do need more wattage into the amp

No amp here!

One of the iconic image of heavy rock and metal is a "Wall of Marshall" standing behind the entertainer. However, chances are that only 4 of these speakers (a double stack) are real, if at all. Some artists may even use amp modelers in secret. Brian May, for example, uses only 6 Vox AC30s even though he has a "Wall of Vox"

In fact, as howstuffworks pointed out, when you have a PA system, you are more likely to run amp modelers into it.

Rack-Mounted Products

The rack mount units is the ultimate setups for live arena playing, which offer maximum controls of the tone without sacrificing the tone. As named, these units are mounted on standard 19-inch racks, and as they are in separate components, the guitarist can select the tone they want, as well as decide how the things are wired up, in a nice organized package.

As mentioned, rack mounted products are made up of many individual components, such as a pre-amp unit, equalizer, speaker/cabinet simulators, power amplifiers, power unit, and even tuners, MIDI switchers, and etc. As these are individual components, they allow multiple distinct sound chains that may share some components and branch off for some other tones, as well as numerous routing options that can be more complex than those offered by a standard stack setup. This provide the benefits of providing the desired tones that can be stereo or mono.

Quite commonly, these are all controlled by a MIDI pedal, plugged into the MIDI switcher.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Rack Rigs

MIDI and USB

Tips

• Like Guitar, buy it with not what the others said, but by your own judgement. Sound easier said then done, though: for example, the review for the MS15MSII (you can see it on Marshall's website) is very different from those user reviews on Harmony Central. If you want a more honest opinion, get the user reviews.
• Different players will have different taste. Dimebag and Maximum the Hormone use solid state amplifiers, which is often seen as cheap junks for most blues and rock players. Then again, most people dislike Metal, so...
• Better to buy a good quality amplifier than to buy one that's cheap; there are actually better long term investment in this case.
• For most beginners, a 15 watt solid state amp, or a 1 watt true tube amp, will be more than enough for your bedroom and small gigs.

References

[1]

Setting up the Guitar

Advances in guitar manufacturing has solved many of the problems associated with tuning the guitar though guitars are still extremely sensitive to their environment. If you tune a guitar in a room with a certain temperature and humidity and then take the guitar into another room that is hotter or colder with a different humidity then your guitar may go out of tune. When the guitar experiences a change in humidity or temperature, it causes the wood and strings to expand or contract. It is best to let a guitar acclimatise itself in the room in which it will be played and then make adjustments and tune it. Extreme changes in humidity or temperature can damage your guitar with warping; especially in the neck area. If you have a guitar neck that is warped then some structural aspects of the guitar can be adjusted. The neck, fretboard or truss rod can be adjusted and this may solve some warping problems. See the Adjusting the Guitar appendix.

When new strings have been put on a guitar they will often fall out of tune very easily. New strings will stretch until they reach a point where their elasticity diminishes and then they will remain at the correct tension and frequency; strings need to be broken in. It will take time to work all the slack out of the strings but the process can be sped up. Put on new strings and tune to just below concert pitch using an Electronic guitar tuner. Then pull each string an inch away from the fretboard and this will instantly put them out of tune. Use your Electronic guitar tuner to re-tune the strings to just below concert pitch and repeat the process. After a while the slack should be gone from the strings and the guitar can be tuned to concert pitch and should stay in tune.

Modern instruments use equal temperament tuning and the guitar is no exception. Equal temperament tuning was first proposed in the Baroque period because of the problem of certain intervals sounding out of tune. Using equal temperament means that the effect of the Pythagorean Comma is reduced.

Tuning the Guitar

Sound is created by the disturbance of particles in the air. The vibrations of a struck string causes the air particles to moves in waves which the ear receives and reproduces. When a string is attached to two points, as the strings on a guitar are, then striking it causes a sound to be produced at a certain frequency. The length, thickness and tension of the string determines the pitch of the note it produces. If you had a string of a certain length and tension stretched across a wooden board which produced a known frequency (sound) and you wished to double the frequency or put another way: produce the note an octave above; then you simply halve the distance that it is stretched across and keep the same tension. This is exactly what happens on a guitar when you fret any of the open strings at the twelfth fret. Take a measuring ruler or tape and prove this law of physics for yourself.

There are many different tunings for the open strings of the guitar but the most common is known as "standard tuning" or E tuning. In standard tuning the open strings should be tuned to the notes EADGBe.

Standard tuning is often represented in a method similar to the diagram below. Note that the upper case E represents the thickest string and the lower case e represents the thinnest string. This represents how the guitar looks when a player looks down on it. For further information, please see the Tablature section.

e|-----------------------|
B|-----------------------|
G|-----------------------|
D|-----------------------|
A|-----------------------|
E|-----------------------|

To adjust the pitch of a string you turn the tuning peg. The tighter the string the higher the pitch. If a string is manufactured to sound a note at 440Hz and you turn the tuning peg until the string reaches its maximum tension; it is likely that you have put your string far above the tension it was manufactured to withstand and the chance of string breakage increases. For this reason it is important to make sure you are turning the correct peg for the string you are trying to tune and the use of an Electronic guitar tuner is recommended since it shows the frequency of the string.

Until you have developed your musical ability, it may be difficult to know exactly what a particular note should sound like. Any music store will sell tuning aids, such as tuning forks, pitch pipes and electronic tuners. These allow you to precisely tune each string to the appropriate pitch. Every guitar player should own some sort of tuning aid and new players are encouraged to purchase one as soon as they buy a guitar. Tuning aids are important because they give you the reference notes for tuning each string.

Each fret on the guitar is a half-tone. In an octave there are twelve half-tones. To find the octave of any note on the same string; move up 12 frets. Two notes are called an interval and we use intervals to tune the guitar. The first tuning method most guitarists learn is Regular Tuning.

Regular Tuning

Regular tuning is sometimes called the fifth fret method or 4-5 method. It involves getting a single string at the correct pitch and using that as a reference point for tuning the other strings. Because of this, a tuning aid is useful to ensure that the first string is properly tuned. It is best to use the open A string as the reference string . This is also the note that the Oboe sounds as a reference note (A = 440Hz) for the rest of the orchestra and it has become an international standard.

If you don't have a tuning aid then you will have to tune by ear without a reference note. This is perfectly acceptable but there is a good chance that you will not be tuned to concert pitch. Concert pitch is an internationally agreed standard that all tuning aids follow and the majority of artists use. This means that tuning to concert pitch will allow you to jam along with your favorite artist.

Begin by hitting the open A string and then the fretted (5th fret) low E string. Turn the tuning peg of the low E string up or down to bring the note into tune with the open A. You should ideally leave your finger placed on the fifth fret of the low E string as you turn the tuning peg with your other hand. When the notes are close together, you should be able to hear a very fine oscillation between them. This should get slower when the notes get closer together and should disappear entirely when they are in tune. Your ability to hear this oscillation is a skill that develops over time and you should not become discouraged if it is difficult at first. Thats the low E string in tune and now its time to tune the open D string. Fret the open A string at the fifth fret and strike the open D string. Turn the tuning peg of the open D string until it is in tune with the fretted note on the A string. Now fret the open D string at the fifth fret and tune the open G string. Note that when you are tuning the open B string, the note that is held down on the open G string is on the fourth fret On the diagram below, each string has a number that indicates the fret you play to tune.

e|-------------------0---|
B|---------------0---5---|
G|-----------0---4-------|
D|-------0---5-----------|
A|---0---5---------------|
E|---5-------------------|

It is recommended when tuning to bring the string up to its proper pitch. By tuning down to a pitch, you introduce slack into the string and it goes out of tune much faster. If the string is too high, it is best to tune it very low and then bring it back up to the correct pitch.

Harmonic tuning

Another more advanced method of tuning is called harmonic tuning. In this method you use the harmonic tones produced by a string to tune. The harmonic note lacks the fundamental and this produces a steady overtone which is more defined. It is easier to tune using harmonics because even minor changes in pitch are noticeable. Rather than actually pressing the string down to a fret, lightly touch the string without depressing it, directly above the fret. Then pluck the string and quickly remove your finger. This should produce a high pitched ringing tone known as the harmonic.

The easiest places on the string to produce a harmonic are on the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th and 12th fret. For more information, please see the Harmonics chapter of this book.

The diagram below shows the frets one must use to create the necessary harmonics for standard tuning.

e|----------------------7*---|
B|------------------0---5*---|
G|-------------7*------------|  * = Play a harmonic at this fret
D|--------7*---5*------------|
A|---7*---5*-----------------|
E|---5*-------------7*-------|

It is also to be noted that this method will not provide a perfect equal temperament tuning. It is extremely similar but many guitar players prefer the previous technique.

If there is a substantial difference in pitch when tuning via regular or harmonic, the intonation on your guitar is off. The easiest way to tell, is to perfectly tune your 12th fret harmonic with a tuner, and then fret at the twelfth. If the 12th fret is not in tune, while the harmonic is, your intonation needs adjustment.

Problems with Tuning

If you try and you try and your guitar absolutely will not go in tune, be patient and remember that even the best guitarists sometimes have trouble tuning. If the guitar has trouble staying in tune, take it to a repair shop. There may be something wrong with the neck or frets, and an experienced luthier can discover the problem. Guitar intonation tuning method.

Amplifier setup

Unless your amplifier only has the preamp control, you have many other knobs you can play with to make your guitar sound great. Before you begin setting up your amp, you should always make sure that you:

1. Set all the volume knobs and gains to its lowest setting.
2. Set the guitar volume to the lowest setting, and plug it into the amplifier. Always plug in before you turn the amp on, so you do not make it "pop".
3. Turn on the amplifier. If it is a tube-based model and has the standby switch, throw it to standby mode too, to warm up the tubes.
   1. If it's a tube base model, Wait at least 15 seconds; optimally you should give it 5 minutes, especially for the large amplifiers. Otherwise skip to next part.
   2. If you have a passive pickup, plug into "high" plug. If you have an active pickup, plug into "low". If you have only one plug, just plug it in.

After this, there are three main ways that have been used.

Method 1:

1. Bring the guitar's volume knob somewhere between low volume and medium. Play a chord
2. Begin to bring amplifier master volume up (if you have one), then channel volume, then gain up, to 5. This should be your basis for setting up. If it's too loud, bring down the volume, and if not enough distortion, bring up the gain.

Method 2:

1. Bring the amplifier's gain and volume to 11
2. Tweak the volume with the guitar volume knob. If there are too much distortion bring down the gain.

Method 3:

1. Bring the guitar volume knob to its max.
2. Gradually bring up the volume on the amplifier. You should not need to bring it above 2.
3. Bring up the gain; bring down the volume when needed.

Aside from the gain and volume setting, you may want to tweak the EQ settings. Here's a few samples:

• Clean: Clean channel; Gain 1-5; bass 5, mid 5, treble 5
• Blues: Overdrive channel; Gain 5; bass 7, mid 3, treble 5
• Metal: Overdrive channel; Gain 11; bass 11; mid 2; treble 7

When you have finish playing, turn all the knobs to the lowest settings first. If it's a tube amplifier, you may even need to let it cool down (either on standby or just on) for another 5 minutes.

Tremolo Bar torque

One of the first things you will have to set up on electric guitar, especially if you find the tremolo bar keeps falling toward the ground. There are a few different methods.

• On a low end models like Squier Stratocaster, you just need to screw in the tremelo bar, by rotating the bar clockwise, Until it tightens up. The problem with model is that you do not have much control on the bar's position during playing.
• On other models, that you merely plug in the whammy bar, you may have a capscrew, which you insert the bar through it into the bridge. Afterward, screw it in until tighten.
• Another approach for the plug-in whammy is to tighten with an Allen Key hole, nearby the bar's hole on the bridge. The instruction booklet will usually explain where it is, and how to tighten it.

Ideally you want the bar at a 45 degree angle toward the ground, allowing it to be easily grabbed.

Tablature

It is very important for a guitarist to learn both tablature and standard musical notation. Each has its advantages, and each conveys information the other does not. For this reason, many guitar songbooks feature both standard notation and tablature; some even feature a "tab-staff" variant, where rhythm notation is combined with tablature.

Book Tabs

Book tabs are expensive, but they are usually extensive and accurate. With this kind of tab, knowing how to read sheet music is incredibly helpful, because it gives you two ways to figure out a complicated riff. And if you can't read sheet music, now is an excellent time to learn.

In addition to showing you the different notes as they are being played, tablature describes how the notes are played on the guitar by indicating the correct strings and frets. Below is an example of a simple melody done in the style you find in store bought tab books.

Upper Section

The set of lines and spaces that run horizontally across the page is called the staff or stave. Notes can be written on the lines and in the spaces. A common method of remembering them is:

"Every Good Boy Deserves Food" and the word "face"

The musical alphabet starts at the letter A and ends on the letter G. We only have twelve sounds in western music and these seven letters represent them. The other five sounds are the sharps or flats of these seven notes. Each step up the staff is the next letter, so it goes A, B, C, etc. The staff is divided by vertical lines called bar-lines, which divides the staff into regular bars.

The first symbol on the first staff of a piece of music is always the clef, which in this case is the treble clef. The clef determines which notes are on what lines and what spaces, and in this case, the note in the lowest space (between the bottom line and the next line) is the note F. It is easy to remember the notes on all the spaces, because they are F A C and E, or face.

The next symbol on this example is the time signature, which indicated how many beats there are in each bar. In this case, the time signature is four-four time, which means that there are four quarter notes in each bar. Often it also indicated how many beats there are in each bar, however this is not always the case, especially for jazz pieces. Time signature represents more of the division of e written notation rather than the music itself. The tempo or style, which would be indicated at the top of a piece of sheet music would be a better indicator of how the song sounds.

Not shown in this example, is the key signature. Certain keys have a certain number of sharps and flats, represented by #'s and b's, and and each sharp or flat is shown on the respective lines and spaces after the time signature.

In this example, the first bar has 8 eighth notes, which is a dot (which indicates the note played), and a line (which indicates the notes duration). Because there are more than one eighth note played beside one another, and they span across multiple beats in the piece, they are connected by a horizontal line.

At the end of the last eighth note, there is the vertical bar line, indicating that the bar has been filled up. If some of the notes were hanging over the bar line, they would be split and the duration of the note is notated on both sides of the bar line. Bars never have more notes in them than as is indicated by the time signature. In the next bar there is a whole note, which is an oval that is not shaded in the middle.

The bar line and the thicker vertical black line mean that the piece of music has ended.

Lower Section

In the example below in the lower section, the top line represents the thinnest string of the guitar (high E), and the lowest line represents the thickest string of the guitar (low E). Each number on a line represents a fretted note on that string. The number zero is an open string, the number one is the first fret, and so on.

The tab is still divided into bar lines, but the duration of the notes is not indicated. This means you can only figure out the notes if you understand the music notation indicated in the upper section. The tabs in books are usually pretty sparse compared to the written music, and if (for whatever reason) you can not or will not learn to read sheet music, then you still have other easy options.

Online Tabs

In terms of quality, plain text will never be better than sheet music. Even when images can be used, they are often inconvenient: they take up more space and are difficult to edit. For this reason, there is a very informal and loose standard of "Internet tablature", using only ASCII characters. For example, the above tune would be written like this.

   e---0-1-3-5-3-1-0----|-----------------||
   B------------------3-|-1---------------||
   G--------------------|-----------------||
   D--------------------|-----------------||
   A--------------------|-----------------||
   E--------------------|-----------------||

As with the lower section of the book tab style, this version contains much less information than the music notation in the upper section. Without the standard notation (staff), rhythm can only be suggested by spacing, or less commonly by adding symbols above each note, such as Q for quarter note. Much Internet tablature does not even contain bar lines; timing must be discerned by listening to the original piece. This is the major flaw of online tabs, and this style of tab in general.

However, online tabs are often much more convenient than standard notation for precisely conveying a specific finger positioning. Especially with alternate tunings, this is a clear advantage. The easy access also allows for spur of the moment learning, which for printed books is limited by your local guitar shop's inventory and your wallet.

Some common symbols to appear in online tabs (and this is by far an incomplete list):

Symbol	Meaning
h or ^	hammer on
p or ^	pull off
b	bend string up
r	release bend
/	slide up
\	slide down
v or ~	vibrato
t	right hand tap
x	play 'note' with heavy damping

Chords are often written in the form:

   EADGBE  EADGBE  EADGBE
   xx0232  x32010  320003

---

There are hundreds of tabs for popular music freely available at the On-Line Guitar Archive (OLGA). These can serve as an excellent starting point for beginning guitarists.

TabWiki also has hundreds of free tabs and allows you to add and edit them as well for continual improvement.

Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar

The terms lead guitar and rhythm guitar are mildly confusing, especially to the beginner. Of course, a guitar should almost always follow some sort of rhythm, whether loose or tight. And many times guitars are very prominent in a song, where it drives the music, but is not quite lead. And sometimes the lead guitarist doesn't even play a lead part! How to untangle this mess?

The distinction is somewhat arbitrary. Many bands in contemporary music have two guitarists, where usually one would specialize in "lead" and the other in "rhythm". The Beatles are a particularly famous example. Generally leads are characterized partly by guitar solos, so any guitar playing a solo is a lead. A more accurate description is that a lead part contributes more to melody than to accompaniment, which is carried by the rhythm guitar. Lead guitar uses few or no chords, but most of the time it is following a chord structure.

It is important to realize that lead guitar and rhythm guitar fit into two different parts of a band, but it just happens that they are played on the same instrument. Lead guitar provides a solo voice, and is grouped with the lead vocals, lead piano, etc. Rhythm guitar is part of the underlying rhythm section, along with instruments like bass, drums, sometimes piano, backup vocals, etc. Generally speaking, the rhythm provides the groove of the song, while lead provides the melody.

However, these distinctions get fuzzy, especially when lead guitarists begin to add in chords and double-stops into their riffs. In some cases, a single guitar part provides both the melody and accompaniment (especially power chord riffs, commonly found in rock and metal, and finger picking, found in folk guitar).

Some bands (often three pieces bands) feature a single guitarist who can act as either, by either assuming one role at a time or, in a recording studio, recording a lead track over their own rhythm track. For example, the band Dire Straits has been in both situations: in the early days, David Knopfler played rhythm while Mark Knopfler played lead. When David left, Mark usually played both parts on studio albums, and hired another guitarist to play rhythm for live shows. Some guitarists reached such technical proficiency that they were able to play both parts "simultaneously". A famous example of this techinique is Jimi Hendrix, particularly on songs such like Little Wing or Voodoo Child (Slight Return).

Playing Lead Guitar

Very often, a lead guitar part is played on an electric guitar, using moderate to heavy distortion. For this reason, many amplifier manufacturers refer to their distortion channel as a lead channel. Distortion provides a more powerful sustain than a clean channel, and this is often best represented in extreme techniques like shredding and tapping, which some guitarists feel can only properly be done with distortion. Of course, lead guitar can be played on an acoustic guitar, but some techniques may not be as pronounced as on an electric.

The most common techniques for creating lead parts are bending, vibrato and slides. These provide the basic means of emphasizing notes, and allow for greater expression in the melody. Often the lead guitar may employ arpeggios or sweep picking to add depth, and the progression of the solo often mirrors the underlying rhythm guitar part.

Playing Rhythm Guitar

Rhythm guitar is characterized mostly by playing chords in patterns. Some players criticize rhythm guitar as sounding "chordy", or not being as interesting as the lead part. Although rhythm guitar does not "express" as much as the lead guitar, there is so much to be learned about chords, chord progressions and rhythm patterns, and a player is limited only by their imagination.

Rhythm guitar is just as easily played on electric or acoustic, clean or distorted. The technique is less about expressing individual notes, and more about choosing chords or chord voicings that enrich the overall sound, which may add its own expressive tone to the music.

Playing the Guitar

For Beginners

The Basics

The guitar is, and has always been, a social instrument. In all its forms, it has always been a portable, multi-stringed instrument made for public hearing. Even today, there's nothing better than hanging out with some friends and being able to strum a few songs on the guitar. And if you've just bought your first guitar, then you're in luck: you can play literally thousands of popular songs by learning just a handful of chords. But playing the guitar is more than just struggling through a half-recognizable version of some song, it also requires good technique. In this section, you will learn the basics of how to hold the guitar, use a pick, and other important fundamental techniques.

Never forget that instruction books are not a replacement for playing with other guitarists, or learning from a teacher, who are excellent sources of information and inspiration. Unfortunately, we cannot provide commercial music material for display in this book, so all lessons will either have to be original creations, or must be donated by the author. There are a great number of copyright free songs on the German wikibook project, so please feel free to translate lessons on any of those.

Also, this section, as with most guitar manuals, is written with right handed players in mind. Left handed players are encouraged to warm up their creative powers, and imagine that this wikibook has actually been written with them in mind.

Holding The Guitar

The guitar can be played in many positions, but some positions are clearly more efficient than others. The choice of position is personal, but clear guidelines exist. Some basic considerations in determining a chosen playing position include:

• the physical stability of the instrument
• ensuring the freedom of both hands such that they have thorough access to the instrument and can meet all technical demands without having to support the instrument
• elimination of general muscular tension in the assumed body position. While it is natural for a beginner to experience fatigue in the muscles of his hands and arms, you must be careful to sit straight and not cause damage to your spine and waist. If you do experience pain in those regions it is possible that the position is harmful and must be changed to prevent damage.

Many beginners try and turn the guitar towards themselves, so they can look down at the frets and soundhole. Curling the guitar towards yourself in such a way actually makes it more difficult to fret the strings efficiently, because you have to curl your wrist more. This tension can be harmful. Beginners are also often inclined to put their elbow too high or low, which leads to cramping. Ideally your arm and shoulder should be relaxed.

It may take a beginner several weeks until holding the guitar feels comfortable and natural. By using efficient hand positions and not straining, the muscles in the arm and hands will get stronger. If you ever feel pain you should immediately stop and ascertain the cause of pain before continuing. Sometimes discomfort is due merely to fatigue and a period of rest will be all that is required.

Sitting

Classical Style

Sit up straight on a chair or stool, with your left foot on a footrest approximately 10-20 cm in height. Place the waist of your guitar on your left thigh. Rest your right forearm on the top front edge of the guitar's lower bout so that it is comfortable and allows you to easily strum the strings over the soundhole. The guitar headstock should approximately be at head level, which corresponds to an inclination of the guitar neck of about 45 degrees. Your left hand should be presented to the guitar neck and fretboard such that the thumb is behind the neck and all three segments of the fingers are forward of the edge of the fingerboard. Shoulders should be level and relaxed, and it helps to be leaning forward slightly. Most people should feel comfortable and able to stay in this position with little effort. If you cannot, something may not be right. As an alternative to using a footstool, you can use some sort of guitar support between your left leg and guitar. This also allows for good alignment of the spine and an efficient playing posture.

With your left hand, put your thumb so that it is behind the second fret. This is the most comfortable area for playing open chords. Your thumb should not extend over the edge of the fretboard and touch the E string.

Classical Style: End

Electric Guitar

For aesthetic reasons many rock performers hold the electric guitar lower than an acoustic. The neck is held very horizontally, rather than at a 45 degree angle. Such a posture severely compromises left hand function and has no technical advantages over using a higher position.

Lapsteel or Hawaiian guitar

With these styles, the guitar is played horizontally, so the frets and strings point upwards. Some skilled players can fret notes and play chords by pressing down on the strings, but more often these guitars are played with a slide.

Standing

If you have a guitar strap, available from any guitar store for a few dollars, then you can also learn to play standing. This is useful if you plan on playing in a band. If you have a heavy guitar a broad guitar strap is often more comfortable than a thin strap. To attach a strap, there should be a hole in each end that you can put over two pins, usually fitted on the endblock of the guitar and where the neck meets the body. Many acoustic guitars only have one pin on the end block, and straps must be attached under the strings above the nut on the headstock. However, this sometimes makes it difficult for keep the guitar at an optimum height and can cause shoulder strain. You can usually install a second pin where the neck meets the body, but you should be careful or you might damage (and devalue) your guitar.

With the strap attached to the guitar, sling it so that it hangs around your neck on your left shoulder. You can usually adjust the height of the guitar, but the exact method depends on each strap. The length of the strap depends on your preferences, but you can use the same guidelines in found in the previous section. Some professionals that have their guitar hanging down at their knees, and others that have keep it under their shoulders. Neither of these extremes are recommended for a beginner.

Using the Picking Hand

Please see the Picking and Plucking section for more information.

Much of the "feel" of a guitar style comes from the way the strings are hit. Since there are many different techniques, and often they defy explanation, it is difficult to explain all but the most basic techniques. How a player hits the strings is something they must discover for themselves.

In order to advance with the guitar, it is very important to properly use your picking, or impact hand. This should almost always be your dominant hand, so if you are right handed, you would use your right hand for your picking hand, and vice versa for left handed people. This hand should always be loose, because if it is not, the strings can sound clunky.

Your hand should "float" at a comfortable height above the sound hole, and you should be keeping your wrist straight or slightly bent. You should always be ready for movement in either direction, and your wrist should not touch the strings as you are strumming (unless you are doing some sort of muting technique). You can use your fourth finger to brace against your guitar, but this is considered bad in the long term; this is like a crutch, and you are limiting the potential you can get from practicing with your whole arm. For example, even though the brace will let you pick notes faster, it sometimes limit your ability to play complex rhythms using chords. While it might be good to practice using your fourth finger for a brace sometimes, you will become a better guitar player if you don't brace yourself like that.

It doesn't matter if you are using a pick or just your fingernails, whenever your impact hand hits the strings, the type of hit can be changed based on the tension of your upper finger joints. This is the area to pay attention, because slight variations in pressure and speed can make distinctly different sounds.

Fingers

The fingers can be used in two main ways, through finger picking or strumming through chords like using a pick. There are several styles of finger picking, such as Travis picking, where you only use the thumb and first finger, and other styles where you use three, four or all five fingers.

Using a Pick

Hold the pick in between your first finger and your thumb. Don't pinch it, hold it firm but loose, with the pick flat in between the side of your first finger and the bottom of your thumb. Your thumb should be in line with the first segment of the first finger, with the pick firmly (but not tightly) between. When you pick, your wrist should be loose, and the main motion comes from your wrist for picking on one string, and you should use the Elbow for crossing strings. Similarly, when you strum, make sure to use your forearm and not your wrist for strength. Your wrist should be loose enough, but controlled, and the power should come from your forearm.

It is helpful to imagine the pick like a small bird between your thumb and finger; you do not want it to fly away, and you do not want to crush it.

Using the Fretboard

The most important things to remember when playing are to keep your hand loose, avoid unnecessary movements and finger spreading, and not to smother the strings. Having good flexibility in your hand is one thing, but trying to reach too far can be exhausting. Keep your fingers tight together, but not cramped. In general, when playing acoustic instruments you should always use the tips of your left hand fingers and not the pads to press the strings. If you use the pads, you risk muffling the sound coming from adjacent strings, which may be required to be heard. The greater sustaining properties of electric guitars often requires that such strings be damped so this rule does not always apply. Ideally your left elbow should be extended from your body, and your left hand should curl in towards your body. Your fingers should be like little hammers hitting down on the strings, and this way you will use the tips to push the strings down into the frets.

Regardless of where you are playing on the fretboard, you always have to make sure that you're pressing down in the best spot to get the best sound. You should always be fretting down the string slightly behind the fret of the note you want to play. Press the string down firmly to the fretboard, close to the metal fret. If the finger is too far away from the fret, then the pressure is not sufficient to press the string down completely on the frets, and the note will buzz. If you are pressing too close to the fret you will sometimes accidentally play a note too high. You'll have to practice to get the right amount of pressure to use and the right distance at which to hold your arm.

Chords

Please see the Chords section for more information

A chord is defined as three or more different notes sounded at the same time. Ability to play chords is a basic requirement of most guitar music. There are many different types of chords, and each type has its own sound. Other things about the guitar affect how a chord sounds.

Generally, playing chords involve pressing several (and sometimes all) the strings down on the frets. Sometimes this can be very tough for beginners until their muscles develop. Often a beginner will find that when playing a chord, not all the strings are being pressed down properly, and some strings sound dead. It is important to make sure that all the strings ring out, which can be tested by picking up and down a chord, and adjust your fingers when needed. It doesn't matter how fast or loud you can play, if your chords are not fretted properly you will sound terrible.

Some players use their thumbs to play the low E string. They do this by turning their fretting hand slightly out and squeezing the thumb down on the string. Players with long thumbs can play on the low E and A strings. This technique compromises efficient left hand function as the wrist and hand have to undertake significant re-adjustment in order present the thumb to the string in such a manner and then to return the hand to its standard presentation. Additionally the tips of the fingers can no longer be presented vertically to the strings. The technique is not recommended for beginners who wish to maximise their technical abilities.

Your hand is in a different position depending on whether you are playing an open chord or a barre chord.

Melody

When a player is first starting out, it is not their ability to make melodies causing problems, it is a lack of skill in their hands. Many people can whistle or hum a melody, but have difficulty translating that to the fretboard. Learning the sound of different intervals between notes takes time and patience.

The best way to learn how to carry a melody on the guitar is simply to keep practicing. Unfortunately there is no secret to being a good player, you simply have to practice and learn for yourself. This is good though, because even if there was some secret, if everyone did the same thing, then all the music would sound the same. For general advice about learning about melody, see the Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar page

Coordinating Your Hands

Truly great guitar playing comes from the unison of the left and right hand. Unless both hands are connecting with the strings at the proper time, your playing will sound sloppy.

What's Next?

Now that you have some basic control over the guitar, you're ready to start playing. A good place to begin is by exploring some of the other styles and techniques listed on the main page. The most important thing to remember is that you become a good player by practising properly, and accurately. It is always better to learn and practice a piece slowly, and then increase your speed as your increase your skill and comfort, rather than struggling through it a few times and just considering it "learned".

Double-stops and Power Chords

For the beginning guitarist, double-stops are the next step up from playing single notes. A double-stop is two notes played at the same time. Although this term is generally reserved for bowed instruments (such as the violin and cello) and is not heard often outside of classical/formal music studies, we will use it here for convenience.

Double-stops are used in all kinds of music. The type we will describe here is primarily seen in rock/metal music. The distance between the two notes being played is known as the interval. We will describe perfect intervals here. Do not worry about why they are called "perfect" at the moment, just understand that when two notes are played at certain intervals which are perfect we call the result a power chord.

Power chords are good, because when played in the most common way, it helps you quickly learn to see where the different octave notes are on the fretboard. This improves your overall understanding of how to play notes, and builds the groundwork for understanding scales

A chord is named after its root note, which is typically the lowest note. E.g. a C chord consists of the notes C E G, with C most likely to be the lowest note. Chords may be modified by "inverting" them, which means to reorder the pitch of the notes by raising or lowering them an octave, e.g. playing a C chord as E G C, which would be named C\E. However, the general rule of thumb among guitarists is to refer to a chord by its lowest note. For details on variations, please see the chords section.

A basic understanding of tablature is essential for understanding this, and most other sections of this book.

Power Chords

Perfect fourths (e.g., C-F) and perfect fifths (e.g., C-G) and are the most consonant interval on the guitar (and in all of music for that matter), not counting unison and octaves. For this reason, playing a perfect fourth or fifth is often called a power chord.

It is difficult to play the octave for a root note on the D string, because the B string is tuned differently than the other strings, and you will need to stretch further to reach the octave. Power chords are most commonly played on the thicker strings, and many songs exclusively use perfect fifth power chords.

Perfect Fifths

The simplest perfect fifth power chord uses the same fingering as an E minor chord, except only the thickest three strings are played. Here is the fretting for the E5 power chord:

E5 Power Chord

When you play a power chord in the open position (or any power chord), you have to be careful to mute the other strings so they do not ring out. In this case, if you also played the G string, you would be playing a full chord, not a power chord. Use your extra fingers to lightly touch the other strings, use your fretting fingers to smother the unnecessary strings, or just avoid hitting the unnecessary strings with your impact hand.

Power chords, and really any chord types, are useful because they can be moved anywhere on the neck, as long as the relationship between the notes is the same. For example, in the E5, the thickest string plays an E, the next string plays a B (which is the fifth note of any E scale), and the next string plays another E, but an octave above it.

If you take the same chord pattern, and move it up the neck to make a different power chord. For example, take the two fretted notes, then use your first finger and fret the thick E string two frets behind the others. For example, if you were fretting the E string at the third fret, you would be playing a G5 which looks like this:

G5 Power Chord

There are several different fingerings you can use to play a power chord, but it is best to choose one that lets you easily move the power chord up and down the neck.

Here are three most common fingerings for a power chord, in this case, a G5. In the second and third fingering, the two strings are barred at the fifth fret. The numbers indicate the number of finger to use. Finger #1 is the index finger, #2 the middle finger, #3 the ring finger, and finger #4 is the little finger.

   EADGBE        EADGBE        EADGBE
   ---xxx        ---xxx        ---xxx
 1 ......      1 ......      1 ......
 2 ......      2 ......      2 ......
 3 1.....      3 1.....      3 1.....
 4 ......      4 ......      4 ......
 5 .34...      5 .33...      5 .44...

Alternate Fingerings

One common variation on the power chord involved omitting the second, higher octave note. For example, a G5 without the second G would look like this:

G5 Power Chord with the octave omitted

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These tend to sound "rawer", because there is no upper octave to "round out" and thicken the power chord. They are also easier to play, because you only need two fingers. Experimenting with both types is fun and can help you learn the basic tune of a tricky song. When played with overdrive, all three of these chords sound remarkably alike, though not identical. Without overdrive they become more distinct.

Since a power chord is just playing multiple strings that produce only two tones, it is possible to play all six strings and still be playing a power chord. Some open tunings set the guitar up so that when you strum it open, it plays a power chord. Here is an example of a full G5 chord, where all strings are either playing a G or a D.

   EADGBE
   --00--
 1 ......
 2 ......
 3 1...22
 4 ......
 5 .4....

This chord can be considered a non-traditional power chord, since in popular music, power chords usually use only two or three strings. This is also a hard fingering for the beginner, but it emphasizes an important fact about double-stops: as long as you keep adding octave or unison notes, you will always be playing the same interval. Playing a non-octave or unison note will instead produce a chord.

Adding unison notes may sound different even though they are supposed to produce the same pitch. This may be because the strings have different tension or thickness. In general, the guitar's thinner strings will have a brighter, more ringing sound.

Perfect Fourths

Perfect fourths have a slightly more suspended sound than perfect fifth chords. These are exceptionally easy to play, because most of the strings on the guitar are tuned in fourths. This means that playing any two of the thickest four strings, when they are beside one another and played at the same fret. For example, a D4 is played like this:

   EADGBE
   xx00xx

These can easily be moved up the neck. For example, a G4 or a B4 would be played like this:

   EADGBE     EADGBE
  (33xxxx)   (x22xxx)

Perfect fourths are most often played without adding a top octave. This can easily be done, by adding the octave. For example:

   EADGBE     EADGBE
  (335xxx)   (x224xx)

Other Double-stops

You can play a huge variety of different intervals by playing chords, and just plucking two notes at the same time. Often you can add variety to chord strumming by playing a quick fill by playing different sections of a chord, and achieving different intervals.

Open Chords

Open chords, or open position chords, are chords that are played using only the first three frets of the guitar. This means that often many strings are being hit open, or without being fretted.

Open chords are the most common chords played on guitar, and many songs are composed using just these. They are the easiest chords for a beginner to learn, and some guitarists decide they don't need any other kind of chord. There are a wide variety of different chord types in open position, and learning about them is an important step towards mastering barre chords.

When you strum any chord, all of the correct strings should ring clearly. The sound of the fretted notes may have a slightly different tone to those of the open strings, this is normal. If any of the strings cannot be heard, check to make sure that none of your fingers are touching any of these strings. If you are accidentally muting any strings, arch your hand more and curl your fingers to ensure it is the tip of the finger pressing the string close to, but not touching, the fret. You should think of your fingers as pressing the string down into the fret, and not pushing the string back against the fretboard. If some strings are not required to be heard, they can be muted by left-hand fingers or thumb.

Major Chords

Major chords are defined by the major triad. The major triad consists of three notes which are spaced at specific intervals. In ascending order: the root, major third and perfect fifth. These intervals are also found between the first note of a major scale and the third note (major 3rd), and the first note and the fifth note (fifth). When combined they have a bright happy tone, and are often used in upbeat music.

There are 6 major chords commonly used in the open position; A, C, D, E, F and G. The standard tuning of a guitar is designed so that chords can be easily played. Beginners often find G major challenging to play and F major impossible, but this changes with practice and it is good to challenge oneself.

E Major

Many early blues songs are written with E major as the root chord. The chord contains the notes E, G#, and B, and can be played with three fingers.

Fingering 1: (o231oo)

First, place your second finger on the second fret of the fifth string. The string now plays a B note. Then, place your third finger on the second fret of the fourth string. This note is an E, which is an octave higher than the open sixth string. Finally, place your first finger on the first fret of the third string.

Fingering 2: (o321oo)

You can alternatively switch the second and third fingers.

When you strum this chord, all of the strings should ring out clearly. If any string sounds dull or muffled, check to see that you are not accidentally touching strings, and that all the strings are pressed firmly against their frets. It is important to build good technique early, as bad habits tend to linger. Make sure that your fingers are arched on your left hand, and that your thumb is positioned to give you a strong grip.

A Major

There are several ways to play A major. You should learn how to play all of them, then use the most suitable to each musical context. In an A major, the notes are A, C# and E. When playing an A, it is considered good form not to let the low E string ring out. While an E is one of the notes in the A major chord, playing an E below the other notes puts this A major in second inversion. This changes the tone of the chord, and may not achieve the desired effect.

Fingering: (xo123o)

Put your first, second, and third finger on the second fret of the fourth, third and second strings respectively. When you strum, ensure that all strings sound clear, except for the sixth string which should be muted. This is probably the most popular fingering, but is tough for people with thick fingers. (xo132o) is a variation by switching the third and fourth finger, with the first on the third string, third for fourth string and second for fifth string.

Alternatively you can finger this cord (xo112o), this requires that the first finger fret two strings (using the finger's pad rather than the tip). This leaves two fingers free and is often favoured by classical and flamenco performers, depending on musical context.

(xo234o) fingering allows for easy transition into higher position barre chords,

Finally, (xo111o) by using one of your fingers, most commonly the first or third finger, and barre the aforementioned frets. This one is tough for beginners, but easier for players with large hands. For more information on barring, see the section on barre chords.

D Major

Fingering: (xxo132)

Use your first finger on the third string, third finger on the second string, and your second finger on the first string. Be careful not to play the fifth and sixth strings, since they are not required for this chord. At first this may feel awkward, but it will be comfortable to play. Watch that you keep your thumb low when you play this chord. You can also finger this (xxo243), which will help you to later use this as a barred, movable chord shape.

G Major

three finger method

four finger method

There are two common ways to play a G major, a three finger method (Frets: 320003) and a four finger method (Frets: 320033), both with a slight difference in sonority. In either way, the notes are a combination of G, B and D. From this point forward, the fingerings will be shown in parentheses for the sake of simplicity.

Fingering 1: (32ooo4)

Put your third finger on the sixth string, second finger on the fifth string, and fourth finger on the first string. This is a favorite among beginners, and it allows for easy change to the open C major chord. Alternatively you can finger it (21ooo3), which may be easier for players with small hands or guitars with small necks and is recommended when changing to or from a open D7 chord.

Fingering 2: (21oo34)

This uses all four fingers and makes for an easy G to D major chord change. This has a more "stable" sound than the first fingering because the note played on the open B string is a D therefore avoiding the doubling of the third. Don't worry if that explanation isn't clear; just remember the difference between the two chords (one has a doubled third). The theory of chords and how they are constructed from the intervals of a scale is a subject that requires some off-the-guitar learning but with applied study can be easily understood.

C Major

Fingering: (x32o1o)

This is the most common fingering. Alternatively, you can use (x42o1o). (x32o14) or (x32o13) provide C chords with different voicings.

F Major

Fingering: (xx3211)

To play this, use the pad of your first finger, and press the first and second strings down at the first fret. You need to press firmly, or the strings will not ring out properly. Then take your second finger and put it on the third string, and put your third finger on the fourth string. The fifth and sixth strings should not be played with this chord.

Minor Chords

Minor chords use the first, third and fifth of the minor scale. They have a dark, melancholic tone and are most often used in darker music.

E Minor

Fingering: (o22ooo)

Alternatively you can finger this chord (o23ooo). For variation you can also add a G on the high E string, and play the cord using these frets: (022003).

A Minor

Fingering 1: (xo231o)

You can also finger this like (xo342o).

D Minor

Fingering 1: (xxo231)

Also often fingered using the fourth finger in the place of the third. Make sure your first finger does not "fold". If you are doing it, you will know what I mean because your first finger will hurt around the joints. The proper technique should apply to this chord just as much as any other. Keep your thumb back.

Other kinds of chords

There are a variety of other chords that can be played in open position, and often it involved taking a chord you are already familiar with and adding or removing a finger. Experimentation can yield a lot of interesting sounds, and you are only limited by you imagination when it comes to using them.

Dominant-type seventh chords

Dominant-type seventh chords are notated as A7, C7 etc. They add an extra note to a major chord. The extra note is found at an interval of a minor seventh above the root note of the chord. For example, a D chord major would contain a D, an F#, and an A making the intervals 1,3,5. A D7 adds a C to these notes resulting in 1,3,5,minor7. The minor seventh interval can be easily found by an alternative method. Take any chord, and lower one of the root notes downwards in pitch by two frets (a whole step) to locate the minor 7th. The chord will usually sound more settled if the root remains as the bass note of the chord, so a root note higher than the bass is the better choice to alter. The chords already shown above all allow you to do this. Below are some chord shapes you should know. These are only the open sevenths, which are easier than others covered in the barre chords section.

D7

(xx0212) Notice how we moved the octave D from the D major chord (third fret second string) down two frets. making it the minor 7th. That's pretty much what we are going to do with all the other 7th chords. You can take any chord and by moving one of the root notes down two frets find the minor 7th.

E7

Easy, and again, we moved the octave E down two frets.

A7

Same again.

G7

(320001) A bit unfriendly. Remember, it is not much different from a C chord shape, except you stretch more.

B7

(x21202) This one looks funny, but you will use it a lot in songs in the key of E major. Which is the natural key of the guitar.

Muting and Raking

Muting

Muting a string is simple: with the fretting hand, touch the string with a finger, but do not press it down, and strike the string. It is usually best to do this where a harmonic will not result, but strings can be muted at harmonics for special effect. In tablature, muted notes are marked with an "x" instead of a fret number. It is also common practice to mute a string with the picking hand after striking a note to create a shortened "staccato" effect. Again touching a string to mute away from harmonic nodes is advised, but sometimes pulling off into harmonics creates interesting effects.

Palm muting

Palm muting may or may not make the pitch of the string discernable. Very lightly rest the palm of the hand on or near the bridge, then fret and strike strings normally. Palm-muted notes are sometimes notated the same way as muted notes when the pitch is not discernable; otherwise fret numbers are given normally and the muted notes are marked "P.M." in tablature.

The Palm Muting Technique

The idea is not to mute the strings, but to dampen them, so that the notes are still clear, but with less sustain. To start, hold your guitar like you normally would, but let your palm brush against the strings, near the bridge. Remember to "let" the strings brush against your palm, not putting any force on the strings. The closer to the bridge, the more forgiving it is. As you get better, try adjusting the amount of muting by keeping your palm at different distances from the bridge. Very heavy palm muting can raise the pitch of the note(s), especially on guitars with a floating tremolo bar system equipped. Using or not using this effect is at the reader's discretion.

Finger Muting

You can also mute strings just by pressing your fingers against the strings, but not so hard that they are fretted and play notes.

Raking

Raking is not a kind of muting, but a technique for applying it. It is vaguely related to sweep picking, but instead of an arpeggio, the result is usually a single percussive-sounding note. (However, sweep picking is sometimes incorrectly notated as a rake in tabature, and sloppy sweep picking may accidentally become a rake.) Between two and four strings are struck, only one containing the desired note and the rest muted. Rakes may be notated in various ways; the most common way is to add muted grace notes, possibly adding the word "rake" to the tablature for clarification.

Learning Songs

Now that you've got a few chords under your belt, you're ready to start learning some songs. Great! There are several ways to learn songs, and some are more accessible than others. If you are looking for software to help you learn, please see the main page.

General Tips

There are two basic forms that appear in thousands of songs. They are the twelve bar blues and the thirty-two bar ballad. Both forms are used extensively in all genres. The blues and rock'n'roll genres both use the twelve-bar blues form and many songs by Chuck Berry, Eddie Cochran and Buddy Holly are twelve bar blues and therefore very easy to learn. If you are trying to learn a jazz standard then you will find that many of them are of the thirty-two bar form. Practising and understanding these two basic forms is essential for the guitarist who wishes to learn songs.

Practice the song slowly (especially if it's a fast song) until you can play it flawlessly. Then, when you are confident with the notes you are supposed to play, increase the speed until you can play along with the song.

Using a drum-machine or metronome when practising is recommended. An alternative method for improving timing is to play along with your favourite artists.

Methods of Learning

Sheet Music

The best way is to find sheet music for the song you are trying to learn, like a tab book, available from any guitar shop. Tab books are good, because they are almost always accurate, and they not only show the notes you're supposed to play, but they give good sense of how to play the notes. Generally they include both the rhythm and lead part, even written on the same page if they are played at the same time.

Tab books are expensive and there's a learning curve associated with fluent tab reading, especially if you have no prior knowledge of music notation. Understanding music theory, even just enough to properly (and easily) read a tab book is a challenge but not insurmountable. Being able to read music, whether it's tab or notation, will improve your playing.

Online Tab

A much quicker, cheaper and often faster way to learn is to search for an online tab of the song you're looking for. Simply type "Artist Name Song Name tab" into your favourite search engine, and "voila!", you have dozens to choose from. The online tab community is thriving, and there are many popular sites where you can find tabs for most popular songs. Some sites even feature a MIDI of the song, to make learning even easier.

There are several downside to online tab, some of which are outlined in the Tablature section. The biggest problem is lack of accuracy. Always remember that online tabs are not made by professionals like tab books, and that somewhere down the line someone was sitting at home with a CD and figured it out by trial and error. Thus, the more complicated the song, the less likely the tab you are reading is 100% accurate. But since most people don't play a song exactly as it sounds on the album (even the recording artists!), this isn't such a big deal.

Another down side is that there is a huge amount of stealing in the community, and if you are looking for an obscure tab, you might only find one actual tab, with copies of it on every site you visit. Some sites allow for multiple versions, and some use voting or comments to give you a sense of how accurate the tab is. However, don't let voting alone determine which tab you read, because if the people who vote don't know how to play the song either, then they might vote a terrible tab really high. In general, you should read two or three tabs for a song, and then from that determine how you intend to play the song. Comments on a song can contain slight revisions or alternate fingerings for chords, so it is good to check those out.

By Ear

Songs can also be learned "by ear", with no sheet music. Essentially you just listen to the song and try to figure it out, with nothing for reference. Knowledge of music theory is particularly helpful for this method. It probably sounds a lot harder to learn this way than it is, but it is a really good way to practice whatever music knowledge you have. And it is especially rewarding being able to figure out a famous musicians piece and saying "I could have made that up!"

First, you should always try and figure out the key (or scale) the song is in. Knowing the key essentially tells you two important things; what the root notes are of the chords they are playing, and the scale that is used for soloing. When you know the scale, you can also probably figure out which scale degree is supposed to be major or minor.

To figure out the key, try playing random notes on the fretboard, and when one "works", play a major or minor pentatonic scale beginning with that note. Once you have figure out a few more notes, you will probably have a good idea of what scale is being used. If that doesn't work, try humming the chords being used, and then match those tones on the guitar. Be careful you don't accidentally start humming the lead vocals, because although that will help determine the key, the chords are likely different.

Once you know what key the song is in, the rest generally follows pretty quickly. Some of the tricky bits can be one-note riffs, arpeggios, of specific voicing of the chords they are using.

If have no experience of keys and their relationship to writing songs, then figuring out songs by ear is more difficult. Essentially you need to just find the same notes or chords and write them down or remember them. Generally this involves a lot of trial and error, but working this way provides excellent ear training.

Other Guitarists

This is perhaps the best way to learn. Playing with another guitarist gives you the opportunity to ask questions about chords and rhythms, and it gives you a chance to see and hear what the song is supposed to be like when it's performed live. However, the down side is that often a guitarist learn to play a song "their way", and they don't care about how it's "really" supposed to be played. Thus, you might not be learning the song exactly, but rather a slightly different version.

Concert Videos

Another place to learn is by watching concert videos, especially on DVDs where they allow you to pick camera angles. Often they will have a camera never breaks away from lead guitarist. By following along, you can learn exactly how a particular guitarist plays a particular song live.

The downside of this is that not every artist (especially new ones) have a concert DVD. Also, the guitarist may be playing the song differently live than on the album, so depending on how accurate you intend to be with your learning and playing, watching a video may not be the best way.

Chord Progressions

Songs are created using chords. Chords are derived from scales. The chords that are derived from one scale never change. If you learn the seven chords in the key of C major, then when you find a song in that key, you can quickly work out the chord progressions that make up the song.

Chords in C major

C major

D minor

E minor

F major

G major

A minor

B dim7

Note that the chords in the key of C major consists of 3 major chords, 3 minor chords and 1 diminished chord. This holds true for all major keys.

Chord Theory

Songs in the key of C major will start with a C major chord and end with a C major chord. The tonic chord of C major is the chord that defines the key ( the name tonic is derived from the word tonal). If you think of music as a journey then the tonic chord is the starting point and the return point. The notes in the scale of C major are named:

I is the Tonic

II is the Supertonic

III is the Mediant

IV is the Subdominant

V is the Dominant

VI is the Relative Minor

VII is the Leading Note

VIII is the Octave

Tonic - is the first note of the scale and it is this note that determines the tonality or key, hence the name Tonic.

Supertonic – the word “super” comes from the Ancient Latin verb “superare” which means “to be above”. The second note of any scale is always above the tonic.

Mediant – the mediant refers to the fact that this note lies halfway between the tonic and the dominant.

Subdominant – the word “sub” means below. This note is below the dominant.

Dominant – this note has this name because with the tonic it sets the tonality or key. The tonic and dominant notes, more than any of the others, determines the tonality of a piece of music. The fifth note of the scale is therefore a dominant factor.

Relative Minor – so called because this is the note that shows you the corresponding minor scale. Every major scale has a corresponding minor scale that contains exactly the same notes. So the relative minor of the Cmajor scaled is A minor. This is also called the “sub-mediant” because it lies halfway between the dominant and octave.

Leading-note – whenever you play a scale and arrive at this note, you will find that it naturally wants to move up to the octave note. People have a psychological expectation of music. The most important need is for the “musical journey” to have a start and end. If you were to play the C major scale and stopped at the leading-note, you would always have the sense that the scale is incomplete.

Octave – the same note as the tonic but an octave higher in sound and the end of the musical journey that a scale takes us on.

All the chords in C major take the same names given to the degrees of the scale. You can refer to the dominant note or the dominant chord.

Common Progressions

The tonic, subdominant and dominant are called the tonal chords. The supertonic, mediant and relative minor are called the modal chords. This is because the tonal chords are the chords that define the tonality (key) and the modal chords suggest a mode. Simply put, if you keep playing the modal chords Am and Em in the key of C major, the listener will interpret the piece to be in the key of A minor. Here's how you put the above theory into practice when working out the chords of a song:

Step One: Try the progression I-V (Tonic to Dominant)

Step Two: Try the progression I-IV (Tonic to Subdominant)

Step Three: Try the progression I-VI or I-III (Tonic to Relative Minor) or (Tonic to Mediant)

Step Four: Try the progression I-II (Tonic to Supertonic)

If you know the song starts with a C major chord and none of the above works then the song may contain chromatic chords. It is common practice to change the modal chords which are minor into their major counterparts. So D minor becomes D major and E minor becomes E major. The chromatic supertonic and the chromatic mediant are a common compositional device.

Try playing this progression: C - E major - Am - G

C major

E major

A minor

G major

Even though you have played a chord that doesn't belong to the key of C major, the tonality of the piece is preserved by the following chords which are diatonic to the key.

Song Library

The following pages contain recommended links to external websites containing tabs, chords and video lessons which would help you learn playing the songs on your guitar.

• Guitar Tabs Song Library
• Guitar Chords Song Library
• Guitar Songs Video Lessons Library

Lead Guitar

Picking and Plucking

There two major methods of right hand (for right handed players) techniques namely, either by using a pick (also called a plectrum) or fingers. The plectrum is very common in Rock, country and pop music, where it is considered convenient for strumming and louder guitar sound. Use of fingers is most common among classical guitarists and flamenco players, as combination of strings better executed using the right hand fingers, and generally have softer sound than the pick. Other than classical guitarists and flamenco players, use of a pick or fingers is a matter of personal preference.

Striking

Using a pick

The primary advantages of the pick are its speed, its ease of striking large chords and, because the fingernails and fingertips are not involved, its preservation of player's picking hand. Furthermore, use of a pick makes a louder and brighter sound. Its primary disadvantage is its imprecision, making muting strings necessary. Also, if the player wishes to switch to the tapping style, he or she can tap with or with out the pick: to tap with the pick just put it on its side and tap it on the desired fret. However, tapping with a pick makes it harder to tap on multiple strings.

Finger Strumming

Players wishing not to use a pick may try finger strumming. This is accomplished by holding the picking hand's first finger to the thumb, much as one might hold a pick, and striking the strings with the first fingernail. Anything in this book written for a pick can just as easily be played by finger strumming.

Apoyando Strikes

Apoyando, or splinter rested, involves the finger picking through a string such that the finger stops when resting on the next string. This technique produces a strong, loud tone, and is considered the opposite of Tirando.

Tirando Strikes

When performing a tirando, or shooting splinter strike, the finger does not affect the next string at all. this is the opposite of apoyando.

Fingerpicking

Fingerpicking is a method of playing the guitar where you use your thumb and at least one other finger to pick or pluck notes, using your fingernails, fingerpicks or fingertips. Talented players can use all five fingers on their picking hand, but many players only use four fingers and use their pinky finger as a brace on the guitar. Most classical guitarists alter the shape of their picking hand fingernails for the purpose of producing a desired sound, however this is not necessary in non-classical music; one can purchase fingerpicks to fit on the hand.

Generally fingerpicking involves picking through chords organized in a melody. Fingerpicking is used extensively in folk guitar and classical guitar, but it is also common in other genres.

Fingerpicking is surprisingly easy on an electric guitar, which is strange because fingerpicking is often regarded as an acoustic style. The player may hold his or her picking hand's fourth finger against the right edge (left edge on a left-handed guitar), and if it is held straight and steady, this technique may be used to brace the hand. This technique is called anchoring, and is frowned upon by some players. It is possible on acoustic guitars by using the bridge similarly, but this is not as effective as it will deaden the sound. Classical guitarists never anchor while playing.

When strumming with individual fingers, general rule is move the wrist only if the thumb is used, while if any other finger is used, only said finger will be used.

When you start trying to learn, your finger coordination will be terrible and it is easy to be discouraged. It takes several weeks to let your muscles develop, but if you practice using all your fingers at once your overall dexterity will increase much faster.

Classical picking

In classical guitar repertoire, there will be a "PIMA" marking for the picking hand fingers (right hand for right handed players), which indicate which finger to use:

• Pulgar, or thumb.
• Indice, or index finger.
• Medio, or middle finger.
• Anular, or ring finger.

These four are the ones that are used most frequently. Sometimes, the fourth finger is used, in which it is marked either C, X or E.

Typically, the thumb has a down-picking motion and the fingers have an up-picking motion.

Guitar J.S.Bach Musette for Anna.mid (help·info)

Guitar J.S.Bach Musette for Anna.pdf

Clawhammer and frailing

Clawhammer is sometimes known as frailing. It is primarily a down-picking style, and the hand assumes a claw-like shape and the strumming finger is kept fairly stiff, striking the strings by the motion of the hand at the wrist and elbow, rather than a flicking motion by the finger. Typically, only the thumb and second or first finger are used and the finger always downpicks, flicking the string with the back of the fingernail.

A common characteristic of clawhammer patterns is the thumb does not pick on the downbeat, as one might in typical fingerpicking patterns for guitar. For example, this is a common, basic time signature|2/4 pattern:

1. Pick a melody note on the downbeat (quarter note)
2. On the second beat (music)|beat, strum a few strings with your strumming finger (roughly an eighth note)
3. Immediately following (on the second half of this beat), pick a note with the thumb, usually the shorter fifth string. (roughly an eighth note)

Here, the thumb plays the high drone on the second "and" of "one and two and". This combined with the second finger strumming provides a characteristic "bum-ditty bum-ditty" sound.

Some people, however, make a distinction between frailing and clawhammer:

• In frailing, the first fingertip is used for up-picking melody, and the second fingernail is used for rhythmic downward brushing.
• In clawhammer, only downstrokes are used, and they are typically played with one fingernail as is the usual technique on the banjo.

Travis Picking

Another well known style of finger picking is called Travis picking, named after Merle Travis who was a country singer known for his legendary picking skills. When picking, you use your thumb and first finger to hit notes at the same time, creating a double stop or interval, and then continue picking with the first finger. Usually the thumb is responsible for picking the bass line, while the first/second finger is for melody. Skilled players can carry two separate melodies with the upper and lower strings.

You can create impressive rhythms playing with just your thumb and first finger, but to really become talented you must practice using more fingers. For example, Chet Atkins expanded to use all three fingers, with thumb for bass line.

Guitar - Oh My Darling Clementine - Folkpicking.mid (help·info)

Guitar - Oh My Darling Clementine - Folkpicking.pdf

Rasgueado

The rasgueado or splinter striking technique originated from Spanish flamenco music, and usually refers to three or four fingers and sometimes the thumb striking the strings in quick succession. The notes quickly follow one another and produce a "rattling" or cascading effect.

Scruggs style

Scruggs-style fingerpicking is played with thumb, first and second fingers; the fourth and/or third fingers are typically braced against the head of the instrument. The strings are picked rapidly in repetitive sequences or rolls; the same string is not typically picked twice in succession. Melody notes are interspersed among arpeggios, and musical phrases typically contain long series of staccato notes, often played at very rapid tempos. The music is generally syncopated, and may have a subtle swing or shuffle feel, especially on mid-tempo numbers. The result is lively, rapid music, which lends itself both as an accompaniment to other instruments and as a solo.

Tapping

Tapping is a style of playing where notes are created by quickly pressing, or tapping, the string down on the fret that you want to play. Usually tapping involves both hands, and most often it is on an electric guitar. It is possible to tap on an acoustic, but you cannot hear the notes as clearly as on an electric.

Pickings on Wikimedia

commons: Category:Guitar_picking

Scales

Most Western music divides the musical octave (when one note is twice as high as another) into 12 sections, called semitones. On the guitar, each semitone is represented by a fret. Scales start and stop on the octave, and the most common scales (Major and Minor) consists of seven different notes, other scales may use more or less than seven notes.

It is important to remember that on the guitar, if you know the pattern of a particular scale, you can move that pattern anywhere else on the fret board and be playing in a different key. By this, I mean if you are playing a major scale, beginning on the low E string at the fifth fret, which is an A note and then you played the same pattern of notes, but you started on the 3rd fret of the low E string, you will be playing a G major scale. If this sounds confusing to you, read the entire article, and if it is still unclear, see the musical scale article on Wikipedia or the Music Theory wikibook.

There are many different scales: the major scale, three different forms of the minor scale, the blues scale, the pentatonic scale, the whole tone scale, the diminished scale and some scales that originated in Spain and India. There are also very interesting scales from eastern music. It is possible to create your own scales by altering another as you wish, or completely coming up with your own.

The "Circle of Fifths" is a memory aid for learning the major and minor scales which can equally be applied to all scales. The scales in common use have evolved over many centuries and the established major scale, followed by the natural minor and then the two variants: the harmonic minor scale and the melodic minor scale form the basis of Western music. The "Circle of Fifths" and major scales in tab can be found in the Scale Manual section of this book.

All scales in this section are tabbed out for the key of A, meaning that the root note of the scale if on the 5th fret of the low E string. Starting the scale here provides lots of room up and down the neck to play, and helps you learn to make connections between different scale shapes.

Pentatonic Scales

Pentatonic scales are the least complicated, because they only use five notes rather than the seven notes used in the major scale and the other scale modes (see below). Learning the major and minor pentatonic scale patterns is a good starting point, because they are used so frequently by guitarists in all genres.

A Minor Pentatonic

Most guitarists feel comfortable beginning with the A minor pentatonic, which is the single most popular scale for solos in Western music. Most guitarists know this shape of the Am pentatonic scale by heart, mainly because it is so frequently used in solos. It can also be used for pretty much anything, especially if you want to give it a slightly melancholy sound.

Remember that this scale pattern (and any other scale pattern) can be moved up and down the fretboard therefore allowing the guitarist to play in many different keys using the one shape.

In this diagram, the notes are ordered sequentially up the scale (going higher in pitch). The different octaves of the root note of the scale (in this case, the A note) are highlighted with a yellow dot.

Learning the Scale

When you are learning any scale, it is helpful to break it down into smaller chunks, which can be practiced and memorized much more easily. With the A minor pentatonic scale, it is most commonly broken down into these sections.

Section 1:

e |--0-------3--
B |-----1----3--
G |--0-----2----
D |--0-----2----
A |--0-------3--
E |--0-------3--

Section 2:

e |-----3-----5--
B |-----3-----5--
G |--2--------5--
D |--2--------5--
A |-----3-----5--
E |-----3-----5--

Section 3:

e |--5--------8--
B |--5--------8--
G |--5-----7-----
D |--5-----7-----
A |--5-----7-----
E |--5--------8--

Section 4:

e |-----8-----10-
B |-----8-----10-
G |--7-----9-----
D |--7--------10-
A |--7--------10-
E |-----8-----10-

Section 5:

e |----10----12--
B |----10------13
G |--9-------12--
D |----10----12--
A |----10----12--
E |----10----12--

Practice these basic shapes, one note at a time, because if you learn them well, you will discover that they constantly reappear. Play the shape up and down, and practice things like alternate picking or tremolo picking. It will take a while to learn the shapes by heart, but once you do, practice playing the scale at different places on the fretboard. This is essential - and start early on, or instead of focusing on learning the pattern of frets, you will focus on the individual frets you are playing, and familiar patterns will seem unfamiliar at different places on the fretboard.

The Blues scale

Please see the Blues section for more lessons.

You can easily modify the minor pentatonic scale by adding a single note and turning it into the blues scale. In the below digram, A blues scale is shown at the fifth fret. The number represent the frets played, and the numbers in parentheses represent the Blue Note which, as the name suggests, is the major source of the blues vibe in the scale. The blue note is not actually part of the Minor Pentatonic scale, although it is often added in for extra colour.

e |--5--------8--
B |--5--------8--
G |--5-----7-(8)-
D |--5-----7-----
A |--5-(6)-7-----
E |--5--------8--

Major Pentatonic

The major pentatonic is a little more complicated than the minor pentatonic, but if you look carefully you will notice some similarities to the minor pentatonic scale.

It may be difficult to notice immediately, but if you compare the A major pentatonic and the A minor pentatonic, you will notice that patterns are almost exactly the same. Once difference is that the minor pentatonic scale pattern is shifted to the RIGHT three frets to make the major scale pattern. Look carefully, and you will see that this is true for every single note.

The other major difference between the two scales is they use different starting notes, which is the main reason why one has a different sound than the other. Understanding this is important for understanding the Church Modes, and other aspects of how scales are related to one another.

e |-----5---------
B |-----5-----7---
G |--4-----6------
D |--4--------7---
A |--4--------7---
E |-----5-----7---

Practice this the same way you practice the minor pentatonic scale. When you feel completely comfortable with both pentatonic scales, begin to explore the other different scales.

Major Scale

The pattern for any major scale is 2-2-1-2-2-2-1, meaning that the difference from the first note to the second is 2 frets, from the second to the third is 1 fret, etc. The difference in notes can also be called steps, 2 notes being a whole step, and 1 note being a half step. This pattern in steps can be shown as W-W-H-W-W-W-H.

Major scale in the key of A

A - B - C# - D - E - F# - G# - A

 W   W    H   W   W    W    H

e:---------------------------4-5-
B:-----------------------5-7-----
G:-----------------4-6-7---------
D:-----------4-6-7---------------
A:-----4-5-7---------------------
E:-5-7---------------------------

Natural Minor Scale

The pattern for any natural minor scale is 2-1-2-2-1-2-2, shown in steps as W-H-W-W-H-W-W

Natural Minor Scale in the key of A

A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A

 e |------------------------------5--
 B |------------------------5-6-8----
 G |------------------4-5-7----------
 D |--------------5-7----------------
 A |--------5-7-8--------------------
 E |--5-7-8--------------------------

The first position movable shape for this scale is shown:

e:-------|---x---|-------|-------|-------|
B:-------|---x---|---x---|-------|---x---|
G:---x---|---x---|-------|---x---|-------|
D:-------|---x---|-------|---x---|-------|
A:-------|---x---|-------|---x---|---x---|
E:-------|---x---|-------|---x---|---x---|

Harmonic Minor Scale

The harmonic minor scale is much harder than the pentatonic scales, but definitely satisfying over some minor chords. It gives you a rather "middle-eastern" kind of sound.

But the shape works in any key, just move the shape up or down the neck:

e |--4--5-----7--8--
B |-----5--6--------
G |--4--5-----7-----
D |--------6--7-----
A |-----5-----7--8--
E |-----5-----7--8--

This looks a little more complicated, and is certainly more difficult to get to sound nice, but when you have mastered it it will sound great!

Melodic Minor Scale

This scale is actually two scales. Thus when one speaks of a "melodic minor" pattern, one refers to two patterns - one ascending and one descending.

e |-----4--5-----7--8--
B |--------5-----7-----
G |-----4--5-----7-----
D |-----4-----6--7-----
A |--3-----5-----7-----
E |--------5-----7-----

This is best illustrated by playing the melodic minor scale. Below is the A melodic minor scale in tab; note the sharps when ascending and the naturals when descending.

The ascending pattern is constructed by raising the 6th and 7th steps of the natural minor scale. So, if you take the major scale, the 3rd will be flatted, while the normally flatted 6th and 7th are raised and become natural. Basically it is the major scale with a flatted 3rd.

The descending pattern is similar to the descending pattern except the 6th and 7th aren't raised. So it is basically a natural minor scale.

Hungarian Minor

The Hungarian minor scale is a type of combined musical scale. It is akin to the harmonic minor scale, except that it bears a raised fourth. Its tonal center is slightly ambiguous, due to the large number of half steps. Also known as Double Harmonic Minor, or Harmonic Minor #4, it figures prominently in Eastern European music, particularly in gypsy music. Melodies based on this scale have an exotic, romantic flavor.

e |--7--8-----10--11--
B |--7--8--9----------
G |--7--8-------------
D |--------9--10------
A |--------9--10--11--
E |-----8-----10--11--

A Hungarian minor scale in the key of C would proceed as follows: C D Eb F# G Ab B. Its scale degrees are 1 2 b3 #4 5 b6 7, and its step pattern is w - h - + - h - h - + - h, where w indicates a whole step, h indicates a half step, and + indicates an augmented second, which looks like a minor third on a keyboard but is notationally distinct.

Derived chords

Chords that may be derived from the Hungarian minor scale are:

C Minor

D7 Flat Fifth

E Flat Augmented

G Major

A Flat Seventh

B Minor Sixth

This scale is obtainable from the *Arabic scale by starting from the fourth of that scale. Said another way, the C Hungarian minor scale is equivalent to the G Arabic scale.

In the video game, The Illusion of Gaia (published by the Enix Corporation), the flute melody found in the Inca Ruins uses the C Hungarian minor scale (a #4 is used in the second phrase); this music is also quoted when the player reaches the Larai Cliff stage of the game, transposed to D.

Joe Satriani has composed several songs using the Hungarian minor scale.

Church Modes

Back when music was originally being standardized, music was divided into 8 sections, rather than 12, and all compositions were written in that scale. However, the problem with this is that eventually everything begins to sound the same. So in order to combat this problem, they developed different modes of the scale, which essentially just means playing the same notes, but choosing a different starting note.

For example, in the key of C, the notes are C D E F G A B C. If you wanted to play in the 2nd mode, called the Dorian mode, then you would just play the same notes, but start on the second note. So instead you would play D E F G A B C D.

The different modes are called:

• Ionian
• Dorian
• Phrygian
• Lydian
• Mixolydian
• Aeolian
• Locrian

The phrygian mode - E F G A B C D E - is of special interest to flamenco players. The third and seventh degrees are often sharpened, giving the scale notes E F G# A B C D# E. This arrangement is commonly used in descending form. The second degree of the scale is referred to as a leaning note, which means the note tends to fall one semitone. In this case F falls to E.

Arpeggios and Sweep Picking

The word arpeggio (ar-peh-jee-oh) is Italian for, roughly, "like a harp", as it is a common technique for playing chords on the harp. To play an arpeggiated chord on the guitar, simply strum or pick the chord slowly, one string at a time, such that the ringing of each string is distinct. Arpeggios occur in all kinds of music, from classical to metal.

Sweep picking is a more specialized technique, occurring most often in metal. It involves playing a fast arpeggio with a special technique: when switching from one string to the next, mute the note currently ringing by lifting the fretting finger. A sweep can become a rake if notes are muted incorrectly. Rakes can sound nice, but they are not sweeps. Remember only 1 note can ring out at a time or it won't sound good. It takes practice and it helps to start slow and build up speed.

Below is example tablature of sweep picking:

This is not the only way to notate sweeps. Small sweeps can be indicated with grace notes or even the arpeggio notation with the word "sweep" (or, less correctly, "rake") written above.

---

In a more classical approach, arpeggios must follow a distinct pattern of notes depending on the chord/scale we're playing. This is similar to playing chords note-by-note on a piano (not on a guitar).

The basic chords (the major and minor triads) are composed of three tones: the first, the third and the fifth note of the scale (major or minor, depending on the chord type).

For instance, the C major scale is: C D E F G A B. So, according to the 1-3-5 principle, the C major triad consists of C, E and G. Note that the C major chord on a guitar also consists only of these three notes but they are not always in the 1-3-5 order. Now, while playing "classical arpeggios", you would not just pick around the chord randomly but you would play C, E, G, then C, E, G an octave higher, etc. This is what is called an arpeggio scale. You can play around it, up and down with complete freedom or just use the 1-3-5 pattern as a bass line. This method can also be used with more complex chords (sus4, maj7, etc.) but then it follows a pattern different from 1-3-5 structure, depending on the chord type. In all, this is a very simple but effective method for composing.

While playing guitar, this might not appear as interesting as picking "full" six-string chords but it can be used to give your music a classical edge. It also has a more lead quality to it than using full chords and requires more skill. Playing fast arpeggios like these is sometimes used in metal music with very satisfactory results. The "classical arpeggios" are in no way better than the "harp like chords" and it is ultimately up to the player/composer to choose what is best for the song in question.

Slides

The slide is one of the simplest guitar techniques. There are two kinds of slides: shift slides and legato slides. In a shift slide, a note is fretted, then the fretting finger slides up or down to a different fret, and the string is struck again. A legato slide differs in that the string is struck only for the first note.

The first slide pictured is a shift slide; the second is a legato slide. A few tablature writers do not distinguish between the two slides, using only shift slide notation. The abbreviation "sl." for slide may be omitted. When sliding from a higher fret to a lower fret, the slanted lines are usually changed to have a downward slope instead of an upward slope, to emphasize the sliding "down". It is possible to slide up from an open string, but this often does not sound as clean because this requires a hammer-on at the first fret (or for really fast slides, a higher fret) before sliding up. Likewise, it is possible to slide down to an open string but it requires a pull-off at the first (or some other) fret.

In Internet tablature, a slide from the third fret to the fifth might be written like any of these:

   3/5
   3>5
   3>s>5
   3s5

Internet tablature rarely distinguishes between the two kinds of slides.

Less commonly, tablature can instruct the guitarist to "slide into" or "slide out of" a note. In printed tablature, they are notated identically except, in the case of slide-into, the first note is omitted, and in the case of slide-out-of, the second note is omitted. In other words, the note slides in from nowhere, or out to nowhere. It simply tells the guitarist to quickly slide from or to an arbitrary point, usually only a few frets away.

Good sliding keeps the new note audible, while keeping the note in tune. If you don't press the string hard enough, you mute the string or buzz it on the frets. Too hard and the string bends out of tune. The latter does not happen often, but sounds awful and should be avoided.

Hammer-ons, Pull-off, and Trills

Hammer-ons and pull-offs are two closely related techniques. They are used to play legato, that is, in a smooth manner, and are also used to help the guitarist to play faster. They are most commonly used in electric guitar work, but can be used in acoustic tunes as embellishments.

The hammer-on

Hammer-ons can be done anywhere on the fretboard, but for the beginner it is easiest using an open string. To quickly learn, strike an open E on the first string. While the note is still ringing, quickly and firmly press a finger on the third fret. If done properly, a G note should be sounding.

Quickly pressing your finger down and raising the note without hitting the string again is called "hammering on". Without electric amplification, the hammer-on tends to be quieter than regularly struck notes, especially if you haven't practiced it! Because the strings are closer to the fretboard, hammer-ons are easier to execute on an electric guitar. However, this doesn't make them less common on an acoustic guitar, where they are used frequently to embellish open chords

The hammer-on can just as easily be played with fretted notes: just play the note normally and hammer onto another (higher-numbered) fret on the same string. If you practice hammer-ons, eventually you will be able to move each finger smoothly and independently.

The pull-off

The pull-off is the opposite of the hammer-on. Again, using the E string, hold it at the third fret. Strike the string and while the note is still ringing, release the fretting finger. If done properly, the G should be followed by an open E. If the note doesn't ring out properly, try hitting the G harder and releasing faster.

Like the hammer-on, the second note tends to be less loud than the first. To help alleviate this, a slight sideways motion of the fretting finger while pulling off will add extra vibration to the string, and give you some extra volume. Often it is hard for a beginner to accomplish, and the sideways movement helps greatly.

A pull-off looks like this:

D|---7p5--5p4--4p2--2p0--|

The trill

A trill is two alternating notes, such as an A and A#. Only the first note is struck; the rest are rapidly hammered-on and pulled off

Bending and Vibrato

Bending and vibrato are two related effects which help give extra "life" to notes, especially sustained notes, by changing their pitch. The techniques are not commonly used on the acoustic guitar or general rhythm playing. However, they are extremely important to many styles involving distorted guitar, e.g., rock or metal, even when playing rhythm (though, in that case, bends and vibratos are usually embellishments). Bending or an equivalent effect is not possible on all instruments; the piano, for example, cannot have notes that change in pitch. This is one reason why it is important to know how to bend: because you can!

This section deals with bending and vibrato using your fingers, not the different technique of using the vibrato bar. The two techniques do the same basic thing, but using the vibrato bar as a substitute for fretting-hand bending is not good practice; it is best used for very heavy bends or heavy vibratos, not slight embellishments like finger bending. It is more difficult to be subtle with a vibrato bar, and it is usually a bit out of the way for the picking hand to reach, making it harder to use. In short, while in some cases which style of bending or vibrato is used is a matter of taste, the two techniques are not interchangeable and are used for different effects.

Bending

Bending is exactly as it sounds: bending the string to the side by pushing it (towards the sixth string) or pulling it (towards the first string), often while a fretted note is ringing. The first three strings are normally pushed, and the others are normally pulled. This is particularly important on the first and sixth strings, as you do not want the string to fall off the fretboard. Whether the string is pushed or pulled, the note will be raised in pitch.

Many aspiring guitarists cannot bend properly. The sound of a bend is more important than how it is actually executed or how it looks, but a bad bending technique usually leads to a bad sound. Your favorite guitarist might bend using just his or her fingertips and you might be inclined to copy this — don't! Your hands can sound every bit as good as your hero's without copying his or her technique. There are two keys to bending properly: proper thumb positioning, and bending with the proper muscles. Do not keep your thumb behind the neck, where it usually is, but bring it up perpendicular to the neck (a position that is normally incorrect, but not in the case of bending). Keep the fingers firm. Do not bend your fingers, but push or pull with your forearm. You will hardly see your forearm move, possibly just see a couple of muscles flex. It will feel awkward at first, but if you can bend with the thumb in the proper position and without bending the fingers, you are probably doing it correctly.

Many guitarists will have trouble bending more than 1/4 step (half a semitone) or perhaps 1/2 step (one semitone) with only one finger, especially on frets close to the nut and on the thinner strings. It is much easier to bend with more than one finger, for instance, with the index finger on the first or second fret and the ring finger on the third, and pushing or pulling with both fingers in order to bend at the third fret. More fingers may be used if this is not enough. It should be possible to bend at least a full step (the pitch difference of two frets) this way.

Pre-bending

Bending, whether by pushing or pulling the string, raises the tension in the vibrating portion of the string, and thus always raises the pitch of the note. This means it is easier to slide up rather than down in pitch. To create the impression of bending down, the guitarist uses a technique called pre-bending, that is, bending before the string is struck, then releasing the bend (either gradually or quickly, depending on the intended effect).

Bend and Release

The ideas of bending and pre-bending can be combined for a "bend and release", that is, striking a note, bending it up, then releasing it as you would with a pre-bend. This will often be perceived as a "bounce" in pitch, especially if played quickly. The reverse is also possible: pre-bend, release, and bend. Repeatedly and steadily bending and releasing is called vibrato.

Vibrato

Players of many instruments, including the human voice, use vibrato to help add expression to sustained notes. Vibrato is performed in two major ways, the first by rapidly bending the string back and forth, causing a modulation in pitch; therefore, all of the information above about bending applies here, except it is performed faster or more prolonged. Or it can be performed in a 'classical' style where one applies pressure parallel to the string towards the neck then towards the bridge repeatedly, which allows one to achieve vibrato upward and downward in pitch, albeit with a smaller change. A small, subtle vibrato might not require the assistance of other fingers; the fretting finger should be sufficient. However, for sustained vibrato or vibrato on the first or second frets, using multiple fingers for bending is a good idea.

Harmonics

< Guitar

Harmonics are fun sounds to produce. They can be quiet and bell-like, as on an acoustic guitar, or they can be loud and squealy, as on an overdriven electric guitar.

List of natural harmonics

These will be explained shortly.

• 12th fret: octave above open string
• 7th or 19th fret: Octave plus a perfect fifth above open string
• 5th or 24th fret: Two octaves above open string
• 4th, 9th, or 16th fret: two octaves plus four semitones above open string

There are more harmonics than these, but these are the easiest to produce and the most audible. They are ordered from lowest to highest in pitch.

Natural harmonics

Natural harmonics are the easiest to produce. A good place to begin is the 12th fret of the first string. With your fretting hand, lightly touch the finger against the string directly above the 12th fret. Do not hold it down, just touch it. Then strike it with your picking hand, and immediately release the string with your fretting hand. If executed properly, the result should be a high-pitched, ringing E (on a standard tuned guitar). It will be the same note as pressing against the fret will produce. Try it again at the 7th, 5th, and 4th frets, as in the list of natural harmonics: each will produce even higher sounds, much higher than can be produced on the guitar without using harmonics! However, each will also be quieter, so the higher harmonics may be nearly inaudible without overdrive.

A good example of natural harmonics is in the song Imperium by Machine Head, clear 5th fret harmonics can be heard enforcing the low drop B tuning.

Pinch harmonics

A.K.A. Artificial Harmonics (though there is really nothing artificial about them). This is an advanced technique and was popularized by Billy Gibbons and many others as early as the 1970s including many Heavy Metal artists. These harmonics follow the same principles of physics as a natural harmonic, the difference being how the harmonic is produced. In this case a note is struck in a downwards motion with the pick and in the same motion the string is touched (one might really say brushed) with the edge of the thumb that is holding the pick. Or one can do it with the edge of the index fingernail, followed by the pick.

Pinch harmonics are most effective and audible using an electric guitar with overdrive or distortion and in some cases these harmonics are virtually inaudible using a clean (not distorted or overdriven) electric guitar or an acoustic. It can sound good when used properly even without much overdrive (Billy Gibbons is the master of low overdrive Pinch Harmonics) but it's not always clear or detectible. Use overdrive or distortion for best results especially while learning and practicing this technique.

With regards to difficulty: this technique, although rewarding, is mostly rewarding only in advanced situations (soloing and intense expressive riffing). It is difficult enough to easily frustrate a beginner and some intermediate players and since there are so many more rewarding and useful techniques worth spending time on as a beginner (scales, soloing, blues, riffing, strumming patterns), this technique is only recommended for intermediate or advanced players.

As mentioned above, these harmonics are produced by striking a note with the pick and touching the string with the picking thumb. Grip the pick so that the tip barely peeks out between your fingertips (this is why they are called "pinch" harmonics). It's easier when you are fretting a note with the left hand so try fretting a note (perhaps the 5th fret on the 4th(D) string), and plucking the string just below the neck pickup pole pieces (maybe 1/8" toward the bridge from the pole pieces). With luck the artificial harmonic will ring, but if not don't despair.

The position of the plucking along the length of the string is one of the most important parts of this technique. While with regular picking the position of the picking along the string can make slight variations in the sound of the note, when executing pinch harmonics the right position is vital and tiny positional differences can make entirely different harmonics. So try adjusting the picking hand just millimeters up and down the string around the area of the pickups.

Try imagining the pick and your picking thumb plucking the string at the same time although the thumb is really just brushing past it. Consider it to be really one motion. Try thinking of your thumb and the pick as one entity and instead of picking straight down, pick down and a little bit (millimeters) out away from the face of the guitar so your picking motion is a sort of 'letter J' out from the face of the guitar and so the thumb brushes past the string and remember that the thumb should only touch the string for an instant just like the pick does.

This technique requires practice. Try executing pinch harmonics while fretting different notes and by striking the string in slightly different places all around the pickup area of the guitar. Many kinds of harmonic ringing sounds may be produced.

Without a pick, this technique may be simulated by plucking the string with the fingertip and lightly touching it with the fingernail, but this is even trickier and not very useful in practice.

These harmonics, as opposed to natural harmonics, end up being much more practical to use while playing and when mastered can be used boldly like Zakk Wylde making the harmonic part of the riff, or subtly and possibly unintentionally to add color and character to the notes or chords while playing almost anything.

Pinch harmonics can easily and effectively be combined with other techniques, such as bending or vibrato.

To hear pinch harmonics in action check out the following:

• Ozzy Osbourne's Ozzmosis(and several other albums) features many different examples of pinched harmonics in various solos.
• In the movie Rock Star at the beginning, the lead guitarist(Nick Catanese of Black Label Society/SPEED X) in Blood Pollution (the Steel Dragon cover band) is "not hitting the squeal". The squeal they're speaking of is a pinch harmonic.
• One of the best examples of a bend and a pinch harmonic is Judas Priest's Lochness off the album Angel of Retribution at about 1:10.
• In System of a Down's hit song BYOB it is the first bend in the chorus (Every bodys going to the party) part. It is the only PH in the song, so listen carefully

Don't despair if you can't get harmonics as clear as Judas Priest or Zakk Wylde, they've got equipment made just for making sounds like that. They both have expensive high gain amplifiers and their guitars are equipped with pickups that are naturally very good at pinch harmonics. Some pickups amplify pinch harmonics better than others (some pickups hardly amplify them at all). Judas Priest and Zakk Wylde both play guitars with EMG humbuckers, which are some of the hottest pickups and some of the best at amplifying pinch harmonics. Hot pickups(EMG, Duncan JB, Duncan Live Wire, Bill Lawrence 500XL, etc.) do an excellent job of picking up pinch harmonics. Once you've practiced at home, ask to try out a guitar with "hot pickups" and a "high gain" amplifier at the local guitar shop if you want a taste(warning: it's easy to get spoiled/hooked!).

Tapped harmonics

This technique, like tapping itself, was popularized by Eddie van Halen. Tapped harmonics are an extension of the tapping technique. The note is fretted as usual, but instead of striking the string, the string is tapped at one of the frets listed in the natural harmonic list. Do not hold the string down with the tapping hand, just bounce the finger lightly on and off the fret. This technique can be extended by fretting a note, then tapping relative to the fretted note. For instance, hold the third fret, and tap the fifteenth fret, for the twelfth fret harmonic, because 12+3=15.

Other techniques

A final technique (known as the harp harmonic) is a sort of combination between the natural and tapped harmonic techniques. Fret the note normally, and place the picking hand index finger on a natural harmonic relative to the fretted note (just as in tapped harmonics). Pluck the string with another finger and release the index finger, just as if producing a natural harmonic.

• Ditch the Guitar Pick

Tremolo Bar Techniques

The tremolo bar was originally only found on Fender guitars, but now they are on many types of electric guitar. Unfortunately, it has an inappropriate name, because "tremolo" means a fast succession of two different tones. A more accurate but less common name is the vibrato bar, and they are also known as whammy bars.

There are several different types of tremolo bars, details of which can be found in the Anatomy of the Guitar section, but certain types can only perform certain techniques. Thus, you should make sure the tremolo bar you have can do what you want it to do, before you buy it.

In general, it is good to learn to hold the tremolo bar between your third and fourth fingers, so you can use the bar and hold a pick at the same time.

This section will provide a description of how to accomplish various techniques, but it will be up to the guitarist to discover how to perform them.

Dive Bomb

A Dive Bomb may be achieved by striking a natural harmonic then lowering the tone. An "explosion" may added by keeping the bar pressed down and flicking the low E string repeatedly.

Also, there is an alternative way to do a dive bomb, by flicking a string, dipping the bar down, tapping a harmonic, then manipulating the resulting note however you want. This technique is also known as a "Squeal", or "Dime Squeal" named after Pantera guitarist, Dimebag Darrel.

Dipping

Dipping is a technique that allows you to make note changes a little more interesting. Before you change to a higher note, use the bar to quickly lower and then raise the pitch.

Cat Purr

With this technique, a pitch is held for a beat, and then raised up a tone. The lever is moved slowly, and once you reach the upper or lower tone, you immediately hold, and then reverse direction. This results in a sound that can sounds remarkably like a cat.

Ruler Sound

If you press the tremolo bar down, and then suddenly release it upwards and quickly alternate between high ups and down, it makes a snap-away sounds, like a ruler vibrating off the edge of a table. The principle behind this is similar to the cat purr.

Windmill

The "windmill" develops if you just keep turning the tremolo bar in a circle. Naturally, the tone moves up and down at a regular pace. However, this can sound very "outer space" and can easily be over done, and you should use this sparingly.

String Choke

If the strings are really slack, you can quickly whip the tremolo bar back up until it clicks, making a string choke. Sometimes overtones will remain, and you can get some interesting sounds and harmonies. However, these tend to disappear quickly as it is drowned out by the harmonics of the new string pitch.

Tapping

Tapping is the short name of fretboard tapping or finger tapping: the act of tapping the fingers against the strings in order to produce sounds, rather than striking or plucking the strings. Specifically, it usually refers to two-handed tapping, that is, tapping involving both the left and right hand. It is not clear who discovered tapping, but it was certainly popularized, but not discovered, by Eddie van Halen. Van Halen was listening to "Heartbreaker" by Led Zeppelin, and he was quite inspired by the solo, which contained a variation of tapping. This is arguably the song that pushed Van Halen to popularize and use "tapping" frequently. A rather different kind of independent two-handed tapping, which is a whole playing method rather than a technique, was discovered by Harry DeArmond and named "The Touch System" by his student Jimmie Webster. Another method of independent tapping was discovered by Emmett Chapman, where the right hand comes over the fretboard and lines up with the frets like the left. Therefore this book dubs the three kinds of tapping Interdependent tapping and The Touch System", and the "Free Hands Method."

Interdependent tapping

Interdependent tapping is by far the most common type of tapping. It is generally used as a lead guitar technique, most commonly during solos; however, a small number of songs are entirely tapped. The player's picking hand leaps out to the fretboard and begins to tap the strings with the fingers. However, one must get the pick out of the way in order to tap. Some players do this by sticking the pick between their fingers; others simply use the middle finger to tap. The Van Halen technique of getting rid of the pick is done by moving the pick into the space between the first and second joints of his middle finger.

Eruption by Eddie Van Halen is a good example of this technique.

The Touch System

As mentioned before, this is a whole playing style and a whole book could be written about it. The first musician to play this way was pickup designer Harry DeArmond in the 1940's, who used tapping as a way to demonstrate the sensitivity of his pickups. While each hand could play its own part, DeArmond held his right hand in the same orientation as conventional guitar technique. This meant the ability of that hand to tap scale-based melody ines was limited. He taught his approach to Gretch Guitars employee Jimmie Webster, who wrote an instruction book called "The Touch System for Amplified Spanish guitar." Webster made a record and travelled around demonstrating the method. Even though it inspired a few builders (Dave bunker, for example), the Touch System was limited by the lack of equal movements for the right hand and never caught on.

The Free Hands Method

In 1969 Emmett Chapman, who had no previous knowledge of DeArmond, Webster or any other tapping guitarists, discovered that he could tap on the strings with both hands, and that by raising the neck up could align the right hand's fingers with the frets as on the left, but from above the fretboard. This made scale-based melody lines just as easy to tap in the right hand as the left, and a new way of playing a stringed instrument was born. Chapman redesigned his home-made 9-string guitar to support his new playing method, and began selling his new instrument (The Chapman Stick) to others in 1974. In 1976 Chapman published his volume of collected lessons he used for teaching guitarists and Stick players as "Free Hands: A New Discipline of Fingers on Strings."

It has been popularised by players such as Tony Levin, Nick Beggs, John Myung and Greg Howard, and is currently experiencing a surge in popularity due to the internet.

Stanley Jordan became famous in the 1980s for using the same method on the guitar. Jordan discovered the method independently after Chapman did, was signed to Blue Note Records, and released several successful albums.

The method that Chapman invented and Jordan also used allows complete self-accompaniment and counterpoint, as on piano.

Rhythm Guitar

Chords

A chord is three or more different notes played simultaneously. Chords derive their name from the root note. The interval relationship between the root note and the other notes determine whether it is a major, minor, augmented or diminished chord. Chords may be strummed in entirety or the notes picked individually. Beginners find strumming much easier. The more advanced technique of picking is examined in the Picking and Plucking chapter. Power chords are intervals because they consist of only two notes but they are usually treated as chords when described.

While chords are primarily used for rhythm guitar, basic chord knowledge is important for lead playing as well. The lead parts of many songs often require the use of chords, and in certain styles of playing, chords can make up the lead part entirely. Additionally, many lead patterns revolve around arpeggios, which are chords with their notes played in sequence, rather than together. For more information on arpeggios, see the Arpeggio and Sweep Picking chapter.

Chords are easy to play, but to understand why they sound how they do and why certain chords work better together than others, it is important to understand scales. While it is not necessary to have prior knowledge of scales to find this section useful, prior understanding of scales will definitely improve one's understanding of chords. It is recommended that before reading this section, one should familiarise themselves with general music theory first.

There are two main ways of playing chords, using open chords, which are the fundamental and often easiest chords for the guitar. Learning these chords is important, because it sets the stage for learning all other chords. Barre Chords are chords you make while pressing all (or most) of the strings down with your first finger. Barre chords are special, because they can be moved up and down the neck of the guitar, and the shape of the chord remains the same, although all the notes change. Barring is an important technique and greatly opens up the depth of the instrument.

Different Kinds of Chords

Major chords

Major triads are three different notes that are spaced at specific intervals. In ascending order: the root, major third and perfect fifth. These intervals are also found between the first note of a major scale and the third note (major 3rd), and the first note and the fifth note (fifth). Take for example, a C chord. If we play the C major scale on the guitar, we will notice it's relationship to the chord. In the C major scale, the first, third and fifth notes are C, E, and G. If we were to play a C major chord and pick through it, the notes are from lowest to highest, C, E, G. We can add more notes of the same letter names in different registers without altering the chord's designation, for example C major played in first position on a guitar comprises C, E, G, C, E. Major chords have a characteristically bright and happy sound.

C major

Minor chords

The minor triad is defined as root, minor third and perfect fifth. These intervals are also found between the first to third and first to fifth notes of the minor scale. Minor chords are slightly dissonant and so sound dark and melancholy. Minor chords are best understood in relation to major chords, and we will use the examples of E major and E minor. In the E major scale, the the third and fifth notes are G sharp and B. If we play the E minor scale, the fifth note is unchanged, but the third note is a semitone lower than the third note in the major scale. When we play an E major chord, we can flatten the third of the chord by lifting the finger that is holding down the third string at the first fret, making it an open string.

E major

E minor

Switching between major and minor chords can be relatively easy, as it involves the change of only one note. But since any particular note can be played in different places on the guitar, it might be difficult to change between certain major and minor chord fingerings. For example changing between an open F major to an F minor can be difficult. This can be solved by playing chords in different ways, such as by using bar chords.

Seventh chords

A seventh is added to a chord. The seventh interval is defined as that made between the first note and the seventh note of a major or minor scale. Seventh intervals can be major, minor or in special cases, diminished. The chord that adds a minor seventh to a major triad is written as A7, G7, etc. Seventh chords sound dissonant, and can strongly direct the music toward the harmony that follows it.

A7

G7

Sixth chords

A sixth to the chord. It does not sound dissonant as a seventh chord can, because the major sixth note is a minor third below the root of the octave.

F6

C6

Suspended chords

You remove the third from the chord and replace with a second or a fourth. The guitar part in John Lennon's Happy Christmas uses suspended chords. Suspended chords derived from a D major chord:

Dsus2

D major

Dsus4

Suspended chords derived from the A major chord:

Asus2

A major

Asus4

Suspending an E major chord:

E major

Esus4

Slash chords

Chords that are not in root position. For example, a C/G is a C chord with a bass note of G. They are also referred to as "inversions".

C/G

F/C

Diminished chords

These consist of a stack of minor thirds. You can extend a diminished triad (three note chord) by adding another minor third; which gives you a four note chord called a diminished seventh chord. The diminsihed seventh chord is notated as Co7 or dim7. Diminished seventh chords are built entirely from minor thirds, so you can move the chord shape up the neck in intervals of a minor third (three frets) and this will be exactly the same notes as the original chord but in a different order. The term "inversion" is used when chords have their notes rearranged.

Edim7 - root position

Edim7 - 1st inversion

Edim7 - 2nd inversion

A half-diminished chord consists of a diminished triad with a major third on top. In other words, a half-diminished chord is a diminished triad with a minor seventh.

Diminished chords are full of tension because of the dissonance created by stacking minor third intervals and they are normally resolved to a consonant major or minor chord.

Appendix

Full list of fingering positions for standard tuning

Barre Chords

Barre chords are chords that involve using one finger, usually your first finger, to press all the strings down at once on a single fret. Barring turns your first finger into a movable capo. You can then use your remaining three fingers to play open chord shapes, but in any position on the fretboard. Not all open chord shapes are easy to play with a barre, but once you have learned barring techniques, your chord vocabulary will increase and you will be able to play all along the fretboard.

Initially, barre chords are much more difficult to play than open chords. Before being able to play a barre chord, you first must train your hand be able to barre the fretboard. To do this, you take your first finger and press it lightly against the strings (applying no pressure) so that the finger covers all the strings along the same fret. Keep increasing the pressure until all the strings can be heard to sound clearly. A common mistake for beginners is to barre with full pressure which leads to hand fatigue. By lightly touching the strings and increasing the pressure in small increments, you will find that the pressure you need to apply to make the strings sound is much less than you imagine. Your thumb should be directly behind your first finger on the neck for full support. To illustrate the concept of a barre, compare the difference between the open strings (where the nut acts like a "zero" barre) and the full barre at the third fret.

The nut acts as the barre

Full barre at the third fret

Six String Barre Chord

A six string barre chord is a chord in which all the strings are being played. It can be compared to E chords, because, since the guitar is tuned to E, it effectively is an open barre chord. (you can view all open chords as a form of barre chords, which do not require you to press all the 6 strings somewhere [ because you use the open strings - 0 - hence their name ]. Let us examine the form of a major six string barre chord, in this case G, along with the major E chord:

E major

G major

In both of these chords, the relationship between the individual notes is identical, which is why the G chord is still a major chord. The difference is the root note, which determines the keys of the respective chords. By looking at the root note, we can see that the difference between all the notes of the E major and G major are three frets. But so long as the relationship remains the same, the major barre chord form can be played on any fret neck. For example, it could be played as an A major or a B major by putting it in these two positions:

A major

B major

The usefulness of barre chords comes from this ability to be played anywhere on the neck. Sliding the chord shape up and down the neck allows you to play many different chords relatively easily, and barre chords are a fundamental tool for rhythm guitarists since they can easily be used to create syncopated chord progressions.

As we saw earlier, the difference between a major and a minor chord is a flattened third. Using a barre chord, the transition between a major and a minor chord is relatively simple. The difference between an E major chord and E minor chord is the lifting of a single finger, thereby lowering the note by a semitone. With any barre chord that is formed using the E major shape, you can lift a single finger and play the corresponding minor chord. The minor barre chord form, shown beside the major barre chord form:

E major

E minor

G major

G minor

The same idea can be applied to seventh chords, or any other chord you can think of.

E7

G7

Five String Barre Chords

The same principles hold for five string barre chords, except instead of using the E chord shape, the A chord is used. Additionally, it should be emphasised that only five strings are played, which means that the low E string should not be allowed to sound.

A major

C major

Chord Progressions

It can be argued that trying to impose a "structure" on music is impossible, because music is organic. This is true, and many composers do not consider chord structures much when composing, perhaps trying various things out and just going with what works, or maybe having an intuitive understanding of the structures involved. Knowledge of chord structures will help you communicate with other musicians, and is a must for participating in any kind of jam session. With a few exceptions, all the musicians need to know the "changes" (the chord structure) and form in order for group improvisation to succeed.

Most songs use three or more chords, some songs have two or even one chord structures. However, they are harder to work with because it is more difficult to write an interesting piece with fewer chords. Often the musicians will try to get as much as they can out of the chords by adding fills and interesting rhythm patterns. One chord "structures" are uncommon, but they do exist. For instance, Frere Jacques is a one-chord song because it can be played against a single major chord. One chord songs are rare on guitar.

The I-IV-V

By far the most common chord structures revolve around, or at least contain, the I, IV, and V chords. Lots of resources refer to chords in this way and it is important to memorise the Latin numerals assigned to these chord progressions. Many songs use only these three chords (and possibly variations of them), because the progression "rounds out" and sounds complete.

Many chord progressions start at the tonic (I), moves away to somewhere else, only to come back to the tonic. You can play this progression with major chords or you can substitute minor chords for the IV or V.

Applying the I-IV-V

This progression is pretty much the backbone of popular western music. Eddie Cochran, Muddy Waters and Buddy Holly are three artists who have used this progression extensively with great effect.

E major (I)

A major (IV)

B7 (V)

The I-vi-IV-V

When picked with triplets, this progression is most commonly recognized from rock ballads in the 1980s, but it is widely used in many other styles of music. This progression is commonly referred to as the 50's progression, because it was common to many of the popular songs of the 1950's, notably "Stand by Me". Here's the progression in the key of G major.

G major (I)

E minor (iv)

C major (IV)

D major (V)

The I-V-I-I

This is a popular progression at the beginning of a much larger line, and can be combined with many other scale degrees.

The ii-V-I

As it's name indicates, the progression is: ii-min7, V7 and Imaj7.

Dm7 (ii-min7)

G7 (V7)

Cmaj7 (I)

Alternatively you can change the chord type on the II, and alter the voicing of the V. Some examples are:

• ii-m7b5(9) V7alt Imaj7

Applying the II-V-I

ii-V-Is can be chained together, creating complex progressions. Here's an example:

C major (I)	Bm7b5 (ii)	E7 (V)
Am7 (I)	Dm7 (ii)	G7 (V)
C maj7 (I)

 C      Bm7b5 E7   (I     ii  V)
 Am7    Dm7   G7   (I     ii  V)
 C      (etc...)   (I     etc..)

An example of complicated progression that can be created this way is the "Coltrane Changes", where the "I" chords move by Major 3rd intervals. Here's a simple example:

 Dm7  G7  Cmaj7    (ii V I  )
 F#m7 B7  Emaj7    (ii V I  )
 Bbm7 Eb7 Abmaj7   (ii V I  )
 Dm7  etc...       (I etc...)

The way the ii-V-I progression works is first that it moves by 4ths upwards, which very often produces interesting results, and the 7th goes down a half tone below and becomes the following chord's 3rd.

The Minor ii-V-i

Another commonly used chord progression is the minor ii-V-i. One can derive this from the melodic minor scales shown above, while substituting a IminMaj7 for the IMaj7 chord, or by using three modes from one harmonic minor scale , which produces the following chord progression:

Alternate Picking

Alternate picking is an important skill, because it allows you to play more than twice as fast than with just down picking. The basic idea is that if you are picking just on down strokes, every time you bring the pick back up to stroke down again, you are missing an opportunity to hit the string again. Essentially alternate picking is more efficient, because you have to move you hand less distance to hit the next note, and it can be an important difference between hitting the note on time or struggling to reach it.

As with other guitar skills, it doesn't sound even a little difficult until you actually try and do it. It will take some time to master it and get really fast. After doing it for a long time, you will begin to notice that you are subconciously deciding whether to alternate pick or not, depending on the underlying rhythm. Ultimately alternate picking allows you to play more efficiently, and thus faster.

Hold the pick in whichever method feels best for you. Only the top of your pick should be seen and touch the string, because when you pick you cover less distance and use less energy. Your movement should only come from your wrist, not from your whole arm, and it should be precise. There are lots of ways to practice alternate picking, but really it is something that you have to merge into all of your guitar playing. Being able to alternate pick at the right time is a very important step, and it is one of the barriers that separate good guitar players and people who just play guitar.

Lesson 1

To introduce yourself to alternate picking, start with a simple exercise beginning on the low E string.

e|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------1--2--3--4---------------|
B|--------------------------------------------------------------1--2--3--4------------------------------| 
G|-----------------------------------------------1--2--3--4---------------------------------------------| 
D|--------------------------------1--2--3--4------------------------------------------------------------| 
A|--------------1--2--3--4------------------------------------------------------------------------------| 
E|-1--2--3--4-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|


e|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
B|-4--3--2--1-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
G|----------------4--3--2--1----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
D|--------------------------------4--3--2--1------------------------------------------------------------|
A|-----------------------------------------------4--3--2--1---------------------------------------------|
E|--------------------------------------------------------------4--3--2--1--2--3--4--5------------------|

Play this pattern up and down the strings, and then up and down the whole neck. When you hit each note, you should make sure that you are always picking in the opposite direction of the previous note. Try playing faster, but always make sure you are fretting and picking each note clean to develop good habits. A metronome is a good item to help you with these sorts of exercises, because it helps you keep a steady pace. Always spend time practicing at your maximum speed, but not for the whole time; playing at an even pace is more important and builds your internal sense of rhythm.

Once you are comfortable alternate picking, try fingering some chords and pick through them, using alternate picking where appropriate. You can stumble onto some famous songs completely by accident like this.

Lesson 2

This pattern is a little more complicated, as it is a walk, where you play a repeating pattern that always starts on the next highest note.

e|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
B|------------------------------------------------------------------------------| 
G|------------------------------------------------------------------------------| 
D|-----------------------------------------1-------1-2-----1-2-3---1-2-3-4------| 
A|---------1-------1-2-----1-2-3---1-2-3-4---2-3-4-----3-4-------4--------------| 
E|-1-2-3-4---2-3-4-----3-4-------4----------------------------------------------|

Continue the pattern up the strings, and make sure you are always alternate picking. You will start to notice when sometimes it is better to pick up or down twice in order to make the picking more efficient overall.

Lesson 3

This riff combines palm muting and alternate picking.

e|--------------------------------------------------------------------| 
B|--------------------------------------------------------------------|
G|-------------2---------------2---------------2---------------2--3---| 
D|-------------2---------------2---------------2---------------2--3---| 
A|-0-0-0-0-0-0-----0-0-0-0-0-0-----0-0-0-0-0-0-----0-0-0-0-0-0--------|
E|--------------------------------------------------------------------|

The open notes should be muted, and you should be using alternate picking. This riff is very similar to a riff from Metallica's One.

Lesson 4

Additional Lessons

If you want more exercises, please see other sections of this book, and perform the exercises there, except add in the alternate picking. Alternatively, you could take a song you already know, and then pick the chords using alternate picking. You will soon see how you can apply alternate picking into every part of your guitar playing.

Tremolo Picking

What is Tremolo Picking?

Tremolo means a modulation in volume; in the context of stringed instruments, usually refers to repeatedly striking or bowing a single string in a steady rhythm, especially the fastest rhythm the player can maintain. (This technique is particularly common on the acoustic mandolin.) In guitar literature, this is called tremolo picking, and one of the few places the term "tremolo" is consistently used "correctly" in guitar literature (whose convention usually reverses tremolo and vibrato). This technique has nothing to do with a "tremolo bar" (really a vibrato bar) or a "tremolo" effects box.

How to hold the Pick

Tremolo picking, though appearing hard at first, is actually quite easy. It is merely alternate picking at a faster speed. To start off, a pick makes tremolo picking much easier and is highly recommended when attempting it, but even though most people find tremolo picking much easier with a pick, it is possible without a pick. The best way to hold your pick is between your thumb and the side of the first knuckle of your pointing finger, but if you feel more comfortable holding it another way, such as with your thumb and middle finger then go ahead.

How to Pick

The movement should come mostly from the wrist. A little bit of arm movement is okay, but shouldn't be done intentionally. It is possible to tremelo with the elbow, but the wrist is actually easier and faster for most people with practice.

The motion done with the wrist should be like drawing quick zig zags, or Vs. Picking should feel just like writing. Imagine drawing as many connected V's as possible.

Do not play with your hand parallel to the strings. Pick like you write, with your wrist at an angle.

Grip

An important aspect of tremolo picking that many beginners fail to realise is that you must have a relaxed grip on the pick, as when you try to pick when holding the pick tensely, you will find that the pick hits the string harder therefore making it harder to pass through the string, causing it to sound sloppy. Maintaining a relaxed grip becomes harder when playing faster, but you will get used to it.

Things to Remember

When tremolo picking make sure you use just your wrist, as this will make it much easier to pass through the string. Also, when you pick the string, make sure your hand doesn't go to far away from it, as this will slow you down. The impact from hitting the string usually forces your hand to leave the string, but after practice, avoiding this will become easier.

Rhythm

Good rhythm is almost essential to good guitar, and probably the simplest to understand. Let's start with some terms:

Beat

Measure

Time signature

All measures consist of a number of beats. You see the beats with the time signature, for example, 4/4. However, 4/4 is known as common time, and has special notation.

4/4 means that there are four beats in the measure, and that a whole note consists of four beats. Here are the other notes:

whole note

half note

quarter note

eigth note

sixteenth note

and so on.

A whole note consists of four quarter notes or four beats since the quarter note gets the beat in this case. Each half note is two beats, quarter note is one beat, etc. There are other possible signatures, 3/4, 2/4, 6/8, 7/4 are the common ones.

To apply what we have read, let's pull out the most basic of progressions, where we will play G and D in alternate measures, with a 4/4 time signature.

It will look like this(each measure separated by a pipe and each beat denoted with a dash):

G         D
|- - - - |- - - -|
 v v v v  v v v v 

The "v" from now on denotes a downstroke and a "^" denotes an upstroke. Here. you are playing a downstroke on each beat (each tick of the metronome) and nothing in between. Some people find it easier to practice this without playing any chord, and muting all the strings. Try that too.

Let's do some upstrokes now.

G         D
|- - - - |- - - - |
 v^v^v^v^ v^v^v^v^

Here, you are downstroking on the tick (intuitively called the 'downbeat') and upstroking in between the ticks ( the upbeat. A good way to do this is to count your beats, "one-and two and three and four" going down on the numbers and up on the ands. Most strumming patterns you can here this going on, but slightly more complicated. Make sure you are going down on downbeats and up on upbeats. A lot of people who start playing tend to not follow this, and it mixes up your rhythm badly. If you keep to this pattern, even with more complicated patterns, you will not lose track of the beat.

If you listen to the above pattern, it will start to sound boring. But it is the basis of all other patterns. When you hear a more complicated pattern, most likely the player is missing some strums. Like this:

G         D
|- - - - |- - - - |
 v^v^v^v^ v^v^v^v^

Playing Styles

Folk Guitar

History

Folk music is considered to be music that originates from the people. It is not the preserve of professional composers because its themes and melodies are derived from the experiences and lives of people who usually have no professional musical training. The lyrics are usually an expression of social or personal conditions. Work songs are a common folk theme and are an excellent example of community and the lives of those who exist within that community. Sea shanties and farming songs are two types of folk music that have work related themes. It is only natural for communities to express their joy at the arrival of spring and the promise of a bountiful harvest or for sailors to celebrate their arrival home after a long time at sea.

Folk music before modern recording tended to be regional and sung in local dialects. The invention of sound recording meant that for the first time these regional songs could be captured and preserved and heard by people from different backgrounds and countries. Folk music had always been passed down orally from generation to generation but industrialization had led to the fragmentation of traditional rural communities as people moved to industrial urban towns and cities. Musicologists became very aware that the old songs were disappearing and soon there was a movement to capture the songs using the technique of field-recording. Alan Lomax is one of the most famous of these early scholars who took to the roads of America with the aim of recording folk music for the Archive of American Song of the Library of Congress. In England the work was done by the composer Percy Grainger.

Despite all these changes, folk music will always have its place in society. The form that the music takes may change but never the reason for its existence.

Playing Folk Music

The recording of an old Led Belly song "Goodnight, Irene" by The Weavers in 1949 revived general interest in folk music and gave rise to a new movement in the 1950s that was called the American folk music revival. The next decade saw the distinction between popular music and folk music becoming blurred.In the US and many other countries, folk music and folk guitar became very popular and musicians like Bob Dylan wrote contemporary folk music that encapsulated the feelings and politics of the 1960s. This style most often uses an acoustic guitar, open chords, simple chord progressions and vocals. You can play folk guitar with a pick, or by finger picking. This style is simple, yet diverse enough to let you play a variety of tunes.

Folk music evolved during the 1960s into folk-rock and the electric guitar started to take on the role once reserved for the acoustic guitar. However many of the 1960s rock bands also featured acoustic guitar songs on their albums. These songs are not "folk music" in an historical sense but they are a modern adaption of the older folk style and are now generally referred to as "acoustic music". Often they use the same progressions as older folk songs but incorporate a catchy strumming pattern, rhythm or singing style. Here's a short list of songs that have a folk influence:

• House Of The Rising Sun - The Animals
• The Times They Are A Changing - Bob Dylan
• Sloop John.B - The Beach Boys

These are songs that have become immensely popular, such that many people can sing them communally though they may need prompting to remember the next verse. Although these songs can often be performed on an acoustic guitar, they are not quite "folk". You are encouraged to learn these songs and perform them with the view of encouraging others to sing along.

This section will provide the basics of folk guitar. By taking open chords and learning some common (and important!) chord changes, you will learn the principles of folk guitar.

E to A

E major

A major

This is an E major changing to an A major. This is one of the easiest progressions to play since the chord forms are so similar.

C to G

C major

G major

This is a C major changing to a G major.

D to G

D major

G major

This is a D major changing to a G major.

F to C

F major

C major

This is a F major changing to a C major.

Am to C

A minor

C major

This is an A minor changing to a C major.

Em to G

E minor

G major

This is an E minor changing to a G major

Dm to Am

D minor

A minor

This is a D minor changing to an A minor

Blues

The blues is a musical genre and form. Its development started in the African-American communities in the southern states of the US in the early 1900s. Regional areas have developed distinct styles, such as the Mississippi Delta blues of the 1940s and the Chicago electric blues of the 1950s. The blues is a starting point for a lot of popular western music, and many guitarists will feel a sense of familiarity when they play a blues scale for the first time.

These lessons are designed to teach a player with basic guitar knowledge how to master the blues.

Lesson 1: The Twelve Bar Blues

The 12-bar blues is the basis for the majority of classic blues songs along with many other popular rock and pop songs. It's a simple chord progression that can easily be transfered between different keys. Each box represents one bar or measure with four beats; count the boxes and you will know why it's called the "twelve bar blues". The roman numerals refer to the chords that can be used and in which bar they will appear.

I	I	I	I
IV	IV	I	I
V	IV	I	I

Below is the key of C major. The "I" is the first chord, or tonic, of the key. So to play a blues in the key of C major.......

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	I
C	D	E	F	G	A	B	C

"I" is a C major chord, "IV" would be F major and "V" would be G. If we apply this chart to the key of C it would look like this:

C	C	C	C
F	F	C	C
G	F	C	C

If this is confusing to you, you may want to review some basic Music Theory.

However, a 12-bar blues does not necessarily follow this pattern strictly. Many flourishes and variations are often added. Here's an example of how a 12-bar blues in E major might be played.

    E                     E                     E                     E
  e---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
  B---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
  G---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
  D---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
  A-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|
  E-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|
 
    A                     A                     E                     E                
  e---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
  B---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
  G---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
  D-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|---------------------|---------------------|
  A-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|
  E---------------------|---------------------|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|  
 
    B                     A                     E                     E   
  e---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------||
  B---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------||
  G---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------||
  D-4--4-6--6-4--4-6--6-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|---------------------|---------------------||
  A-2--2-2--2-2--2-2--2-|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-|-2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4-||
  E---------------------|---------------------|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-|-0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0-||

In this case, none of the chords are full major chords. They alternate between 5th chords, which consist of only the root note and its fifth), and 6th chords, which would normally be full major chords with an added sixth, but in this case are reduced to the root note and its sixth.

The rhythm for this is a basic blues shuffle rhythm. Instead of playing straight eighth notes with a "1 and 2 and 3 and 4" type rhythm, play the notes in groups of two like, "1, a 2, a 3, a 4".

Keep in mind that 12-bar blues is a very general format, and anything that basically follows that pattern of chords is a 12-bar blues. For example, fingerstyle guitar playing is often used to play a 12-bar blues. In such a case, there may be a bar of E where multiple notes which are not in the E major chord, or even the E major scale, are played. These often include sixths, minor sevenths, and minor thirds. What makes it a bar of E is just the fact that it mostly revolves around the note E, and tends to use the notes of an E major chord (B and G#) more frequently than other notes. So do not limit yourself.

Furthermore, one or more bars in the basic 12-bar blues progression may be changed to an entirely different chord. For instance, in the key of C, a C might be changed to a G.

Common variations in the 12-bar blues format include:

• Changing any or all of the chords to 7th chords (C -> C7).
• Adding in other notes besides 7ths, such as 6ths or minor 3rds.
• Replacing the final I chord with a V or V7. This is known as a "turnaround", and sets up for another verse.

Lesson 2: The Minor Pentatonic and Blues Scales

The minor pentatonic scale is a five-note scale that is very widely used in both blues and rock. It can be derived from the natural minor scale by removing the second and sixth notes. Here it is in the key of A:

   A, C, D, E, G, A

In any key, the pattern of intervals in between the notes of this scale is (in half-steps, or guitar frets):

   3, 2, 2, 3, 2

So the second note, in this case C, will always be 3 half-steps, or 3 frets, higher than the first note, A. The third note is 2 half-steps or frets higher than the second, and so on. If you were to play it all on the low E string of a guitar, it would look like this, in tab:

Here are two octaves of the A minor pentatonic scale, in tab, in 5th position:

The blues scale consists of six notes, the most important of which is the blue note. The blue note distinguishes the blues scale from a standard minor pentatonic scale, and makes the blues sound very distinct. It comes in between the 3rd and 4th notes of that scale, making 3 notes in a row in the middle of the scale.

The vast majority of blues and rock solos consist almost entirely of notes in the blues scale.

This is a blues scale played from the fifth fret and using two octaves. The blues scale above starts with the note "A" and therefore takes its name from the first note: Blues in A. You can change the key of it by changing the starting note of the scale and using the same pattern. Move the pattern up two frets (7th fret) and you are playing a Blues in B. Move it up one fret more (8th fret) and you are playing a Blues in C. Memorize the pattern by playing it repeatedly.

Using the Blues Scale

Here are some blues licks by different artists. They all make ample use of the blues scale. To fully understand this section you should be familiar with bends, hammer-ons and pull-offs and slides.

  Fig. 1  
  |---------------------5-----------|-------------------------8---8--|
  |-----------------------8p5-------|-----------------8b10-----------|
  |-7b9-----------------------7p5---|-7p5----------------------------|
  |-------------------------------7-|-----7p5------------------------|
  |---------------------------------|---------8----------------------|
  |---------------------------------|--------------------------------|
    1        2      3   + a 4 e + a   1 e + a 2       3       4   +  

Figure 1 is taken from the beginning of "Stairway to Heaven" solo by Led Zeppelin (guitarist Jimmy Page). It is based around the A minor blues/minor pentatonic scale. On the second beat of the second measure there's an F which is not in the A minor blues scale. Often blues guitarist will play notes out of any scale because they play mostly by ear and will play notes that sound good to them without any music theory behind it.

However, in this case it is more accurate to say that the solo is in the key of A minor, which contains the entire A minor pentatonic scale, plus the notes F and B. By mostly running up and down the A minor pentatonic scale (in other words by skipping over the B's and the F's), Page gives parts of the solo such as this one a bluesy feel.

                            |-3-|
    a    +S   S S a    +S   S S S S S S S S    +S   a    +S   S S E    +S   S    +E  +S  S 
  |-------------3-------------5-3h4p3---3-6b8==(6)r-6b7==(6)r-3------------------------------|
  |-----------3---6b7==(6)r-3---------6-------------------------3----------------------------|
  |-3b4----3r-----------------------------------------------------5b6==(5)r-3b5==(3)r--------|
  |--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5---|
  |------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
  |------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
    1                                                                   +   a     4  +  a

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

Slide Guitar

A slide is a metal/glass/ceramic tube which fits over a finger (most commonly the ring finger or little finger, but any will work). If you wish to experiment with slide guitar, but do not have a slide, objects ranging from lighters and glass bottles to sections of metal pipe and batteries can work just as well, and in some cases provide entertainment and stage presence to a performance. Do not press the string down. The slide rests on the string, not enough to give fret buzz, but enough to stop the string buzzing against the slide. Some players will lightly deaden the string behind the slide with a trailing finger to stop any unwanted vibrations.

Practice getting a crisp note without sliding first. Because the slide rests on the strings, the slide playing a single note should be directly above the fret, not behind it as with the fingers. Usually the slide guitarist keeps the slide moving backwards and forwards slightly at all times.

A common technique found in slide guitar is playing fingerstyle as opposed to the use of a pick or plectrum. The benefits of fingerstyle playing includes the ability to more easily pick the desired strings, while using the other fingers to dampen the other strings from undesired vibration.

Slide guitar is often played in open chord tunings, Open G and Open D being the most common, but playing slide in standard tuning can add a new dimension to your playing.

Rock Guitar

Guitar/Rock Guitar

Country and Western

Introduction

Country music is a uniquely American genre of music that can trace its roots back to earlier European folk songs that the arriving immigrants brought with them. It developed in the Appalachians, changing the forms and sounds of the earlier folk songs until the music reflected the conditions that these early American settlers experienced. Though its roots are clouded in the mists of the past, the music itself has never stopped absorbing different styles and forms. Whether it’s the sound of the blues in the music of Jimmie Rodgers or the jazz influenced playing of Chet Atkins, country music adapts and gives a unique perspective on these influences.

History

Country music like most early folk music had been passed down orally with each generation adding new elements. The guitar, being cheap and portable, was ideal for country musicians and from the earliest days was associated with the music.

It was the invention of the phonograph and radio that led to the creation of the first national country stars The Carter Family. The Carter Family didn’t just sing country; they sung gospel, Victorian ballads and vaudeville songs. The guitar solo in their song "Wildwood Flower" is an early example of the characteristics that are still to be found in country lead breaks.

Country guitarists had also absorbed the style and form of the blues and slide guitar started to be featured shortly after the success of the Carter Family. The music of Jimmie Rodgers (1897-1933) features many elements and themes from the blues. Rodgers was the first solo star of country music and his guitar style is a mixture of country alternating bass and the blues form.

Country music was changing in the 1930s. The growth of Western Swing led to a bigger band that included instruments such as drums and saxophones. The music had evolved into a dance genre. Whereas the music of the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers had retained the ideas of folk music; the new Western Swing was designed for dancing. Western Swing took its cue from the 1930s jazz bands.

Guitars

Martin guitars have been a firm favourite for country musicians since the 1920s. The "open" resonating sound of these high quality guitars suit the country and western chordal style. The Gibson L-5 was also popular and was the instrument played by Maybelle Carter. Country music like all genres evolves with the technical advancement of instruments and recording; in that respect the recordings of the Carter Family reflect the early guitar roots of a style of playing that would influence the rock bands of the 1960s.

The Dobro Resonator guitar was also used from the 1930s onwards. Its unique timbre appealed to country guitarists and its volume allowed it to be heard amongst the expanding line-up of instruments.

Other instruments that are commonly used in country music are the fiddle and banjo.

Essential Country Guitarists and Recordings

• The Carter Family - a long career has led to many Carter Family recordings but the early recordings between 1927 and 1941 on the Victor label are considered to be the best of the original Carter family line-up. Some of the Carter Family's radio performances are in the public domain and can be found on-line for listening or download.

• Jimmie Rodgers - his first hit record was "Blue Yodel (T for Texas)". The first country solo artist to achieve national fame in the US.

• Hank Williams - the writer of "Your Cheating Heart" and "Hey, Good Lookin"

• Willie Nelson - the country performer and song-writer who wrote "Crazy" (Patsy Cline).

• Chet Atkins - one of the architects of the "Nashville" sound. A guitarist of wide skills who has performed on the records of Elvis Presely and the Everley Brothers; as well as issuing his own solo releases and duos with the guitarist Jimmy Reed.

Metal

This article uses musical notation called tablature. If you are inexperienced in reading tablature, you might want to visit this page

Heavy Metal is a genre of music that stemmed from rock in the late 70's. Today, there are many sub-genres of heavy metal that share similarities and differences. Guitars in heavy metal are almost always distorted and are often downtuned.

Techniques

These are some techniques that are mostly unique to metal or hard rock.

Power Chords

A major element of heavy metal is the use of power chords. Standard tuning of a guitar is (from the thickest string to the thinnest) E,A,D,G,b,e Power chords in this tuning can be performed as follows:

  e|----------------| A power chord consists of a root note, its higher octave, and the lower note's fifth.
  b|----------------|
  G|----------------|
  D|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----Octave
  A|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----Fifth
  E|0-3-5---0-3-5---| <-----Root

Not always, however, does a power chord have to have an octave. It may be simply the root and fifth.

Drop D and Drop Tunings

In dropped tunings, such as dropped D (D,A,D,G,b,e), power chords are more easily played by lowering the bottom (thickest) string two notes. In dropped D, this note is a D. The same riff, transposed and played in dropped D follows:

  e|----------------|
  b|----------------|
  G|----------------|
  D|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----Octave
  A|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----Fifth
  D|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----Root

Playing in this tuning makes it possible to use only one finger to fret all three strings, allowing faster and more complex riffing.

Palm Muting

Also, in metal, palm muting plays a large role, although it is also used in other genres. Palm muting is placing the side of your palm, while playing, close to or on the bridge, and lightly muting the strings. This, combined with heavy distortion, creates a thick, "chug" sound. Just one example of this occurs in DevilDriver's "I Dreamed I Died."

  X's are placed on the line underneath notes which are to be muted.
  
  C#|--------------------------------|--------------------------------|
   A|--------------------------------|--------------------------------|
   E|--------------------------------|--------------------------------|
   B|0--------------00-0-0-3=========|0--------------00-0-0-6=========|
  F#|0--------------00-0-0-3=========|0--------------00-0-0-6=========|
   B|0--------------00-0-0-3=========|0--------------00-0-0-6=========|
                    xx x x                           xx x x 

Pinch Harmonics

Used in lots of kinds of metal, but more in death metal or extreme metal, pinch harmonics create a "screaming" or "squealing" sound. They are sometimes referred to as "Squealies," and mostly are played on the higher strings of the guitar. To perform a pinch harmonic usually requires the use of a plectrum, or pick. The technique involves holding the pick between the thumb and index, lower on the thumb than normal. By doing this, the bottom of the thumb is closer to the strings, and when a note is hit, the thumb should barely touch the vibrating string. This can normally only be heard while the guitar is distorted.

  e|----------------|
  b|----------------|
  G|----------------|
  D|3-2-3-2-3-2-3*--| Often, pinch harmonics are shown by placing an asterisk next to the note that is a harmonic.
  A|3-2-3-2-3-2-----|
  D|3-2-3-2-3-2-----|

Exercises

Here are some tabs that will help you train and condition your fingers.

Power Chords

Here's a basic power chord sequence, no palm muting.

  e|----------------------------------------------------------------|
  B|----------------------------------------------------------------|
  G|----------------------------------------------------------------|
  D|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-6-9-5-|
  A|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-6-9-5-|
  D|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-6-9-5-|

Here's a similar riff, a little harder.

  e|----------------------------------------------------------------|
  B|----------------------------------------------------------------|
  G|----------------------------------------------------------------|
  D|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-3-5-6-0-5-3-6-0-101213| <-\
  A|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-3-5-6-0-5-3-6-0-101213| <-Understand this is "10", "12", 13"
  D|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-3-5-6-0-5-3-6-0-101213| <-/

An even tougher riff, using palm muting.

  e|----------------------------------------------------------------|
  B|----------------------------------------------------------------|
  G|----------------------------4-------------5-7-8-----------5-7-8-|
  D|003-2-1-001-2-3-003-2-1-003-4-3-003-6-3-005-7-8-0-5-3-6-0-5-7-8-|
  A|003-2-1-001-2-3-003-2-1-003-2-3-003-6-3-003-5-6-0-5-3-6-0-3-5-6-| 
  D|003-2-1-001-2-3-003-2-1-003---3-003-6-3-00------0-5-3-6-0-------|
    xx      xx      xx      xx      xx      xx      x       x

A riff that requires clever use of fingers:

   B|----------------|
  F#|----------------|
   D|--------------7-|
   A|----------------|
   E|223-5-3-6-3-225-|
   A|223-5-3-6-3-22--|
     xx          xx

Fast Riffing

	Metal Exercise 1 The audio file of the riff below.
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

  e|--------------------------------| Remember to start slowly and build up speed once you understand the riff.
  B|--------------------------------|
  G|--------------------------------|
  D|--------------------------------|
  A|----------5-----------5-0-3/6---|
  D|0-3-6-0-6---0-3-6-0-6---0-3/6---|
    x x   x x   x x   x x   x     

  e|--------------------------------|
  b|--------------------------------|
  G|--------------------------------|
  D|0-0-0-3/6-0-0-0-----0-1/3-0-1---| Note: You may find it easier to slide from 3 to 6 with your middle finger
  A|0-0-0-3/6-0-0-0-----0-1/3-0-1---| rather than your index.
  D|0-0-0-3/6-0-0-0-3/6-0-1/3-0-1---|
    x x x     x x x     x        ^^^
                                 Hold note

This riff does not only involve power chords:

  e|--------------------------------|
  b|--------------------------------|
  G|--------------------------------|
  D|--------------------------------|
  A|----2---1---2-----------5-2-2-3-|
  D|2-2---2---2---2-2-2-2-2-5-2-2-3-|(x2)
    x x   x   x   x x x x x   x x 
  
  
  e|--------------------------------|
  b|--------------------------------|
  G|--------------------------------|
  D|----0-------0-------------------|
  A|----0---4---0-----------3-0-0-1-|
  D|0-0---0-6-0---0-0-0-0-0-3-0-0-1-|(x2)
    x x   x   x   x x x x x   x x

Pinch Harmonics

Metal Styles

This section should explain some differences between many genres of metal and provide example riffs in the style of each.

Progressive Metal

Progressive metal tends to use long, dramatic song structures as well as unusual time signatures. Typically progressive metal draws influence from both metal and progressive rock. There is no defining progressive metal sound, and many progressive metal bands also fit within other genres. Some examples include Neurosis, Fates Warning, Dream Theater and Opeth.

Death Metal

Death metal evolved out of thrash metal. Death metal tends to use alot of dramatic tempo and key changes as well as atonal chromatic riffing. The genre is famous for its distinct vocal style; called the "death grunt" which is a low, growling form of singing that often make lyrics very hard to make out. Some examples include Origin, Necrophagist, Cannibal Corpse, Suffocation, Deicide, Behemoth and Death.

B|--------------------------------|
G|--------------------------------|
D|--------------------------------|
A|--------------------------------|
E|----4---3-----------4---3-------|
B|2-3---3---2-0-1-2-3---3---2-0-1-|

Doom Metal

Doom metal focuses on very slow tempos and atmospheric riffs, with the purpose of creating an eerie and depressive sound. This is probably the metal subgenre with less palm muting and "chug" riffs. Some examples include Candlemass, Cathedral, Funeral, Paradise Lost and Solitude Aeternus.

Black Metal

Black metal is death metal's faster, grimmer sounding cousin. Instead of focusing on being as heavy as possible black metal tends to focus on atmospheric riffs. Some black metal uses keyboards to add a symphonic sound. Some examples of black metal include: Mayhem, Darkthrone, Burzum, Emperor, Gorgoroth, Cradle Of Filth and Celtic Frost.

Grindcore

Grindcore started as a form of screamcore and consisted of mainly highs, but has now evolved into one of the most brutal genres in the metal scene because of the dropped tuning used (mainly drop A) extremely low growls, pig squeals and highs. Such bands are, The Partisan Turbine, Implosive Disgorgence, and Chelsea Grin.

Speed Metal

Speed metal, as the name indicates, focuses greatly on speed, so much that the entire song can be composed solely by shredding. A very good example would be Dragonforce. A complaint of this is the same as complaints of shredding in general, which is the possible loss of tonal quality and a lack of melodic structure. Speed metal was a commonly used name for early thrash and fast power metal.

Thrash Metal

Thrash metal started as a hybrid of speed metal and thrash, an offshoot of hardcore punk. Thrash metal tends to employ fast, gallop picked rhythms and complex, technical parts. Some examples of thrash metal are Slayer, Anthrax, Metallica, early Sepultura and Metal Church. Some examples of thrash/thrashcore/crossover thrash are Dirty Rotten Imbeciles, Stormtroopers of Death, Municipal Waste and Charles Bronson.

Alternative/Groove Metal

Groove metal/post-thrash evolved out of thrash metal. Groove metal bands tend to include slow, chunky riffs alongside more thrash oriented riffs. Groove metal was rather successful during the mid-90s and spawned nu-metal. Some examples of groove metal are Pantera, DevilDriver, later Sepultura and Lamb of God.

Metalcore

Metalcore is hardcore punk with metal influences. Metalcore evolved in New York. As New York Hardcore bands added beatdown parts and gradually added more and more metal influences the common 'tough guy' sound became more and more heavy. Some metalcore bands are Shai Hulud, Botch, Killswitch Engage and Throwdown.

Jazz

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Jazz Basics

Jazz Chords: The guitar in jazz has a chequered history. Early jazz bands (circa.early 1900s) relied on the banjo because of its ability to match the volume of the other instruments. The early jazz scene did feature great jazz acoustic players like Django Reinhardt and listening to his recordings, especially "Nuages", is considered essential for anyone interested in learning jazz guitar. It was the invention of the arch-top guitar with its louder volume that finally led to the complete demise of the banjo in modern jazz. However the idea of a jazz guitarist as a featured soloist was still to come and the early guitarists tended to play block chords to provide rhythmic support. These early jazz guitarists had to adopt a very economical chordal style to match some of the fast tempos they were expected to play. This involved 3 or 4 note chords and the legacy of this is to be found in all jazz guitar styles. Here are three exercises designed for jazz beginners with the focus on expanding chord vocabulary:

Exercise One: Four Note Jazz Chords In Root Position

G major

G maj7

G7

G6

Exercise Two: Four Note Jazz Chords In First Inversion

E major

E maj7

E7

E6

Exercise Three: Three Note Jazz Chords In Second Inversion

C major

C maj7

C7

C6

Jazz Forms Any student of jazz has to be familiar with the two main forms: the twelve bar blues and the thirty-two-bar ballad. A very famous thirty-two bar song is "Misty" by Errol Garner and many other jazz standards also use this form. Jazz musicians have also used the twelve-bar blues form extensively.

Fake Book Fake Books are collections of jazz standards (tunes that are in most musicians' repertoires) by the likes of Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, Bud Powell, Miles Davis, Duke Ellington, etc. You should start by getting a Fake Book and recordings of the tunes. Listen to the songs and get a general feel for the jazz style.

Note that a fakebook is a good aid for learning tunes, but professional jazz musicians are expected to develop a large repertoire of memorized tunes. It is also helpful to learn tunes in every key, though the fakebook will usually present them in the most common key. This approach has two benefits: one, it forces you to consider the relationships between the chords rather than simply memorizing the chord names to play; and two, many singers perform tunes in keys other than the "book key."

Jazz Style Much of jazz rhythm has what is known as the swing feel. While not all jazz playing consists of this rhythm (some may have the straight eighth feel) it is important to get acclimated to the style as it is a milestone in learning jazz tunes.

Essential Jazz Guitarists and Recordings

Here is a list of jazz guitarists every guitarist should know, in more-or-less chronological order.

• Charlie Christian was the first guitarist to popularize the electric guitar as a solo instrument in jazz. Listen to the recordings he made with Benny Goodman in the late 1930s, including "Solo Flight."
• Django Reinhardt was a gypsy jazz guitarist who played swinging single-note lines on the acoustic guitar. Listen to his recordings with the Hot Club of France from the late 1930s.
• Tal Farlow brought the harmonic and melodic innovations of the Bebop style of jazz to the guitar. His mid-1950s recordings are recommended listening.
• Jim Hall brought a motif-based style of improvisational development to the jazz guitar. His recordings with Bill Evans are an excellent starting point.
• Wes Montgomery is renowned for his horn-like single lines, innovative octaves, and 'impossible' chord solos. The three essential Wes Montgomery recordings, all from the early 1960s, are "The Incredible Jazz Guitar of Wes Montgomery," "Full House," and "Smokin' At The Half Note."
• George Benson is known for his improvisation as well as his more popular later works. Listen to his work with organists Jack McDuff and Dr. Lonnie Smith.
• Pat Martino is known for his fluid single-line improvisation. A good introduction to his playing is "Live At Yoshi's," featuring organist Joey DeFrancesco and drummer Billy Hart.
• Joe Pass was a great improvisor, but he is known especially for his solo chord-melody arrangements of jazz standards. Essential listening includes the "Virtuoso" series of recordings which showcase his solo pieces.
• John McLaughlin is known as a pioneering jazz-rock guitarist. His work in the 1970s with the Mahavishnu Orchestra should be considered essential listening.
• John Scofield is known for his angular lines and use of dissonance. For new jazz listeners, his two recordings with Medeski Martin and Wood are probably the best introduction to his playing.
• Allan Holdsworth is a jazz-rock guitarist known for his peerless technique and his unique approach to harmony. "Believe It," a mid-1970s jazz-rock recording by the New Tony Williams Lifetime, and "None Too Soon," a more straight-ahead jazz recording under Holdsworth's name, are both essential listening.
• Pat Metheny is known for his small-group work as well as his work with the Pat Metheny Group. A good introduction to his playing is the record "Bright Size Life," which also features electric bassist Jaco Pastorius.

Jazz Movement Exercises

These three exercises lend themselves to the 12-bar blues form. They are designed to aid movement along the fretboard and to give the student the chance to practice applying one chord on each beat of a bar.

Jazz Movement Exercise One

G major

C major

G7

C major

Jazz Movement Exercise Two

C major

F major

C7

F major

Jazz Movement Exercise Three

D major

G major

D7

G major

Classical Guitar

Classical Guitar

The classical guitar has a historical development that can be traced back to the lute and vihuela music of the 15th century. It is this historical basis that gives the classical guitar its technique and repertoire. Of all the guitar disciplines, it is the classical guitar which has the greatest amount of literature and music available to the student. One of the greatest of the past masters of classical guitar, Andres Segovia:

"The strongest advice I give to my pupils is to study music properly from the beginning to the end - like the career of a sergeant or a physician, it is the same. It is a shame that most guitarists are absolutely clean of this knowledge. My advice is to study music properly and not to omit any knowledge of music and not to be very impatient about giving concerts. He who is impatient mostly arrives at his goals late. Step by step is the only way"

Quote from Segovia! A 13-part series aired on National Public Radio. First aired April 1983 and produced by Larry Snitzler (Classical Guitarist) and hosted by Oscar Brand (Musicologist/Folk Guitarist).

Any guitarist who wishes to learn to read music should use classical works. Classical studies are designed to develop the student's sight-reading skills at the optimum speed. Classical guitarists use standard works to learn from; especially the works of Fernando Sor (1778–1839), Mauro Giuliani (1781-1829), Matteo Carcassi (1792-1853) and Francisco Tárrega (1852–1909). For complete beginners, the author Frederick Noad has provided the books: Solo Guitar Playing One and Two. These two books by Noad assumes that the student has no previous experience of reading music and he has carefully arranged the lessons with this in mind.

The Parts Of The Classical Guitar

Equipment

Foot-stool An essential item for all guitarists. It allows the left leg to be raised when the student is sitting. The early classical players explored all the various playing positions and the seated position with a foot-stool was found to give the greatest access to the fretboard and allowed barres to be played with ease.

Music stands A music stand allows the guitarist to maintain his playing position while providing minimum stress on the body. Whether you are a rock guitarist who stands up to play or a classical guitarist who sits; the simple act of setting up a music stand to work with, increases the learning curve.

Metronome A metronome is the ideal tool for improving one's timing. Ideally you should buy a traditional wooden metronome with a wind-up mechanism. Though computers offer a digital version, the wooden metronome provides an organic "click" sound which is pleasing to play along with for extended periods. Be aware that the metronome highlights your timing errors. Always set the metronome to its slowest speed and then play. Only after mastering a piece of music at the metronome's slowest speed should you increase the tempo.

Nails The classical guitarist plays without a plectrum. Pianists can play the notes of a simple C major chord, so that they all sound at the same time. This can only be achieved on the guitar with the right-hand finger nails. A classical guitarist will place his right-hand finger nails on the notes of a chord and will give a slight twist; almost as though he were twisting the lid of a jar. This technique allows all the notes of the chord to sound at the same time. Therefore it is essential that your nails should be considered. Professional guitarists in all genres use nail hardener; this can be found in any chemist. The nails should be filed with a fine-grade paper.

Guitar Stand Do not lean your guitar against walls or furniture because this is the most common cause of neck breakage during accidents. A guitar stand will keep your guitar out of the case and ready to play. Buy the best stand available on the market since all the better guitar stands have soft covers on any edges that will protect your guitar if the stand is knocked over.

Classical Guitarists

• John Williams
• Julian Bream
• Christopher Parkening
• Andres Segovia
• Ida Presti

Flamenco

Flamenco is the music of Spain. In Spain the word flamenco is not just associated with the guitar but also the people, songs and dances of Spain. The history of flamenco follows that of Spain. When the Moors ruled Southern Spain they brought with them their instruments and the most important of these was the Ud. This eastern lute is still to be found all over the world but in Spain it collided with European ideas and flamenco is the product. Flamenco is woven into the life of the region of Andalucia where it originated and the people actively engage in the songs and dances. The guitar has always been the main instrument used in flamenco to support the dancers and singers due its percussive timbre. The early flamenco guitarists very rarely played solo; their role was purely to provide music for the dancers and singers. The rise of the solo flamenco guitarist is a late development and many of the great flamenco soloists are also renowned for their ability to accompany singers and dancers.

Flamenco Guitar

The modern classical guitar and its physical development can be traced back to the Spanish guitar-maker Torres. Alongside the classical guitar is the flamenco guitar. The flamenco guitar has the same history and the greatest luthiers in Spain have always made both types of guitar. The main structural difference the flamenco guitar has in relation to the classical guitar is a thinner body. This creates a timbre that is sharp and percussive. This is considered the ideal sound with which to accompany dancers. The flamenco guitar also has wooden tuning-pegs, which is the traditional method of construction for all early guitars. The need for the classical guitar to be able to be heard in a concert hall and the demand for greater resonance from classical composers; means that the classical guitar has left behind the use of wooden tuning-pegs and its body size has increased in comparison to the flamenco guitar. In many respects the flamenco guitar is similar in construction to the guitars of earlier centuries.

Flamenco Artists

Paco de Lucia and Sabicas are two flamenco guitarists that all students of the guitar should be aware of. Both have played a major part in the changes of this evolving art form. Sabicas developed the technique of tremelo and Paco de Lucia extended the harmonic framework with his use of jazz chord voicings. Juan Martin is a flamenco guitarist who keeps the traditional forms sharply in focus and provides the clearest guide for beginners wishing to study the various flamenco forms.

Flamenco Forms

The flamenco forms have been developed over a long time. There is a distinction of terms when flamenco forms are described. When flamenco vocal forms are described they are called "cantes" and the guitarist forms are called "toques". Each flamenco form has certain rhythmic and tonal qualities that encapsulate the form and flamenco guitarists are expected to have a knowledge of the origin and usage of these.

• Bulerias
• Soleares
• Seguirillas
• Tientos

Flamenco Chord Progression

This is a very common chord progression that most guitarists who wish to learn flamenco start with.

A minor

G major

F major

E major

A descending one octave Phrygian mode starting from the note "E" which can be played over the above chord progression.

Flamenco Technique

• Golpe - the Spanish word for "tap". This technique involves "tapping" the body of the guitar to produce a percussive sound. The third finger of the right-hand strikes the table of the guitar with the nail and flesh. Flamenco guitars have a "golpeador" (plastic cover) which protects the wood of the guitar during the use of this technique

• Rasgueo - this is the most common strumming technique for flamenco. The right-hand is formed into a closed fist with the thumb resting against the guitar or low E string for support, and each finger is flicked out one at a time (4-stroke rasgueo) to sound the strings with the nails. A common variation is to use the technique with only the index finger. The index finger is also used for the up-stroke which only strikes the treble strings after the completion of the 4-stroke rasgueo.

General Guitar Theory

Tone and Volume

3 zones of distortion

The starting point for dialing-in various electric Rock guitar tone is not a crystal-clean full-range amplifier and speaker, but rather, a tube power amp pushing a guitar speaker that has limited frequency response, with the power tubes on the edge of breakup.

With power-tube distortion, and to a lesser extent with preamp tube distortion or solid-state distortion pedals, there are three zones: Clean, Compressed, and Distorted, somewhat corresponding to the terms Clean, Crunch or Rhythm, and Lead. The Clean zone ranges from literally clean with linear response, to the beginning of warmth and some smoothing and coloration. The Compressed zone ranges from slightly warm, smoothed, and colored, into slightly audible distortion. The Distorted zone runs from slight breakup to full distortion.

Controlling distortion voicing

An electric guitar has a volume control and tone control. The volume control almost always has a side-effect on equalization as you turn it down, affecting the pre-distortion equalization (EQ). The tone control reduces the amount of treble, affecting the pre-distortion EQ and thus the distortion voicing.

For increased control of the pre-distortion EQ, place an equalizer pedal in-between the guitar and the first distortion stage such as a distortion pedal or the guitar amp's built-in preamp. Switch between all the pickup settings, in conjunction with changing the distortion settings and EQ settings, to use the full range of basic sounds or "tones" the amp can produce.

The preamp Gain control on the distortion channel of the amp, or the Distortion control on a distortion pedal, sometimes has a side-effect of changing the equalization and thus the distortion voicing. In that case, you can use a lower distortion setting combined with a higher volume setting prior to the distortion stages, to dial-in a different distortion voicing with the same amount of distortion.

The tone stack on a standard tube amp is in-between the preamp distortion and the power-tube distortion. Thus the tone stack acts as the final part of shaping the preamp distortion voicing and also shapes the power-tube distortion voicing, together with the Master Volume control, which affects the amount of power-tube distortion voicing. For maximum power-tube distortion, set the tone controls and Master Volume to maximum, which is equivalent to bypassing them entirely.

When setting the preamp distortion, learn all the ways to adjust the equalization before the preamp distortion, including the guitar's volume and tone controls, a wah pedal, an equalization pedal, and any other volume or tone controls prior to the distortion stage. These affect the distortion voicing. More treble causes the treble to predominate in the complex clipping, resulting in a glassy liquid breakup tone; more bass prior to a distortion stage causes a dry, crusty breakup tone.

The same principles hold for controlling the power-tube distortion voicing. Learn all the ways to affect the equalization and level prior to the tube power amp, but after the preamp distortion.

Obtaining distortion independently of volume

To get power-tube distortion quietly or independently of volume level, use a power attenuator or an amplifier that has a built-in power attenuator, or a built-in power-supply based power attenuation (Power Scaling, Power Dampening, a Sag circuit, or a Variac).

It is possible to further voice the power-tube distortion by placing a dummy load (usually a power attenuator set entirely to use its built-in dummy load), an equalizer, and then a solid-state power amp between the power tubes and the guitar speaker.

A guitar speaker is a complex dynamic filter and transducer. Line-level cabinet simulators attempt to simulate this complex dynamic sound.

In the recording studio, the amp head and speaker cabinet are typically separated and the miked speaker cabinet is placed with microphones in a soundproofed isolation booth or in the live room. Either location is a soundproofed room separate from the control room where the mic signals return and the full-range monitor speakers reside for listening to the resulting power-tube distortion sound or loud quasi-clean amp sound at a controlled volume. In a home studio, the guitar speaker is sometimes placed in an isolation box with microphones.

Place one or two microphones near the guitar speaker. If you use two microphones, this causes some complex comb filtering; be prepared to swing the mixer's equalization for the two channels around very freely, because the effects of comb filtering are unpredictable. If you use a single microphone, setting the mixer's equalization is more straightforward.

External links

• AmpTone. Guitar amp, tone, effects placement, and cranked-amp tone at any volume
• Tons of Tones !! : Site for technical information on Amplifier Modelling

Writing Songs

Now that you've got some skill and control over the guitar, you want to start writing and performing your own songs. But all your famous artists have such amazing, complicated songs, it's hard to know where to begin.

This page is a general guide to writing songs on the guitar. Although it won't necessarily teach you to write a Top 40 hit, it will give you some general ideas on how to write an effective song. If you haven't already, please read the Singing and Playing section.

General Tips

• Keep it simple. The most popular, catchy tune on the radio is probably the simplest, most oft reproduced melody in the world. But that doesn't stop you from humming it all day, does it? Never forget that when some people hear "a complex, thought-provoking piece", others hear "an over complicated mess."
• Have confidence. Your song may not be the best in the world, but a gutsy, less talented performer is always more admired than an amazing performer that is too shy to get a single note out.
• Keep trying. If you don't "figure it out" immediately, that doesn't mean that you never will. If something sounds terrible, try the opposite, or only use the second half of whatever your work on. The key is to keep trying different things until something clicks.
• Don't get frustrated. If absolutely nothing is clicking, then just come back to it later. Record whatever you have, take a break, and play it again later. The song isn't going anywhere you aren't going, and it'll still be there the next day.
• "Borrow" someone else's melody. Often the best melody is the one that already exists. The history of music (and any art, really) is checkered with people taking bits and pieces from other artists and adding their own spin to it. However, this doesn't mean you should just copy some famous song and call it your own, because chances are someone else will notice. Other songs should be used as a source of ideas, not something you can photocopy.
• Ask someone else. You might be stuck in the same rut, but that doesn't mean anyone else is. Ask another musician (or even a regular person) what they think might fit well. Sometimes the advice will be surprising. With this method you have to be careful of copyright issues, especially if you make it big.

Turning Chords into Songs

Often players come up with a catchy riff or two, and they're not sure how to develop it into more. Songs typically are built up in layers; for example, in a band, one guitarists creates a riff, and another adds a catchy lick over top, the bass player brings in something to support it and the drummer keeps time and adds some interesting rhythms. Even though the first guitar part might still be the same, it is ultimately the contribution of the other parts that turns a few chords into a song.

The most important thing to remember when writing a song is that very little sounds good completely on it's own, and generally it requires at least more than one part to make things interesting. There are many ways to add a second part to a song. For instance, some players (especially those that can finger pick) can simultaneously play a bass line on the thicker strings and a melody on the thin strings. Really complicated riffs can also sound good on their own, however these tend to be difficult to write and you may not have enough technical skill for complicated writing.

Another player can also add depth to a riff. For example, a bass player can add another sound texture, and having two players allow them to bounce melodies off one another. The song Dueling Banjos from the movie Deliverance is a good example of how two players can create an interesting, purely instrumental song.

But if none of these options are available to you, or perhaps you only like to compose songs alone, there is always one other layer you can add to any progression; your voice. Amazing singing can turn even the simplest progression into a groundbreaking song

Creating Melodies and Hooks

The main melody, often called the "hook" in popular, radio friendly music, is the catchy, often repeated words and melody that makes the song most memorable. In most songs, especially modern music, the hook is contained somewhere in the chorus. However, this is not always true, as some songs use hooks in the verses, or put hooks in both the verse and chorus.

In general, it is much easier to put words to a melody, rather than a melody to some words. Words tend to have their own syncopation, and this can make it tough to make them fit with an irregular strumming pattern. Already having words is also tough because generally the author does not want to change them.

There are certain cases where putting music to words is a better option. For instance, a rhyming poem or free verse with a regular meter can easily be made a song. Simple chord progressions lend themselves well to these sorts , especially the I - IV - V and IV - V - I.

Often when you are creating a song, a chord progression comes easily, but it is tough to figure out what goes over top. Even if it seems difficult, there are many ways to make things easier for yourself.

• Record a chord progression, then play it back and try to hum or whistle a melody over top. Often this is enough to get things started and get you unstuck. You can accomplish the same thing by just playing the progression over and over again, but it takes a surprising amount of coordination to play a new riff and spontaneously invent a melody.

• Record a chord progression, and then try to solo on top of it. This is similar to the first method, but actually using the fretboard can help you figure out what notes work best.

• Isolate a particular part of the progression and repeat it over and over until you come up with some sort of start. it is best to use at least two chord changes, because just strumming the same chord all the time is uninteresting, and it tends to make coming up with a melody even more difficult.

Another approach is to begin with a melody form, and then put chords behind it to turn it into a song. This may be more challenging, especially if you already have a chord progression you really enjoy, but sometimes approaching a problem from a different angle can make things easier overall.

For instance, in the well known 'Danny Boy' or 'Derry Air' as it is sometimes called, the 'hook' is found where the melody appears to try to surge forward into the chorus and the words "But come ye back" accompany that surge in chord progression.

Use a Method

It is recommended that you work following some simple procedures instead of just trying to come up with something remarkable from scratch. Here are some guidelines on how to work step by step in order to be more efficient.

• Choose or come up with a scale for the song before you start working on it. Although experienced guitarists might be able to follow a scale subconsciously, thus skipping this step, it is better for beginners to use a scale so as to avoid inconsistencies and to set a mood for the piece. Keep experimenting with scales until you find one that suits the tone you want to give and then start working on the song. Note that you can change scales for different parts of the song, what you shouldn't do is change scale in the middle of a single riff or melody. Also keep in mind that when you are more confident with your guitar you can break away from the scale and use notes not included in it, but the best way to work is to play along the predefined scale and play an odd note only when you want to add a different tone. This usually results in a more original melody, but is hard and might result in sounding like random notes if not used properly.

• Keep in mind the desired result. You won't get a very good result by simply coming up with random riffs. You must always focus on what you want to create. For example, you might want to create a complicated, original riff for the intro to attract the listener's attention or you might prefer a more melodic but less memorable intro. Either way, you must always have the goal in mind instead of composing aimlessly and keeping the riffs that sound good. This way you won't end up with a style you didn't intend to create.

• Start simple. If, for example you want a a complex riff you should start with a very simple melody and then modify it gradually, by expanding it, for example, or altering the rhythm, until you get the desired result. This will not always give better results, but it's easy for beginners.

Also see the Writing Effective Songs wikibook for more help.

{Playing With Others

Almost as soon as you start playing the guitar, you start meeting lots of other guitarists. Eventually, you will wind up playing with some of them, in some sort of informal jam sessions, where friends play anything that tickles their fancy.

Playing with others is helped incredibly by having some basic knowledge of music theory along with some amount of talent or skill. This is especially true if you intend to improvise a melody or chord progression. this section will provide the basics of considerate playing, along with some tips on how to keep playing interesting.

The Makeup of a Band

Even if you never intend to play in a large group of people, it's still important to know the basic divisions of a band, because you never know what might happen tomorrow. Learning about how a band works can also help you learn new songs from popular groups, as well as improve your knowledge of general music theory, and your appreciation for music.

As explained in the lead guitar and rhythm guitar section, guitar playing essentially breaks down to two, somewhat overlapping categories; rhythm and lead (sometimes called melody). In a band, the rhythm guitar is more generally associated with the drums, bass, background vocals and less prominent instruments, while the melody guitar would be related to the lead vocals or any other lead instrument.

Thus, when you are playing only with two people, almost immediately one player provides the chords and groove of a song, while another play contributes a melody that compliments the song's progression. With more people playing, this division becomes less strict, and players can shift from playing more of less prominent parts.

In general, it is almost always better to play with more than two people, because with more people, whatever piece you are playing is less likely to fall apart when the first person screws up. If you only play with one another person, consider including a metronome or a mp3 drum track in the background. Electronic accompaniment helps you keep a steady pace, and helps you learn to not "rush" or "drag" in the group.

Proper Playing Attitudes

The most important thing to remember about playing with others can learned by carefully listening to any piece of recorded music: Every player contributes to the song with an appropriate tone and volume, and never plays in excess of that. Essentially this just means you shouldn't try to outplay and outshine everyone else in the group, because no one likes a showoff. It doesn't matter how good you are (or think you are), you should never play so much that it drowns everyone else out.

If not overplaying is the most important thing about jamming, then the second most important is listening. The key to improvisation is to listen to the interplay of all the other instruments, and to add to that whatever sounds best. Listening is, unfortunately, a very neglected skill among beginning musicians, and really, most musicians in general.

A common tendency, especially among those who have just begun to get a solid foundation in scale theory and technique, is to noodle around aimlessly on the fretboard with little or no regard for the shape of the song that is being played, or the structure of the arrangement. This is a huge mistake, and it leads to music that no one wants to listen to; worse yet, it does nothing to develop the musician who plays it.

Pay attention to the music that is being played around you. Add to it only when it is necessary. You should begin to hear the lines that you want to play before you play them. What you are shooting for here is something akin to the old koan about sculpting: the figure is already in the marble, and you are just trying to release it.

It is also important to make sure that you do not take up too much "space" in the arrangement, which is to say, do not play so loudly that other instruments must fight to be heard. This is especially a problem for rhythm guitarists in jam sessions, who must be careful not to drown out soloists.

Staying in the Right Key

Perhaps the most important thing to do when playing with others is to remember what key you are in. The "key" of a piece is essentially the scale of notes that the song uses, but it also affects what the correct chords are to play on each note. Suppose there is only yourself and another guitarist playing, and the other guitarist is playing rhythm. The chord progression they are playing determines the key of the song, which naturally suggests certain notes for you, the lead guitarist.

Even if you have absolutely no knowledge of music theory, everyone can generally tell when you play a wrong note. Although advanced players can often add in "wrong" notes for colour (known in music theory as an accidental), for beginners it is important to know what notes are in what keys, so they can use the most appropriate notes.

For example, the rhythm guitarist might be playing a three chord blues riff in the key of B minor. Even if you didn't know the key, often the first and last chord of a progression can be good indicators of commonly used keys. At the very least, the general tone of the progression will be enough to indicate if it is a major or minor key. in this case, once you knew the key, you could immediately start soling in any B minor scale, such as the B minor pentatonic scale. However, since music is creative, it is impossible to be "limited", and you also have available a number of other soloing scales, like the the pentatonic scale or any of the modes. For example, the Phrygian mode has traditionally been the "Spanish scale". Modes are much more complex and require knowledge of music theory to get the most benefit from them.

Improvising

There is also a basic approach to improvising which is more simple than playing over a chord accompaniment. It also predates Western tuning systems and chords. It is produced by playing a moving melody on one higher-pitched string, while leaving a lower note ringing on another "open", or lower-pitched (unfretted) string. The static bass note is referred to as a "pedal tone". The lower note drones or stays the same and the upper note moves, creating both simple harmonic and melodic motion. Traditional instruments which have fewer strings and a smaller range than the guitar use this technique. It can be heard in many musical styles in both Eastern and Western musical traditions including those with guitar.

This technique can be found both within Western tuning systems which use 12 semitones per octave as well as beyond in more complex Eastern tuning systems. Therefore before attempting to improvise a solo over a chord progression or a series of chords in a particular key, it is useful to practice playing simple melodies on one (upper) string to familiarize your ear with the intervals, or distances between those fretted notes and a static open, un-fretted (lower) string below it which is sounding simultaneously. Another advantage of this is that with each pair of notes you play, different intervals are sounded. Your ear begins to detect these and this is a basic form of ear training.

Well-known Improv Bands

Wikipedia has related information at Musical improvisation

• w:The Grateful Dead
• w:Throbbing Gristle
• w:The Jimi Hendrix Experience
• w:Led Zeppelin
• w:King Crimson
• w:Can (band)
• w:Phish
• w:moe.
• w:Particle
• w:The Disco Biscuits
• w:Widespread Panic
• w:Cream
• w:Dave Matthews Band

Recording Music

So you've been practicing and practicing, and finally, you're ready to record your first demo. But where to begin? Should you go to a professional studio, or just try to do it yourself at home? What kind of equipment and software will you need? Although everyone talks like they could write and record an entire album in a weekend, recording is a surprisingly tricky and detailed job. Remember that professionals go to school to learn how to record musicians.

This page is a guide for musicians that already have their own songs and are ready to record them. It will cover the basics of the recording process, what to expect with a professional studio, and outline an ideal home recording setup.

What Gets Recorded When

Drums: Generally speaking, it's a good idea to record the drums and percussion first. This will help all the other recording musicians follow the right beat, instead of the drummer having to follow the other off-beat musicians.

Bass: Should be recorded second, as it's the middle ground between the basic beat of the drums and the chords of the rhythm guitar.

Rhythm Guitar: Gets recorded third, as it's the foundation for the lead guitar.

Lead Guitar: Follows the rhythm guitar, and will give direction to some of the vocalist's melodies.

Vocals: Very last, as the vocalist will be able to wrap melodies around the bass and rhythm guitar's chords, and the lead guitarist's soloing melodies. Vocals are sometimes recorded as a "guide track" to help the other musicians "feel" their way and then at the final stage is replaced with a more focused performance.

All in this order, of course, assuming you don't have the space and tools to make a live recording.

Mixing

When it comes to mixing volume levels and other audio dynamics, one needs to take several things into consideration. First, which instruments should be heard the most? In a guitar-focused rock band, one may want to give the lead or rhythm guitar more prominence. In funk or dance music, the bass may want to be given more space. However, certain instruments may also need more focus at different times in the song. If there is a banjo playing in the background in a rock song, but it eventually gets a solo part, one may want to increase the volume at the point of the solo.

The second thing to consider is special effects and left-right panning. Should the guitar be given a delay effect at some parts? Perhaps the bass may need a flange effect, or backing vocals should pan from left to right during the bridge?

Another important thing to keep in mind is the master volume level. At no point in your song should the listener need to abruptly turn down the volume for fear of breaking his/her speakers!

Professional Studio

Although you have more "creative control" in a personal setting, having professional sound technicians taking care of the recording make things much, much easier.

Personal Studio

Based on your budget and space available, your home recording studio layout and design will vary. What really affects your home studio is the type of instrumentation you intend to record. For a guitarist, you could use a computer, audio interface, amplifier, guitar and a dynamic mic. For more advanced music composition, you could add a hardware mixer, keyboards, drum machines, variety of different microphones, VST software and percussion instruments.

Putting together a small studio at home is relatively inexpensive compared to the price of hiring a professional studio. The power of modern computers gives you a huge variety of recording options and the computer has become the centre of home recording and pro studios. Pro studios buy extra audio processing equipment like expensive compressors and outboard effects which will always give them an advantage over home recording but with a modest investment the home studio can produce a recording quality that most people would find acceptable. All professional musicians usually prepare demo versions of their songs before they go into a costly professional studio and this should also apply to your working method.

Equipment

• Condenser microphones are generally used for recording acoustic guitars and dynamic microphones are more suitable for putting up close to the amplifier speaker. Try not to buy cheap microphones on the basis that the technology used is simple and therefore a cheap microphone will match a microphone like the Shure SM57 (industry standard microphone for recording electric guitar amplifiers and snare drums); the extra cost is reflected in the higher audio quality of your recordings.

• An audio interface is essential for instruments and microphones. Plugging a microphone directly into the computer's microphone input or a guitar into the line-in input produces poor quality results due to the fact that a computer's soundcard and microphone/line inputs are generally not intended for serious recording projects. Audio interfaces can be an external box using USB or Firewire or an internal PCI card with break-out jacks.

• The PC you use determines the amount of tracks you can record. A laptop can be useful for portable recording but they rarely match the usefulness of a high specification PC. You should aim for a minimum of 4GB of RAM and the fastest processor that you can afford. Audio recording and playback places a heavy demand on the computer's resources and this can lead to timing errors, glitches and less tracks but this has become less of an issue with multiple processor machines. Recording software usually comes with a "multiple processor" enabled option and you should check for this when choosing between software packages.

• A good guitar is essential. An entry-level guitar should be replaced with a good quality guitar after a guitarist has mastered open chords and a few scales. This usually means within a year or so from the day they started playing. Guitarists tend to become attached to their first guitar and the danger in this is that the guitar itself hinders the development of higher skills. An entry-level guitar will always sound like an entry-level guitar when recorded. A good rule is to find out what guitar your favourite guitarist plays and buy one of those. Everything that has been said above equally applies to amplifiers.

Recording Environment

PC or Mac?

Recording Software

There are many companies that supply music recording software (DAW - Digital Audio Workstation). Professional studios tend to use Logic Pro but the biggest user base is for Steinberg's Cubase. Logic Pro is expensive and usually needs to be run on a computer that has Logic Pro DSP (soundcards) cards installed; whereas Cubase can run on any machine using the native sound capabilities without compatability issues.

There is a learning curve associated with music software and it will take time before you achieve results that match your expectations. A good example is the virtual mixing desk; one aspect of the software that matches its hardware version down to every detail. On a virtual mixer you can assign auxilary sends and returns, route audio, set instruments in the stereo field, balance volumes, automate changes and much more.

All recording software allows you choose a software driver from a multiple list. If you have bought an audio interface and installed the software, then choose that driver to achieve lower latency. Latency is caused by the analogue to digital conversion of the audio signal and by the processing that takes place before it is sent to your audio outs on your virtual mixing desk. This can be quite disconcerting to the guitarist; a sense of striking the string but not hearing the sound until milliseconds later. This is usually overcome by the audio interface offering direct monitoring. This bypasses the software and provides you with a signal that is not processed. This has its drawback in that you cannot use any software effects but these can be applied to your audio track afterwards.

Here is a list of sound drivers:

MME: early Microsoft driver that still appears as a default in driver drop-down menus. Low performance makes this unsuitable for DAWs.

DX: Microsoft multi-media driver designed for improved graphics and sounds. Offers high latency and is therefore not suitable for DAWs.

WDM: later Microsoft driver that offers improved performance over MME

ASIO: developed for high performance and low latency. This driver is recommended for DAWs. ASIO is not a Microsoft driver and it is essential to check that the DAW you buy supports the protocol.

Direct injection

Direct Injection is one of the most hotly debated decision when recording the sound of guitar. On one hand, if truly direct (that is, does not goes through any amplifier or effects), the extremely clean signal is a blessing for the audio engineer, as he will now have some thing that can be easily manipulated with any effects. On the other hand, some people say that there are no rescue for such a clean signal, no matter what effects were inserted.

Effects to use

Whether you use direct injection or mikes, using computer or traditional 4-tracks, insert the effect while recording or after the recording, you will need to have some to bring life to the otherwise sterile sound.

• Distortion - what makes electric guitar sound great? Distortion, that's what. When combined with proper amount of compression, the sound will be much smoother.
• Compression - In terms of direct injection, compression of an audio signal can help produce a smooth distortion; this effect also produce a sustain on the sound.
• Delay/Echo/Reverb - provide a front-back aural dimension
• Stereo chorus - provide left-right aural dimension.

Some DI-boxes that is specifically designed for recording may also have additional circuitry, to help mimic the sound of some certain cabinet and the position of the mike.

Alternatively, if you can get a hold of a Pre-Dunlop era Rockman, it provides all the tools and setup needed to produce some of the best direct-injected recorded Guitar.

Tips for Recording

• Don't get frustrated! - If you can't get something to sound right, just take a break. Go and do something that is not music related and then try again.

• Re-amping - If your midi tracks sound a bit lifeless then re-amping can put some "air" into the mix. Play the midi track through your amplifier and record back into the DAW onto a separate track.

• Creating a great guitar solo - the professionals may "comp" a solo from many different takes. Jimmy Page (Led Zepplin) and Dave Gilmour (Pink Floyd) are two guitarists who utilize this method of merging the best sections of alternative takes.

• Backup your projects - essential to save and back-up your music projects. Music projects tend to grow quite big as you gain proficiency in developing songs and backing up your work is essential if you don't want to lose earlier takes that you may wish to return to.

Tuning Your Ear

Almost as important as learning how to tune your guitar is learning how to tune your ear. Most people do not have "perfect pitch", which is an umbrella term for anyone who is really accurate at determining or singing notes. Although you can naturally be more or less inclined to hear correct pitches, this is a skill that can be learned, and there are several ways of learning it. However, the truth of the matter is that no one is absolutely "perfect" when it comes to pitch, and indeed, many songs you listen to could be deliberately composed slightly sharp or flat.

Some guitar players prefer their instruments not to be exactly tuned, because it gives some extra texture. Tuning the thinner strings slightly sharp can make chords sound brighter, while tuning thicker strings down slightly can give chords some "bite". Another important reason to learn to tune your ear is that one day you will sit down to jam with someone, and have no tuner available, and you will be forced to tune to one another. This is especially true if you have a band, and you are playing live shows; being able to quickly adjust your instrument can be the difference between a great performance and a terrible one.

Using a Human Voice

If you are in a band, and you have a singer that can never quite hit those notes perfectly, sometimes it is easier to retune your guitar rather than try to retune the singer. Learning to tune your strings to a note someone is singing is a valuable skill, and is surprisingly similar to other regular tuning methods, especially if you can tune to a piano.

First the singer should sing a note, preferably an A or an E, and in the most comfortable range of their singing voice. If they can sing high notes, or different notes on command, it is sometimes easiest to tune each string to the singer, and then quickly do some fine adjustments to make sure the guitar strings are consistent.

Using Dissonance

Players that have been playing for a long time begin to learn what a chord or interval is "supposed" to sound like. Sometimes this is because a favourite song starts with this chord, or because they always play a particular chord type (like a power chord, major barre chord, etc).

With this method of tuning, you simply play the appropriate chord, and then adjust your strings until it sounds "right". For example, switching into Drop D tuning is often easy for many people, because the open power chord has a certain tone when it is properly tuned. Power chords are especially easy to tell when they are out of tune, because they contain only two notes.

Chords for Tuning

These are some common chords that players use to tell if their guitar is properly tuned.

Harmonica and Guitar Combo

The harmonica is an instrument that has found favour with many guitarist. The idea evolved from the blues and country and western musicians of the early part of the 20th century. The role the harmonica plays in providing another timbre has appealed to many artists. Musicians such as Bob Dylan and Neil Young have used the combination to great effect.

Harmonicas exist in two varieties: diatonic and chromatic. The chromatic can play along to music in any key but is harder to master than the diatonic version. The diatonic harmonica is made to play in one key and is easier to learn but you will need to buy more than one. The guitar's natural key is E; so buying a diatonic harmonica in the key of E major would be ideal. The other diatonic harmonicas you should aim to add to your collection is G major and C major. Diatonic harmonicas are cheap and it shouldn't take long before you have a collection of harmonicas that cover every key.

To play both instruments, one would need a way to hold the harmonica while the hands chord and strum the guitar. This is done by the harmonica holder, which goes around the neck, allowing the harmonica to be always in front of your mouth. However, there are a few things to keep in mind:

• Instead of moving the harmonica itself, you will now move your head in order to play the notes. Due to this limitation the solos you "blow" will be slower than if you had the harmonica cupped in your hands.
• Hand-related effects, such as hand vibrato, will be unavailable. Also, due to the lack of hands, there will be no additional resonance from the cupped hands.

Furthermore, since one is multitasking, it's best to know how to play both instruments individually very well, in order to spend less time trying to find each note and chord. When you buy your first harmonica, spend some time learning to play it with your hands. Try playing along to the recordings of Little Walter and Sonny Boy Williamson.

The harmonica will usually be played in the 2nd position (of course one can try other positions). Often the guitar plays the chords, while the harmonica provides the melody. This is because guitars have a much lower octave range than the harmonica; furthermore, guitarists can play chords in different keys easily. Since the harmonica is played in a higher pitch range, this makes it suitable for melodic lines. Another factor is the timbre of the harmonica tends to cut through the sound of resonating guitar chords. Still, this should not stop you reversing the roles, as long as it sounds pleasing.

It is possible to play chromatic harmonicas with a guitar. This can be done with the following:

• Valved Diatonic or XB-40
• Tombo S-50.
• Take off the mouthpiece of a straight tuned chromatic harp. However, one may need to make sure the body's edge is smooth

Note: both S-50 and this method require using the lips to block the non-sounding row; S-50, due to greater distance between rows, is easier at this.

• Use the handless chromatic; essentially a special mouthpiece that move up and down between the rows, controlled by the movement of the head.

Equipment

Guitar Accessories

This page is a list of common (and uncommon) accessories you can get for guitar. It is not a buying guide, but it will give you an idea of what to expect in your local guitar shop. While they are not all necessary for playing guitar, some of them are extremely useful and are a good investment.

Picks

Pick are probably the most frequently bought guitar accessory. There are several reasons, but mostly it is because there are so many types of picks, and picks are so easily lost. When you go to the guitar store, you are overwhelmed by the agony of choice, and this is especially true for the beginner.

Picks are probably as old as guitars themselves, although most modern picks are made out of plastic, or sometimes metal. Apart from shape and size of the picks, its strength and the material used to make it are important, because these affect the "feel" of playing with the pick.

Up until about the 70's, most picks were made out of horn or turtle shell. Turtle shell was generally better, because it allowed some flexibility when hitting the strings. However, over time this was devastating the turtle population, and now most picks are made out nylon or plastic. Generally nylon picks have the same properties of the turtle shells, and plastic picks are thicker and denser. However, the general disadvantage of plastic picks is that they wear out quickly, especially if you play fast and hard.

Since the guitar industry constantly experiments with new materials, you might walk into the guitar shop and find something completely exotic. For example, you can buy picks made from hard leather, which are outstanding for classical guitars because of the soft feeling.

Selecting the correct pick for you depends above all on what style of guitar you want to play. Lead or rhythm? Will you be slowly strumming chords, or chugging away on distorted power chords? Each style is most easily accomplished with a particular type of pick. Generally speaking, how hard a pick you use depends on how hard your strings are. Heavier strings will require thicker picks, and vice versa. The shape of the pick determines how much operating area you have to use. For example, rhythm guitarists usually use blunter, larger picks, and lead guitarists use pointier picks so they can more precisely hit individual strings.

If you use hard picks, you will get a hard sound out of the strings, especially with metal picks. Generally the thicker the pick the less "give" there will be when you strum a chord. However, because no two companies manufacture picks with the same material, Company X's 76 mm pick will feel different than Company Y's 76 mm. Above all, remember that you should always select a pick based on your ability to handle it. You can only play well with a pick if it fits well in your hand.

Picks for the guitar typically range in thickness from the ultra thin 0.38 mm to the really thick 1.14 mm, although bass picks can be thicker. A mid range pick would be something about 76 mm thick. Beginners will usually prefer softer picks until they can learn to hold them securely.

Aside from the thickness and mass of the pick, there also exist different pick types. There's the finger pick, which fits over your fingers with a ring (thumb-pick is special because it's angled), and even your normal picks may have different shapes, such as shark-fin (better at chord), sharppoint, etc.

Strings

Each type of guitar uses its own type of strings. Strings are specifically designed for a type of guitar to give it a particular sort of sound. The differences between string types affect the guitar's tone, and it is not recommended to use a set of strings not made for your guitar. Not only would the result not sound good, but attempting to string a guitar with the wrong kind of strings would be difficult, frustrating, and might damage your instrument.

Three of the best and most popular brands of guitar strings for both acoustic and electric guitar are currently Ernie Ball, D'Addario, and Elixir. Ernie Balls and D'Addarios are much cheaper than Elixirs, but Elixirs will keep their bright tone for months (which is why they are higher-priced). But Elixirs can break as easily as any other strings, so they are perhaps best left to people who have been playing a long time and rarely snap strings. The difference between the other two brands is a matter of taste; try them both.

A classical guitar has three bronze wound strings and three strings made out of nylon, which are the higher pitched.

A set of strings for a steel string acoustic has four bronze wound strings and two silvered steel strings, the steel ones being the thinnest and highest pitched.

A set of electric guitar strings are similar to an acoustic guitar's, except the strings are made of nickel instead of bronze and steel. Often there are three wound strings and three nickel strings, but you can also get four wound and two nickel.

The two most common gauges for the high E string in electric guitars are .009 inches and .010 inches (these measurements appear to be used often even in countries using the metric system). Often a whole set of strings is referred to by the gauge of the high E string, e.g., "nines" or "tens" for .009 and .010 gauges respectively. The beginning guitarist is recommended to start with .009s; many professionals also use this gauge, so many guitarists never "outgrow" it.

However, if you wish to try something new, you may want to try out .010 gauge strings once you get used to the lighter .009s. This is only recommended after you have been playing for a while, as your calluses need time to form, and your fingers need to get stronger. This procedure also applies to strings above the .010 range. There are also .011, .012, and .013 gauge strings readily available from all of the manufacturers mentioned above. The benefit of higher gauge strings is tone. If you are planning on playing metal guitar, or any other genre that uses a lot of distortion or overdrive, you probably will not notice a difference in the sound. Alternatively, if you are playing blues or rock, a higher gauge string will give you a heavier, "dirtier" sound, very preferable to these types of music. Stevie Ray Vaughan is notorious for using very heavy gauge strings (some sources claim .014 gauge), contributing a lot to his signature tone.

Tuning Aids

Electronic tuners are a quick, accurate, and precise method of tuning. A tuner can be used in two ways, either through a built in microphone which detects sound, or by directly jacking in an electric guitar. When a note is played, the tuner determines the note you are playing, and then represents visually how sharp or flat the note is. Most models use a combination of lights and a display screen to indicate the tone of the note.

Electronic tuners can be easily drowned out by background noise when you do not jack directly into them. Because of this, they are best used in a quiet environment.

A tuning fork is a piece of U-shapes piece of metal that, when struck, emits a particular tone. Tuning forks are good because, unless bent, they will always emit the same note. The most common tuning forks resonate at either an A, which at the frequency of 440 hertz, or C. Using a tuning fork is generally recommended for more advanced players. You can buy a tuning fork that sounds the note E. Many guitarists prefer this due to the fact that the guitar's lowest and highest strings are both E.

To use a tuning fork, gently striking the it against the heel of your hand and it will vibrate. Then, set the base of the fork against the body of the guitar, if it is acoustic. The sound of the fork will then be amplified through the guitar, and you can use it to tune your strings. If you have an electric, you must hold the tuning fork to your ear, and then tune your strings. It is important not to strike the fork against a hard surface, as this may bend the fork out of tune.

If you are using an A tuning fork, then you should tune first to the harmonic on A string. However, you can also use the 5th fret on the low E string, the 7th fret of the D string, the 2nd fret on the G string, or the 5th fret on the high E string. All of these frets produce an A, although some are in a higher octave.

A pitchpipe is much like a tuning fork, in that it only plays one note and that note is used for tuning. To use a pitchpipe, you blow through the end like a whistle. Traditional breath powered pitchpipes are notoriously unreliable, because temperature changes can affect the note that they play. You can also purchase electronic pitchpipes, which emit notes through a speaker. Some electronic tuners also have this feature.

Cables

Cables are used to connect two sound devices together, like a guitar and an amplifier. There are many different types, each for a different purpose, and it is good for a guitarist to familiarize themselves with some common types.

String Crank

A string crank is essentially a handle with a rotating cap, designed to fit over top of a tuning peg. It makes unwinding strings much quicker, and some also have a slot to help remove the pegs near the bridge that hold the strings in the body.

Slide

A slide or bottleneck is a ceramic, glass or metal cylinder, usually worn on the fingers rather than held in the hand. The term slide is in reference to the sliding motion of the slide against the strings, while bottleneck refers to the original material of choice for such slides, which were the necks of glass bottles.

Instead of altering the pitch of the strings in the normal manner (by pressing the string against frets), a slide is placed upon the string to vary its vibrating length, and pitch. This slide can then be moved along the string without lifting, creating continuous transitions in pitch.

Capo

A capo (short for capotasto, which is Italian for "head of fretboard") is a device used for shortening the strings, and hence raising the pitch of the guitar. Capos are used to change the key and pitch of a guitar sound without having to adjust the strings with the tuning keys. It was invented by the Flamenco guitarist Jose Patino Gonzalez.

Flamenco and folk guitar make extensive use of the capo, while it is used very rarely, if at all, in styles like classical guitar and jazz. Capos are useful and good to have, but sometimes they prevent a player from properly learning how to play barre chords. Capos and barre chords both have their uses, and there certainly is no reason you cannot learn to use both.

There are several different styles of capo available, but the basic method is the same; a rubber covered bar pressed down on the strings, and it is fastened on the neck with a strip of elastic or some sort of clamping mechanism. Some special capos can fret individual strings at individual frets, enabling a player to create an open tuning, or have two fretting bars, allowing you to quickly change from one tuning to another without having to move the capo itself.

A simple version can be made with a pencil and a rubber band. Lay the pencil (preferably one with flat surfaces) across the strings at the desired fret, and holding it in place by wrapping the rubber band around both ends and underneath the fretboard.

Because of the different techniques and chord voicings available in different keys, chords played with a capo may sound different. For example, placing the capo at the second fret and strumming a C major chord-shape sounds different than strumming an open D major chord. Although both of these produce the same chords, they each have a different tone and texture. Capos also change the timbre of the strings as the scale length is shortened, making the guitar sound more like a mandolin. Capos give you a greater varieties of sounds you can achieve on the guitar, using open chords and alternate tunings.

A capo is almost essential for older twelve string guitars because manufacturers would strongly recommend that the instrument not be tuned above a tone below standard guitar tuning to reduce stress on the neck. Modern 12-strings can be tuned up to pitch with ultra light gauge strings, but many players still prefer to tune a tone lower and use a capo to play in tune with six-string or bass guitars.

Metronome

A metronome is a device that produces a regulated audible beat, and/or a visual pulse, used to establish a steady tempo. Tempos are measured in beats-per-minute (BPM), and a metronome is invaluable for setting a proper pace, especially when practicing. Although it is possible to buy metronomes with moving parts, most modern ones are electronic.

Sophisticated metronomes can produce two or more distinct sounds. A regular "tick" sound indicates the beat within each measure, and another, distinct sound (often of a different timbre, higher pitch or greater volume) indicates the beginning of each measure. A tempo control adjusts the amount of time separating each beat (typically measured in beats per minute), while another, discrete, control adjusts the meter of the rhythm and thus the number of beats in each measure. This number is an integer often ranging from one to six, though some metronomes go up to nine or higher. Some devices also have options for irregular time signatures such as 5/4 or 7/8, in which other distinct sounds indicate the beginning of each subgroup of beats within a measure.

Music Stand

When reading music, it's best to use a music stand, as it can be set up at a proper angle. Furthermore, with a sturdy collapsible stand, one can have a reliable platform anywhere.

Effects Pedals

Effects Pedals are electronic devices that modify the tone, pitch, or sound of an electric guitar. Effects can be housed in effects pedals, guitar amplifiers, guitar amplifier simulation software, and rackmount preamplifiers or processors. Electronic effects and signal processing form an important part of the electric guitar tone used in many genres, such as rock, pop, blues, and metal. All these are inserted into the signal path between an electric instrument and the amplifier. They modify the signal coming from the instrument, adding "effects" that change the way it sounds in order to add interest, create more impact or create aural soundscapes.

Guitar effects are also used with other instruments in rock, pop, blues, and metal, such as electronic keyboards and synthesizers. Electric bass players use bass effects, which are designed to work with the low-frequency tones of the bass.

Distortion-related effects

Distortion is an important part of an electric guitar's sound in many genres, particularly for rock, hard rock, and metal. A distortion pedal takes a normal electric guitar signal and combine harmonic multiplication and clipping through the use of analog circuitry to create any number of sounds ranging from a fuzz sound to the sound of an overdriven tube amp and beyond! Distortion is essential to Heavy Metal Music.

There are several different types of distortion effects, each with distinct sonic characteristics. These include overdrive/distortion (or vacuum tube-style distortion), overdrive/crunch, fuzz, and hi-gain.

Overdrive Distortion

Overdrive distortion is the most well known of all distortions. Although there aren't many electronic differences between a distortion an overdrive, the main audible one is that a distortion does exactly as the name suggests; distorts and clips the signal no matter what volume is going through it, the amount of distortion usually remains relatively the same. This is where an overdrive differs. Most overdrives are built to emulate the sound of a tube amp overdriving and therefore give the player control of the clipping through dynamics. This simply means that the effect gives a clean sound for quieter volumes and a more clipped or distorted sound for louder volumes.

While the general purpose is to emulate classic "warm-tube" sounds, distortion pedals such as the ones in this list can be distinguished from overdrive pedals in that the intent is to provide players with instant access to the sound of a high-gain Marshall amplifier such as the JCM800 pushed past the point of tonal breakup and into the range of tonal distortion known to electric guitarists as "saturated gain." Although most distortion devices use solid-state circuitry, some "tube distortion" pedals are designed with preamplifier vacuum tubes. In some cases, tube distortion pedals use power tubes or a preamp tube used as a power tube driving a built-in "dummy load." Distortion pedals designed specifically for bass guitar are also available. Some distortion pedals include:

• MXR Distortion+: A distortion which is capable of having a very subtle, soft clipping, right through to a heavily overdriven sound favoured by many modern day heavy and death metal guitarists.
• Pro Co Rat
• Boss DS-1 Distortion
• Marshall Guv'nor
• Line 6 Dr. Distorto
• T-Rex Engineering|T-Rex Engineering's Bloody Mary
• Digitech Hot Head
• Danelectro FAB Distortion

Overdrive/Crunch

Some distortion effects provide an "overdrive" effect. Either by using a vacuum tube, or by using simulated tube modeling techniques, the top of the wave form is compressed, thus giving a smoother distorted signal than regular distortion effects. When an overdrive effect is used at a high setting, the sound's waveform can become clipped, which imparts a gritty or "dirty" tone, which sounds like a tube amplifier "driven" to its limit. Used in conjunction with an amplifier, especially a tube amplifier, driven to the point of mild tonal breakup, short of what would be generally considered distortion or overdrive, these pedals can produce extremely thick distortion sounds much like those used by Carlos Santana or Eddie Van Halen. Today there is a huge variety of overdrive pedals, and some of them are:

• Ibanez Tube Screamer (TS-9 and TS-808): an overdrive which was built to work with the harmonics of a push-pull tube amp. This effect was made famous by blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan but was and is used by hundreds of prominent guitarists since it's invention.
• BOSS SD-1 Super Overdrive
• BOSS BD-2 Blues Driver
• BOSS OD-3 Overdrive
• Line 6 Crunchtone
• DigiTech Bad Monkey
• Danelectro FAB Overdrive

Fuzz

Fuzz was originally intended to recreate the classic 1960's tone of an overdriven tube amp combined with torn speaker cones. Oldschool guitar players (like Link Wray) would use a screwdriver to poke several holes through the paperboard part of the guitar amp speaker to achieve a similar sound. Since the original designs, more extreme fuzz pedals have been designed and produced, incorporating octave-up effects, oscillation, gating, and greater amounts of distortion.

Some fuzzbox pedals include:

• Z.Vex Fuzz Factory
• Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face: This was a favorite of Psychedelic rocker Jimi Hendrix who shot this pedal to stardom as he did himself.
• Electro Harmonix Big Muff: Probably the most popular fuzz effects ever invented, the Big Muff is also often used as a sustain pedal and sounds excellent in combination with a wah wah.
• BOSS FZ-5 Fuzz
• Danelectro Cool-Cat Fuzz

Hi-Gain

Hi-Gain (descended from the more generic electric guitar amplification term high-gain) is the sound most used in heavy metal. High gain in normal electric guitar playing simply references a thick sound produced by heavily overdriven amplifier tubes, a distortion pedal, or some combination of both--the essential component is the typically loud, thick, harmonically rich, and sustaining quality of the tone. However, the Hi-Gain sound of modern pedals is somewhat distinct from, although descended from, this sound. The distortion often produces sounds not possible any other way. Many extreme distortions are either hi-gain or the descendents of such. The Mesa Boogie Triple Rectifier Series of amps are an example.

Some Hi-Gain Pedals Include:

• BOSS MT2 Metal Zone
• DigiTech Death Metal
• Danelectro FAB Metal
• Electro Harmonix Metal Muff with Top Boost
• MXR Dime Distortion: Used by Dimebag Darrell. Nuff said.

Power-tube pedal

A Power-Tube pedal contains a power tube and optional dummy load, or a preamp tube used as a power tube. This allows the device to produce power-tube distortion independently of volume; therefore, power-tube distortion can be used as an effects module in an effects chain. Some examples are:

Power attenuator

A Power attenuator enables a player to obtain power-tube distortion independently of listening volume. A power attenuator is a dummy load placed between the guitar amplifier's power tubes and the guitar speaker, or a power-supply based circuit to reduce the plate voltage on the power tubes. Examples of power attenuators are the Marshall PowerBrake and THD HotPlate.

Filtering-related effects

Equalizer

An equalizer adjusts the frequency response in a number of different frequency bands. A graphic equalizer (or "graphic EQ") provides slider controls for a number of frequency region. Each of these bands has a fixed width (Q) and a fixed center-frequency, and as such, the slider changes only the level of the frequency band. The tone controls on guitars, guitar amps, and most pedals are similarly fixed-Q and fixed-frequency, but unlike a graphic EQ, rotary controls are used rather than sliders.

Most parametric EQ pedals (such as the [2] Boss PQ-4) provide semi-parametric EQ. That is, in addition to level control, each band provides either a center frequency or Q width control. Parametric EQs have rotating controls rather than sliders.

Placement of EQ in a distortion signal processing chain affects the basic guitar amp tone. Using a guitar's rotary tone control potentiometer is a form of pre-distortion EQ. Placing an EQ pedal before a distortion pedal or before a guitar amp's built-in preamp distortion provides preliminary control of the preamp distortion voicing.

For more complete control of preamp distortion voicing, an additional EQ pedal can be placed after a distortion pedal; or, equivalently, the guitar amp's tone controls, after the built-in preamp distortion, can be used. An EQ pedal in the amp's effects loop, or the amp's tone controls placed after preamp distortion, constitutes post-distortion EQ, which finishes shaping the preamp distortion and sets up the power-tube distortion voicing.

As an example of pre-distortion EQ, Eddie Van Halen places a 6-band MXR EQ pedal before the Marshall amplifier head (pre-distortion EQ). Slash places a Boss GE-7, a 7-band EQ pedal, before his Marshall amp. This technique is similar to placing a Wah pedal before the amp's preamp distortion and leaving the Wah pedal positioned part-way down, sometimes mentioned as "fixed wah," (pre-distortion EQ), along with adjusting the amp's tone controls (post-distortion EQ).

If a dummy load guitar-amp configuration is used, an additional EQ position becomes available, between the dummy load and the final amplifier that drives the guitar speaker. Van Halen used an additional EQ in this position. This configuration is commonly used with rackmount systems.

Finally, an EQ pedal such as a 10-band graphic EQ pedal can be placed in the Insert jack of a mixer to replace the mixer channel's EQ controls, providing graphical control over the miked guitar speaker signal.

Equalization-related effects pedals include Wah, Auto-Wah, and Phase Shifter. Most EQ pedals also have an overall Level control distinct from the frequency-specific controls, thus enabling an EQ pedal to act as a configurable level-boost pedal. Some EQ pedals include:

• MXR M-108 10-band Equalizer
• BOSS GE-7 Equalizer

Wah-wah

A wah-wah pedal is a moving bandpass filter whose frequency center is controlled by the musician via a rocker pedal. This filter boosts the frequencies in the instrument signal around the moving frequency center, allowing the musician to emphasize different areas of the frequency spectrum while playing. Rocked to the bass end of the spectrum, a wah-wah pedal makes a guitar signal sound hollow, without upper harmonics. On the other end of the sweep, the filter emphasizes higher-end harmonics and omits some of the low-end "growl" of the natural instrument sound. Rocking the pedal while holding a note creates a sound that goes from growl to shriek, and sounds like a crying baby, which is how the effect got its name and also the reason behind the Crybaby line of wah-wah pedals. The wah-wah pedal, used with guitar, is most associated with 1960s psychedelic rock and 1970s funk. During this period wah-wah pedals often incorporated a fuzzbox to process the sound before the wah-wah circuit, the combination producing a dramatic effect known as fuzz-wah.

Some wah-wah pedals include:

• Dunlop Cry Baby
• VOX V847 Wah Wah
• Danelectro Trip-L Wah

Auto-Wah / Envelope Filter

An Auto-Wah is a Wah-wah pedal without a rocker pedal, controlled instead by the dynamic envelope of the signal. An auto-wah, also called more technically an envelope filter, uses the level of the guitar signal to control the wah filter position, so that as a note is played, it automatically starts with the sound of a wah-wah pedal pulled back, and then quickly changes to the sound of a wah-wah pedal pushed forward, or the reverse movement depending on the settings. Controls include wah-wah pedal direction and input level sensitivity. This is an EQ-related effect and can be placed before preamp distortion or before power-tube distortion with natural sounding results. Auto-Wah pedals include:

• Electro-Harmonix Q-Tron
• MXR M-120 Auto Q
• Keeley Electronics Nova Wah
• Danelectro French Fries Auto-Wah

Talk Box

Early forms of the talk box, such as the Heil Talk Box, first appeared in Country Music circles in Nashville in the 1940',s 1950's, and 1960's, by artist like swing band pedal steel player Alvino Rey, Link Wray ("Rumble"), Bill West, a Country Music steel guitar player and husband of Dottie West, and Pete Drake, a Nashville mainstay on the pedal steel guitar and friend of Bill West. Drake used it on his 1964 album Forever, in what came to be called his "talking steel guitar." The device used the guitar amplifier's output to drive a speaker horn that pushed air into a tube held in the player's mouth, which filters and thereby shapes the sound leading to a unique effect. The singer and guitarist Peter Frampton made this effect famous with hit songs such as "Do You Feel Like We Do" and "Show Me the Way," as did Joe Walsh on "Rocky Mountain Way." On Van Halen's cover of "You Really Got Me" Eddie Van Halen uses a talk box after the guitar solo to make a sound similar to a person having sex. Newer devices, such as Danelectro's Free Speech pedal, use a microphone and vocoder-like circuit to modulate the frequency response of the guitar signal. Some Talk Boxes include: The Dunlop Heil Talk Box, Rocktron Banshee, and Peter Frampton's own company,Framptone.

Volume-related effects

Volume pedal

A Volume pedal is a volume potentiometer that is tilted forward or back by foot. A volume pedal enables a musician to adjust the volume of their instrument while they are performing. Volume pedals can also be used to make the guitar's notes or chords fade in and out. This allows the percussive plucking of the strings to be softened or eliminated entirely, imparting a human-vocal sound. Volume pedals are also widely used with pedal steel guitars in country music. It has also been used to great effect in rock music; the Pat McGee Band's live version of "Can't Miss What You Never Had" on General Admission illustrates what the pedal is capable of. Some volume pedals are:

• Ernie Ball Stereo Volume Pedal
• Boss FV-50H Foot Volume
• VOX V850 Volume Pedal

Auto-Volume/Envelope Volume

Just as an Auto-Wah is a version of a Wah pedal controlled by the signal's dynamic envelope, there is an envelope-controlled version of a volume pedal. This is generally used to mimic automatically the sound of picking a note while the guitar's volume knob is turned down, then smoothly turning the knob up, for a violin-like muted attack. An example is:

• Boss SG-1 Slow Gear

Tremolo

Tremolo is a regular and repetitive variation in gain for the duration of a single note, which works like an auto-volume knob; this results in a swelling or fluttering sound. This effect is very popular in psychedelic and trip-hop music. The speed and depth of the flutter are usually user-controlled.This is a volume-related effects pedal. This effect is based on one of the earliest effects that were built into guitar amplifiers. Examples include:

• Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator
• Boss TR-2 Tremolo
• Electro-Harmonix Worm
• Line 6 Tap Tremolo
• Danelectro Cool-Cat Tremolo

Compressor

A compressor acts as an automatic volume control, progressively decreasing the output level as the incoming signal gets louder, and vice versa. It preserves the note's attack rather than silencing it as with an Envelope Volume pedal. This adjustment of the volume for the attack and tail of a note evens out the overall volume of an instrument. Compressors can also change the behaviour of other effects, especially distortion. when applied toward the guitar, it can provide a uniformed sustained note; when applied to instruments with a normally short attack, such as drums or harpsichord, compression can drastically change the resulting sound. Another kind of compressor is the optical compressor which uses a light source (LED or lamp) to compress the signal.

Some compressor pedals are:

• Boss CS-3 Compression Sustainer
• MXR M-102 DynaComp
• Line 6 Constrictor
• T-Rex Engineering's CompNova
• Electro-Harmonix Black Finger (optical compressor)
• Aphex Punch Factory Optical Compressor

Time-based effects

Delay/Echo

A Delay or Echo pedal creates a copy of an incoming sound and slightly time-delays it, creating either a "slap" (single repetition) or an echo (multiple repetitions) effect. Delay pedals may use either analog or digital technology. Analog delays often are less flexible and not as "perfect" sounding as digital delays, but some guitarists argue that analog effects produce "warmer" tones. Early delay devices actually used magnetic tape to produce the time delay effect. U2's guitarist, The Edge, is known for his extensive use of delay effects. Some common Delay pedals are:

• Boss DD-6 Digital Delay
• Line 6 DL-4 Delay Modeler
• Line 6 Echo Park
• T-Rex Engineering's Replica
• Boss DD-20 Giga Delay
• TC Electronic
• Danelectro FAB Echo

Another technology that is used in Delay units is a feedback circuit, consisting of a tracking oscillator circuit to hold a note of the last interval, and after amplifying the signal, send it back to the input side of the delay. While it was first associated with Boss DF-2 Super Feedbacker & Distortion, currently, the signal feedback circuit is employed by Delay pedals, and if used under "hold" mode (As in Boss DD-3) it will provide a sustain effect instead of a simply delay effect.

Looping

Extremely long delay times form a looping pedal, which allows performers to record a phrase or passage and play along with it. This allows a solo performer to record an accompaniment or ostinato passage and then, with the looping pedal playing back this passage, perform solo improvisations over the accompaniment. The guitarist creates the loop either on the spot or it is held in storage for later use (as in playback) when needed. Some examples of loops effects are:

• Boss RC-2 Loop Station
• DigiTech JamMan Looper

Reverb

Reverb is the persistence of sound in a particular space after the original sound is removed. When sound is produced in a space, a large number of echoes build up and then slowly decay as the sound is absorbed by the walls and air, creating reverberation, or reverb. A plate reverb system uses an electromechanical transducer, similar to the driver in a loudspeaker, to create vibration in a plate of sheet metal. A pickup captures the vibrations as they bounce across the plate, and the result is output as an audio signal. A spring reverb system uses a transducer at one end of a spring and a pickup at the other, similar to those used in plate reverbs, to create and capture vibrations within a metal spring. Guitar amplifiers frequently incorporate spring reverbs due to their compact construction. Spring reverberators were once widely used in semi-professional recording due to their modest cost and small size. Due to quality problems and improved digital reverb units, spring reverberators are declining rapidly in use. Digital reverb units use various signal processing algorithms in order to create the reverb effect. Since reverberation is essentially caused by a very large number of echoes, simple DSPs use multiple feedback delay circuits to create a large, decaying series of echoes that die out over time.

Examples of reverb pedals include:

• DigiTech DigiDelay
• Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail
• Boss RV-5 Digital Reverb
• Line 6 Verbzilla

Modulation-related effects

Rotary Speaker

Before such effects are available electronically, these are accomplished by the use of Rotary speakers, by spinning the speakers and/or place a rotating baffle in front of it. This creates a doppler effects, and depend on the speed of the rotation, translate into phasing, flanging, chorus, vibrato, or even tremolo.

• Leslie Speakers: This is a unit that contains a bass speaker that blare into a rotating baffle, and a horn speaker that rotate like a siren. Originally designed for Hammond organs, they are also favored by guitarist; some say that no electronic effects can duplicate its sounds.
• Fender Vibratone: This is a simplified version of Leslie Speaker, containing only a 10" speaker that blare into a rotating baffle.

All the electronic-based effects can duplicate the sound of a rotating speakers, as all the following effects differ based on speed, volume, and modulation. In fact, it is not uncommon for a pedal to be capable of doing two or more of modulation effects.

Phase Shifter

A Phase Shifter creates a complex frequency response containing many regularly-spaced "notches" in an incoming signal by combining it with a copy of itself out of phase, and shifting the phase relationship cyclically. The phasing effect creates a "whooshing" sound that is reminiscent of the sound of a flying jet. This effect dominates the sound in the song Star Guitar by Chemical Brothers. The song was not played with any guitars but you can hear the phasing effect. The instrument being phased was actually a synthesizer. Some electronic "rotating speaker simulators" are actually phase shifters. Phase shifters were popular in the 1970s, particularly used with electric piano and funk bass guitar. The number of stages in a phase shifter is the number of moving dips in the frequency response curve. From a sonic perspective, this effect is equalization-oriented. However, it may be derived through moderate time-based processing. Some phaser pedals include:

• MXR M-101 Phase 90
• BOSS PH-3 Phase Shifter
• Electro-Harmonix Small Stone
• Moog] MF-103 12 Stage Phaser
• DigiTech Hyper Phase

Vibrato

A Vibe or vibrato pedal reproduces the sound of a rotating speaker by synchronizing volume oscillation, frequency-specific volume oscillation, vibrato (pitch wavering), phase shifting, and chorusing in relation to a non-rotating speaker. The modulation speed can be ramped up or down, with separate speeds for the bass and treble frequencies, to simulate the sound of a rotating bass speaker and a rotating horn. This effect is simultaneously a volume-oriented effect, an equalization-oriented effect, and a time-based effect. Furthermore, this effect is typically related to chorus. Some vibe pedals also include an overdrive effect, which allows the performer to add "tube"-style distortion. This effect is the most closely related to a rotary speaker. Some Vibe-only pedals include:

• BBE Soul Vibe
• Voodoo Lap Microvibe

Some vibe-chorus pedals include

• Dunlop Univibe
• Dunlop Rotovibe
• BBE Mind Bender

Flanger

A Flanger simulates the sound effect originally created by momentarily slowing the tape during recording by holding something against the flange, or edge of the tape reel, and then allowing it to speed up again. This effect was used to simulate passing into "warp speed," in sci-fi films, and also in psychedelic rock music of the 1960s. Flanging has a sound similar to an phase-shifter, but different, yet is closely related to the production of chorus.

The first pedal-operated flanger designed for use as a guitar effect was designed by Jim Gamble of Tycobrahe Sound Company in Hermosa Beach, CA, during the mid 1970s. Last made in 1977, the existing "Pedalflangers" appear occasionally on eBay and sell for several hundred dollars. A modern "clone" of the Tycobrahe Pedalflanger is sold by Chicago Iron.Famous users of this Flanger effect include Randy Rhoads and Eddie Van Halen, coincidentally they both used the MXR M-117R flanger and Eddie Van Halen even has his own signature model now.

Examples:

• Boss BF-3 Stereo Flanger
• Line 6 Liqua Flange
• MXR M-117R Flanger
• Danelectro FAB Flange
• Electro Harmonix Deluxe Electric Mistress

Chorus

Chorus splits your guitars signal in two, then second signals pitch is then delayed and/or modulated in pitch and mixed back in with the dry signal. The effect sounds like several guitarists playing the same thing at the same time resulting in a wide swelling sound. Some common chorus pedals are:

• Boss CH-1 Super Chorus
• Electro-Harmonix Small Clone
• Ibanez CF-7 Chorus/Flanger
• Line 6 Space Chorus
• MXR M-134 Stereo Chorus
• TC Electronic Stereo Chorus /Flanger /Pitch Modulator
• Danelectro FAB Chorus

Rotary Speaker Simulator

Despite the numerous different analog devices, it is very rare for them to be able to duplicate all aspects of a Leslie speaker. Thus, Rotary Speaker Simulator are always going to be digital, utilizing modelling algorithms to model the relations between the rotating horns and bass baffle. And how the sound bounce around the cabinet. As Leslie also have an amplifier section, most of these typically have overdrives to simulate that aspect. Some of these pedals can even accept keyboard's input.

• Boss RT-20 Rotary Ensemble Pedal: This is one of the few pedals that is capable of modelling all aspect of a Leslie Speaker.
• Line 6 Rotomachine: Also a modelling pedal, it is available in a compact pedal size.
• DLS Roto-Sim: Hybrid of analog with DSP modelling.

Pitch-related effects

Pitch Shifter/harmonizer

Pitchshifters change the pitch of the note played via a user-specified amount. The range of pitch deviation depends on the equipment used, but many pedals are capable of raising and lowering the pitch two octaves above and below the fundamental pitch. The amount of pitch deviation can be set or controlled via a foot pedal (which typically offers smooth, continuous pitch control). Typically, such function will be used with the original signal, resulting in a Harmonizer: the pitch is altered and combined with the original pitch to create two or more note harmonies. These harmonies are typically programmed in discrete integer multiples of the fundamental tone. When used with an expression pedal, it provides a smooth, abeit slightly digital, bend-like effect. Pitch shifters can also be used to electronically "detune" the instrument. Some examples are:

• Digitech Whammy
• Boss PS-5 Super Shifter
• Electro Harmonix Harmonic Octave Generator

Octaver

An Octaver mixes the input signal with a synthesised signal whose musical pitch is an octave lower or higher than the original. Effects that synthesize intervals besides octaves are referred to as harmonizers or pitch shifters.
These are frequently used in bands without a bassist. Octave Up pedals include:

• Ampeg Scrambler
• Electro Harmonix POG (Polyphonic Octave Generator)

Octave Down pedals include:

• Boss OC-3 Super Octave
• Electro-Harmonix Octave Multiplexer
• MXR M-103 Blue Box

Other effects

Feedbacker/Sustainer

While audio feedback in general is undesirable due to the high frequency overtone, when controlled properly, it can provide true sustain of the sound (instead of using a distortion/compressor to make quiet notes louder, or a feedback of a signal in a circuit as in a delay unit). Several approaches have been used to produce guitar feedback effects, which sustain the sound from the guitar:

• The most primitive form, as used by Jimi Hendrix, is to use the feedback created when the guitar is played in front of a loudspeaker.
• The neck pickup is used as a driver to push the strings based on the bridge pickup, such as the Sustainiac Sustainer and Fernandes Sustainer.
• A string driver can be mounted on a stand as in the Vibesware Guitar Resonator, which is driven by the selected guitar pickup(s). Feedback start, stop and harmonics can be controlled here by positioning the drivers distance to the strings and the position along the guitar neck while playing.
• A signal amplifier that powers a headstock transducer, which in turn send feedback vibration down the string, as in Sustainiac's Model C.
• A handheld string driver can contain a pickup and driver, as in the EBow.
• A dedicated high-gain guitar amp can be used in the control room, without a microphone, as a footswitch-controlled string feedback driver. The microphone is placed on the speaker cabinet of the main guitar amp in the isolation booth or live room.

Switcher/Mixer (or "A/B" pedal)

A switcher pedal (also called an "A/B" pedal) enables players to run two effects or two effects chains in parallel, or switch between two effects with a single press of the pedal.

Some switcher pedals also incorporate a simple mixer, which allows mixing the dry guitar signal to be mixed with an effected signal. This is useful to make overly processed effects more mild and natural sounding. Examples of the use of the mixer function include:

• A wah can be mixed with dry guitar to make it more mild and full-bandwidth, with less volume swing.
• A compressor can be mixed with dry guitar to preserve the natural attack of the dry signal as well as the sustain of the compressor.
• Two overdrive pedals can be blended together.
• A strong phaser effect can be mixed with dry guitar to make it more subtle and musical.

Some examples of switcher pedals include:

• Dunlop A/B pedal
• Loop Master

Some examples of Switcher/mixer pedals include:

• BOSS LS-2 Line Selector

Noise Gate

A noise gate allows a signal to pass through only when the signal's intensity is above a set threshold, which opens the gate. If the signal falls below the threshold, the gate closes, and no signal is allowed to pass. A noise gate can be used to control noise. When the level of the 'signal' is above the level of the 'noise', the threshold is set above the level of the 'noise' so that the gate is closed when there is no 'signal'. A noise gate does not remove noise from the signal: when the gate is open, both the signal and the noise will pass through.

Noise gates are also used as an effect to modify the envelope of signals, removing gradual attacks and decays.

Examples of noise gate pedals include:

• BOSS NS-2 Noise Suppressor
• MXR M-135 Smart Gate

Boosters

There are three types of boosters.

The first are signal boosters. These give a gain boost to the signal running through it and appear to make the guitar louder.

The second are frequency boosters. These are similar to the signal boosters but instead of boosting the whole signal, they boost one specific frequency range. Therefore a treble booster would boost the... yep you guessed it; treble!

The third are harmonic boosters. These boost certain harmonics within the wave and can sometimes give a gritty, octave sound (in either direction)

Bass Effects

Sound conditioner

Bass effects that condition the sound, rather than changing its character are called "sound conditioners." Gain booster effects pedals and bass preamplifier pedals increase the gain (or volume) of the bass guitar signal. Bass preamplifiers for double basses are designed to match the impedance of piezoelectric pickups with the input impedance of bass amplifiers. Some double bass preamplifiers may also provide phantom power for powering condenser microphones and anti-feedback features such as a notch filter (see "Filter-based effects" section below).

Volume pedals are volume potientiometers set into a rocking foot treadle, so that the volume of the bass guitar can be changed by the foot. Compression pedals affect the dynamics (volume levels) of a bass signal by subtly increasing the volume of quiet notes and reducing the volume of loud notes, which smooths out or "compresses" the overall sound. Limiters, which are similar to compressors, prevent the upper volume levels (peaks) of notes from getting too loud, which can damage speakers. Noise gates remove hums and hisses that occur with distortion pedals, vintage pedals, and some electric basses.

Bass Distortion

Bass distortion effects preamplify the signal until the signals' waveform "clips" and becomes distorted, giving a "growling", "fuzzy" or "buzzing" sound. Until the late 1980s, distortion effects designed specifically for electric bass' low range were not commonly available in stores, so most electric bass players who wanted a distortion effect either used the natural overdrive that is produced by setting the preamplifier gain to very high settings or used an electric guitar distortion pedal. Using the natural overdrive from an amplifier's preamplifier or a guitar distortion effect has the side effect of removing the bass' low range (low-pitched) sounds. When a low-range note is amplified to the point of "clipping", the note tends to go up an octave to its second harmonic, making deep bass notes sound "tinny".

In the 1990s and 2000s, bass distortion effects became widely available. These effects contained circuitry which ensured that the low-range bass signal was maintained in the distorted bass tone. Bass distortion is used in genres such as metal, thrash, hardcore, and punk.

Bass "overdrive" effects use a vacuum tube (or digitally-simulated tube modelling techniques) to compress the top of the signal's wave form, giving a smoother distorted signal than regular distortion effects. Regular bass distortion effects preamplify the signal to the point that it develops a gritty or "dirty" tone.

Fuzz bass effects are sometimes created for bass by using fuzzbox effects designed for electric guitars. Fuzzboxes boost and clip the signal sufficiently to turn a standard sine wave input into what is effectively a square wave output, giving a much more distorted and synthetic sound than a standard distortion or overdrive. Paul McCartney of The Beatles used fuzz bass on "Think for Yourself" in the 1966 album "Rubber Soul"

Filtered based effects

Filter based effects for bass include equalizer, phase shifter, wah and auto-wah.

A bass equalizer is the most commonly used of these three effects. It adjusts the frequency response in a number of different frequency bands. While its function is similar to a tone controls on an amplifier, such as rudimentary "bass" and "treble" frequency knobs, it allows for more precise frequency changes. A rack-mounted bass equalizer, for example, may have ten sliders to control the frequency range encompassed by a regular "bass" frequency knob.

In comparison with an electric guitar equalizer, a bass equalizer usually has a lower frequency range that goes down to 40 Hz, to accommodate the electric bass' lower range. Some bass equalizers designed for use with extended range basses go even lower, to 20 Hz. Equalizers can be used to change the tone and sound of the electric bass. If the instrument sounds too "boomy", the bassist can lower the frequency which is overly resonant, or if there is too much fingernail or pick noise, the higher frequencies can be reduced.

Notch filters (also called band-stop filters or band-rejection filters) are sometimes used with double basses. Notch filters are filters that allow most frequencies to pass through unaltered, while attenuating those in a specific range to very low levels. Notch filters are used in instrument amplifiers and preamplifiers for acoustic instruments such as acoustic guitar, mandolin, and bass instrument amplifiers to reduce or prevent feedback. While most notch filters are set manually by the user, there are also automatic notch filters which detect the onset of feedback and notch out the frequency before damaging feedback begins.

Bass Phase Shifters create a complex frequency response containing many regularly-spaced "notches" in an incoming signal by combining it with a copy of itself out of phase, and shifting the phase relationship cyclically. The phasing effect creates a "whooshing" sound that is reminiscent of the sound of a flying jet.

Bass chorus

Bass chorus effects use a cycling, variable delay time that is short so that individual repetitions are not heard. The result is a thick, "swirling" sound that suggests multiple instruments playing in unison (chorus) that are slightly out of tune. Bass chorus effects were more common in the late 1980s, when manufacturers such as Peavey included chorus effects in its bass amplifiers. In the 1990s and 2000s, more sophisticated bass chorus effects devices were created which only apply the swirling chorus effect to the higher parts of the bass tone, leaving the instrument's low fundamental untouched.[5]

Multi-Effects unit

A multi-FX unit is a single effects device that can perform several guitar effects simultaneously. Such devices generally use digital processing to simulate many of the above-mentioned effects without the need to carry several single-purpose units. In addition to the classic effects, most have amplifier/speaker simulations not found in analog units. This allows a guitarist to play directly into a recording device while simulating an amplifier and speaker of his choice.

A typical digital multi-effects pedal is programmed, with several memory locations available to save custom user settings. Many lack the front-panel knobs of analog devices, using buttons instead to program various effect parameters. Multi-effects devices continue to evolve, some gaining MIDI or USB interfaces to aid in programming. Examples include:

• Tech 21 Sans Amp - A line of analog effects with distortion and speaker simulation capability.
• Line 6 POD XT Live
• Behringer V-Amp Pro
• DigiTech RP series
• DigiTech GNX series
• Boss ME-20, ME-50, GT-6, GT-8
• Zoom G2 series
• Vox Tonelab series
• Roland VG series
• Korg AX series

The quality of sound that is a major feature of separate pedals can never be matched by a multi-effects unit but they are ideal for a guitarist on a budget.

Cables

Since you are likely to encounter cables at some point in your guitar playing career, it is important learn about them. This is especially true if you play the electric guitar. With the electric guitar, the use of an amplifier is essential and the cable is the only connection that links the two together. So in order to ensure a good sound, you need to use the proper cabling.

Audio Cables

Jack Plugs

Anyone who has ever used a set of headphones is familliar with at least one type of jack. A jack is simply the end of a cable that lets it connect to another audio device. They come in many different sizes, but for guitarists the most important ones are these:

• 3.5mm mono - small microphones and LINE Out or LINE In small audio devices (z. B. sound map)
• 3.5mm stereo - headphones and LINE Out or LINE In small audio devices (e.g. sound map).
• 6.3mm mono - LINE Out or LINE In larger audio devices (guitar amplifier, mixers, etc.), e-guitar, Send or Return of effects equipment, microphones and loudspeakers.
• 6.3mm stereo - combining Send and Return with effects devices, Stereo microphones and headphones.

XLR plugs

These plugs are very durable and they are the plug of choice for professional recordings. Nearly all professional stages and sound studios are equipped with XLR connections. Loudspeakers and mixers are also often connected with these cables too

The plugs have a catch mechanism, which prevents inadvertent separation of a patch cord. In order to be able to pull a XLR plug from the socket, you have to press the release mechanism. A XLR connection always consists of 3 phases. One phase transfers the mass while the other two transmit the audio signal. Usually one of the two audio signals is misphased in transfer, in order to remove any effects from signal distortion.

MIDI Cables

Right now, the 5 pronged MIDI cable are always used for data transfer, but originally they were intended for use with high quality stereo equipment. At that time this 5- pronged cable represented a variant to Stereo, which existed beside the identical, 3 pronged mono execution.

Today these cables are used almost exclusively for the transmission of MIDI control signals between MIDI capable music instruments, amplifiers and computers. Since it does not depend on fast data transmission rates, shielding of the individual wires inside the cable is not necessary.

Other Cables

Power Cables

Warning: All these cables and connectors are intended for a high supply voltage! Changes or repairs to such cables can be dangerous!

Mains Power Cable

A three slot conductor plug designed to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) specifications. Sometimes called a "kettle plug" or "kettle lead". The kettle lead is designed for use with mains power outlets.

Bass Guitar

Bass guitars have similar design features to other types of guitar but scaled up: thicker strings, longer neck and larger body, etc. This allows lower notes to be created when the strings are tuned to a playable tension. They are sometimes categorized as guitars but are also occasionally categorized as a separate instrument. Although there are many variations, the standard bass guitar has four strings tuned EADG, one octave lower than the bottom four strings of a guitar in standard tuning. Although the bass guitar can be played like an oversized guitar, it also draws much inspiration from double basses and the instrument has a vocabulary of playing styles and music all of its own.

Slapping And Popping

One of the distinguishing features of the bass guitar is the slap style. It is typically distinct to the bass guitar, although it has been used on acoustic guitars by skilful players.

Slapping is accomplished by percussively striking the string - usually E or A on a standard tuned bass - with the left hand side of the thumb (for a righthanded player). This is done towards the neck of the bass. The thumb is then pulled away as quickly as possible, to create a distinct, fretty noise.

Popping is accomplished by curling the fingertip of the index or middle finger under the string - usually the D or G string. The string is then plucked to create a similar sound to slapping on the thicker strings. This is, again, performed towards the neck of the bass.

• Slap Bass Tutorial Video (Free)

Next is a simple combination of right hand slapping and popping with left hand hammer-on to create an enhanced, motor slap sound.

The first clip is a very slow version with simple chart showing each note of the lick. Use the control buttons on the Flash applet to play and pause the clip:

• Hammer-On Slap Technique Video A (Free)

The second clip is the same simple lick run at regular speed with simple chart showing each note of the lick. Use the control buttons on the Flash applet to play and pause the clip:

• Hammer-On Slap Technique Video B (Free)

Different Basses

The "standard" bass is a 4 string bass, tuned EADG (low to high). Other variations of this tuning include DADG and CGCF. These lower tunings are often used in metal and heavier music, as they extend the instrument's range lower. Altering the tuning of a bass to a lower range (or any other fretted instrumented) by reducing string tension can cause problems that new players should be aware of: looser strings are more prone to "fret buzz", in which a string rattles on the fretboard, producing a sound that is usually unwanted. Loosening strings also alters the tension on the neck, which can lead to warping the neck.

To achieve a clear tone on notes lower than standard tuning, a standard 5-string bass adds a low B string, with the bass normally tuned BEADG (low to high). It is also common to restring a 4-string bass as BEAD, leaving off the high G. There exist strings that go even lower in range, however these are typically found only on specialty instruments.

Bass Runs

Bass runs are particularly nice sounding. For example if one wants to change from a C chord to an Am chord, they could do a nifty bass run.

 --C chord--                                       --Am Chord--

 E A D G B E              E A D G B E              E A D G B E
 ===========     ==>      ===========      ==>     ===========
 | 3 2 | 1 |              | 2 2 | 1 |              | | 2 2 1 |

Wikipedia has related information at Bass guitar

Maintenance

Guitar Maintenance and Storage

The easiest way to keep your thousand dollar guitar worth a thousand dollars is to take proper care of it. Guitars take a lot of abuse, especially if you play live shows and tour, and even if it pretty much "sounds the same", you may one day discover a serious problem that makes the instrument unplayable. You don't need to carefully examine your guitar every day, but occasional checkups on the condition of your instrument are never a bad idea.

Storage

The easiest way to take care of your guitar is to store it properly. The more expensive the guitar, the better your storage should be. It is generally accepted that the air humidity should be neither too high nor too low, thus somewhere in the 40-50% range, and the temperature of the area should be about 25 °C. These two factors are the biggest threat to an instrument, because changes in moisture and temperature can cause permanent warping of the neck and other critical parts. For guitars made out of solid wood, it is advised to use a humidifier to prevent cracks and damage from weather change.

On the other hand, guitars made out of multi-layered(plywood) wood, typically in budget guitars, can withstand relatively more humidity and temperature changes. Keeping the guitar in a case away from direct sunlight can help increasing the life of the guitar.

Storing Environment

The surest way to keep your guitar in good shape is to remember this simple rule: Do not expose the guitar to any climate conditions that you would not want to be exposed to. If you always keep this in mind, then your instrument will likely last years and years.

You should avoid large changes in humidity. Like your body, the guitar gets used to the climate it is in, and suddenly changing it causes stress. Humidity is the most dangerous thing that attacks an instrument, because when wood gets wet, the cell walls become softer and it is more easily bent. Often, the stings themselves are enough to bend the neck. Also, if the humidity stays way too low, then the wood will crack and the structure will weaken.

Temperature on its own is less damaging to the guitar. Wood is generally tolerant to changes in temperature, and for the most part it expands and contracts together. Extreme temperatures, however, can cause serious damage, especially when combined with extreme humidity. Changes in temperature also affects the strings, especially nylon strings, and going into a different environment will almost always automatically detune the strings. Other areas to watch for temperature related damage are any glued joins, like where the neck meets the body, or the fretboard is attached to the neck.

Never expose your instrument to extreme temperatures for a long time. For instance, leaving your guitar in a car in the summer all day, or leaving it outside for the whole night are sure ways to completely destroy your instrument. Also keep the guitar out of direct sunlight as much as possible, because it makes to wood more brittle and it can destroy the color of the instrument.

Keeping your instrument in tune is another good way to make sure that you don't harm your instrument. Strings put certain amounts of tension on the neck which can cause it to bow if the guitar isn't kept in tune. It is also a good idea to make sure that you have a full set of strings on the guitar.

Methods of Storage

First, a simple tip: If one is playing the guitar and wishes to put it briefly aside to look for songs or notes or the like, then the best repository is the couch, the bed, or the floor (with carpet or with the guitar bag as a cushion). The basic rule reads: What lies down, cannot fall down. A guitar gets most of its scrapes because one leans it against a wall, or against a table edge, and then it is knocked over from the slightest contact or draft of air. If one would have put it down, this would not have happened.

Wall Hooks

These are most often seen on the walls of guitar stores, where there are dozens of instruments to be displayed. These are good, because the guitar can be placed in an out of the way spot, like over a table or in a corner, and also be openly displayed. These are just a U-shaped piece of metal, covered in some sort of rubber or soft plastic.

The piece is screwed to the wall, and the headstock rests snugly between the two piece of metal. The weight of the guitar will not damage itself, and nothing will break as a direct result of being stored in this way. Considering the stress put on the instrument by the strings, the additional impact of gravity would be minimal.

When you are selecting a spot to hang your guitar, you should not hang it on an outside wall. These are subject to more temperature changes, and in the long term can damage the instrument.

Guitar Stands

For the most part, guitar stands look similar to a wall hook, except instead of all the weight being on the headstock, most is on the bottom of the body and the neck is mostly supported to keep the guitar standing straight.

Each type of guitar has a specialized type of stand. For example, an Ovation guitar, which has a rounded plastic back, requires a differently shaped stand than a Fender Stratocaster or a regular acoustic guitar. Regardless of what type of stand you get, you should always make sure that it holds your guitar firmly. Some stands also have a locking device, which adds an extra level of security.

One problem you might encounter (although it is rare) is that the lacquer used on your guitar has a reaction with the rubber used to coat the stand. When you buy a new stand, you should examine the guitar every few days and look for discolorations or weak spots. As is often the case, serious guitar damage is easiest to stop before it starts.

Cases

There are two main kinds of guitar case, gig bags and hard cases. Gig bags are a favorable kind of keeping, because they give a good amount of protection, and they are also light to carry. Some often have backpack style shoulder straps. Gig bags do not protect against temperature changes very well. Hard cases, in contrast, provide excellent protection against temperature, humidity and physical damage. Hard cases are also essential for taking a guitar on an air plane, or for long journeys.

Compared to other methods of storing, cases are by far the most secure, and this is especially true of hard cases. If the guitar is secured properly in the case (almost) nothing can happen to it.

The biggest (and perhaps only) disadvantage of a case is that you cannot openly display your instrument the way you can on a wall hook or stand. Price is also a disadvantage, because although gig bags can be bought relatively cheaply, hard cases are expensive. Still, a cheap bag for an expensive guitar is a poor investment.

When you buy a case, you absolutely have to make sure that the guitar fits in the case. Gig bags are a little more forgiving, but you will not get a guitar to fit properly in a hard case that it too small. When you pick up the case, give it a little bit of a shake, and you should not feel or hear the guitar moving around very much.

Maintenance

Body

The body is likely the part of the guitar that takes the most abuse, simply because it is the "biggest target". To ensure that your instrument stays in like new condition you should always wipe down you guitar with a soft cloth after playing. Never use furniture sprays. You can buy specially treated cloths and sprays for guitars at almost any music store. Dirt, sweat, and often small nicks and scrapes can just be cleaned up with a cloth, little bit of warm water and a drop or two of detergent. You should use a soft cloth, or else you might risk scratching the instrument and making it worse.

If you have a stained or lacquered body, you can also give it some shine with a little bit of furniture polish. However, if you have a guitar with an untreated body, you have to be extremely careful with polish. For these types, it would be better to find some sort of cleaning oil or wax, since they help prevent hair cracks from developing. After cleaning, the body must be absolutely dry, because if the wood gets over-moistened, the tone of the guitar will begin to degrade.

Neck and Fretboard

The neck is probably the most important part of the guitar, especially if you want to play it for a long time. Unless guitar is stored for extended periods of time, the tension of the strings will always be pulling against the neck and stretching it away from the body. If stored for a long period of time, strings should be loosened, to reduce the tension on the neck. If the guitar gets moist, this neck warping happens even faster. Sometimes warping can be fixed by adjusting the truss rod, but this only prolongs the death of the instrument, and can't really fix the problem.

You can also oil or wax the fretboard, but you should first determine wither the fretboard is stained or painted, and use the appropriate protectant. Always remember that using too much cleaner is always worse than using no cleaner at all, and always rub it in slowly.

Another drastic way to repair a warped neck on acoustic guitars is take all the strings off, and place a small glass of water into the body. Then, keep the body in place and put a small amount of weight (1 or 2 pounds) on the neck and let it bend back into the proper shape. When it has been corrected, remove the water, keep the weight on and let the guitar dry. Hopefully the neck will remain in the correct position, however it will be much more prone to warping from that point on. Since this procedure is somewhat accident prone, some manufacturers offer special instrument air moisturizers, which you can put in a case, or on a specific area of the neck. These generally allow for a higher rate of success.

The fretboard is usually made from untreated wood, and it should be cleaned regularly, before dirt begins to build up. Usually a good time to do this is when you change your strings, which should be every month or two. You need to clean the wood between the frets, and the simplest way is using a clean damp cloth or some very fine steel wool. Use some water with a little bit of detergent to make cleaning easier. If you use steel wool, you can also clean up the edges of worn frets, which is important because smooth frets improve the life of your strings. If the frets are really worn down, they can be replaced, but this is generally not a good project to undertake yourself.

It is very important that the neck is not wet after cleaning, because water damages the structure of the neck. Your cleaning cloth should be damp, not soaking wet. After cleaning, you can also apply a coat of furniture polish to seal the wood.

Strings

A set of strings wear down slowly, if you maintain them properly. Since regular playing does some amount of damage to the strings, it's a good idea to change regularly. Full sets of strings should be replaced at the same time. If you only replace one string, the others are likely to break soon, the strings will have different tones, and the opened pack of strings will begin to corrode. When changing a set of strings, some guitarists recommend replacing them one at a time, rather than removing all strings at once, to maintain tension on the neck (i.e., remove and replace the first string, then the second, then the third, etc.).

If you do not clean your strings, then they will quickly become dull, and even begin to rust. Dirty strings also damage the frets themselves, because the grime and rust makes the strings more coarse. There are many types of string cleaners, and for the most part, they are intended to be used after each playing session.

If you clean your strings on an irregular basis, you can just as easily use glass cleaner to release the sweat from the strings. It's easiest to soak a cloth in window cleaner, and then slip the cloth behind, and clean the whole length of each string individually. You can tell when a string is cleaned when you rub the string and the cloth is still clean. Also, you shouldn't let the cleaner remain on the strings, because residue might damage the string too. When finished, wipe the strings with a damp cloth.

Tuning Mechanisms

The tuning mechanisms are usually chromed, anodized or burnished steel. Since steel rusts, especially when it makes contact with sweat, these pieces should be cleaned every now and then to prevent unnecessary wear on your strings. Properly oiled mechanisms work smoothly, and they also help keep the strings in tune.

To prevent rust, you should clean and oil the parts regularly. You can use commercial machine oils, available cheap from any hardware store, but baby oil or vaseline does the trick too. It is always better to use too little than too much, and you can always add more, but you can't take it back off. Two drops is often enough. Avoid making contact with the wood parts of the guitar because the oil could stain or discolor. Electrical components (switches, sockets, knobs, etc.) can also go bad if the oil gets in them.

Most guitars have a screw in the tuning peg that controls how easily the pegs turn. If a guitar has one or two strings that just won't stay in tune, a loose screw is often the problem. The screws should be tight, but they should not be so tight that they are difficult to turn. Also be careful not to over-tighten the screws. If over-tightened, they may strip and the guitar will need to be repaired.

Adjusting the Guitar

Many beginning or even intermediate guitarists are unaware that their guitar should be "set up". The adjustments described in the adjustment subsections below (along with restringing and tuning) are called a "set up".

What difference does a set up make?

When a guitar is set up properly:

• the guitar will feel and sound its best
• all the strings will sound with exactly the notes they are supposed to
• all notes will sound correct when played at each fret up and down the neck
• the guitar will be as easy as possible to play
• strings will break less frequently.

If a guitar plays easily and sounds its best then it's easy for the player to feel successful.

When a guitar is not set up properly:

• the guitar may not feel or sound quite right
• some notes may sound correct while some others may sound sharp or flat
• the guitar may be difficult to play
• strings will break more often
• damage to the instrument could be incurred unwittingly by the player

When to Set Up?

When a guitar is brand new and fresh from the factory it may or may not have had these adjustments done. As a rule, a guitar should be set up when first purchased (used or new) and again when switching string gauges. Consider getting a set up anytime the guitar sounds or feels different than it used to. Perhaps after a guitar travels (altitude changes, pressure changes, and humidity can affect the wood in the guitar) and just like changing oil in a car it is a good idea to get a set up every now and then for maintenance purposes (perhaps twice a year).

Poor set up may be obvious to a player or it might not. In some cases the guitar may be unplayable because it hasn't been set up. A maladjusted guitar can cause strange quirks, for instance frets near the bottom of the neck being too sharp, or can even cause damage (e.g., by using .012 gauge strings on a nut designed for .009 strings, and the tension messes up the nut), and it can easily frustrate the player when their playing is perfectly correct yet things still don't sound right.

In particular if your guitar ever becomes difficult for you to play, a set up will probably help.

It is not absolutely required to set up a guitar, but it is nonetheless a good idea, especially if the guitar is to be taken to the stage. Some people never get their guitar set up. Some get their guitar set up even when nothing previously seemed wrong with it, then find such a dramatic change in the guitar's playability and sound that they wish they had set it up sooner.

How to get a Set Up

These adjustments should generally be done by a professional, qualified repair person. They require precision instruments, some hard to find tools, a steady hand, quite a bit of time and know-how.

Virtually all musical instrument stores will be able to perform a professional set up. Some will do the job better than others. Call a local music store and ask them "Do you do set ups for electric (or acoustic) guitars and how much would you charge?". Getting a set up will probably cost from $30 to $75 USD.

Adjustments

Adjusting action at the bridge

This is a simple adjustment that can usually be performed without professional assistance. The bridge saddles should be lowered if the string action is too high, that is, the strings are too far up off the fretboard. In some cases it may be desirable to raise the saddles for a higher string action.

Most electric guitars have two small screws on the saddle which can be used to raise or lower the saddle. Some saddles have screws that can be rotated using the fingers; others require an allen key. Lower the saddles too much and the strings might rattle against certain frets (this may or may not be inconsequential on an electric guitar; listen through an amplifier). In more extreme cases, pressing a string against one fret might actually fret the string against a different fret, usually the one under the intended one. In both cases, filing the frets might alleviate the problem if the saddle really should be that low. Otherwise, simply raising the saddle a small amount on the side with the problem should be fine.

Filing frets

Filing frets should only be done by a qualified repair person and only to correct problems with frets buzzing or strings being presssed at the wrong fret (see "adjusting action at the bridge", above).

Filing the nut

Filing the nut should only be done by a qualified repair person and is used to reduce pressure at the nut to allow a heavier gauge of strings to be used. It may not be necessary if the new strings are detuned lower (e.g., when switching from .009's to .010's, the nut will need no adjustment if the guitar is tuned to Eb-Ab-Db-Gb-Bb-Eb instead of E-A-D-G-B-E).

Neck/truss rod adjustment

This particular adjustment has been known to ruin guitars when performed incorrectly, so here referral to a professional repair person is highly recommended. A guitar will need a truss rod adjustment if the neck is not straight. One way to check the straightness of the neck is to play 12th and 19th harmonics on the low and high strings. After sounding each harmonic, fret the note there and play it again: it should be exactly the same pitch. If it is not, the neck may be in need of adjustment. However, this may be indicative of an intonation problem as well, which can be fixed without the aid of a repair person; see below. If adjusting the intonation does nothing for you, give the guitar to a repair person.

Adjusting intonation

You may notice each string on the bridge sits in a "saddle". Depending on your setup, you might notice the saddles may be in different positions: some might be pushed forward and others might be pushed back, sometimes slightly. The positioning of the saddle effectively changes the length of the vibrating string. Tune the guitar to concert pitch with the aid of an electronic tuner, making sure the open strings are perfectly in tune. Play the 9th and 12th fret harmonics, then play the fretted notes. If the fretted notes are sharp, the string is too short and the saddle needs to be pushed back toward the base of the bridge. If the note is flat, the string is too long and the saddle needs to be pushed up toward the nut. Repeat this procedure for each string. Adjusting the intonation should be done every few months or at least twice a year.

Stringing the Guitar

Aside from the physical shape of the guitar body, strings are the most important thing for determining the sound of a guitar. New strings sound bright and full, while old strings tend to sound dull and dead. Many guitarists believe that strings should be changed regularly, not just when they break. This is because sweat and dirt corrode the strings, and over time this degrades their sound quality. Other guitarists believe that new strings sound much worse than old ones, feeling that a string's tonal quality only improves over time. Individual string quality may vary drastically from string to string.

When one breaks a string, all of the strings should be changed at once. This is especially true if the newer string is of a different brand or gauge. The string's manufacturing process, thickness and age all affect its tone, and one new string being played with a bunch of old strings can make your guitar sound strange. Players should be advised that guitars are usually set up for a particular gauge of string. The guitar will still function fine with a different gauge of strings, however for optimal sound, the guitar may need to be adjusted. See the chapter on adjusting the guitar for more details.

Because there are several different types of guitar, and each type is designed differently, each type has its own method of stringing. The type of strings you use mostly depends on what style of music you play and how long you've been playing. Thinner strings are generally preferred by beginners, but many experienced players prefer the feel of thin strings over thicker strings. Please see the guitar accessories section for details on different types of strings.

The first thing you always need to do when stringing a guitar is to take off the old strings. You should never just cut the strings of a tuned guitar in half, because the sudden release of tension on the neck can damage the guitar. Instead, always turn the tuning pegs to decrease tension, until the string is so loose that it doesn't produce a note when struck, then cut or unwind them. In most cases, the string is bent at the end where it was inserted, to insure that it would stay during tuning. Unbend the string, then pull it out of the peg hole. If the peg end of the string is too bent or curled from the winding, cut the string on a straight part of the string. This will make it easier to remove the string from the hole at the other end and reduce the risk of scratching the body or the bridge while trying to get it out. Slide the string out of the bridge at the bottom end of the guitar. Some people string one at a time to make sure the neck sustains tension, or they just take all of the strings off at the same time.

Stringing Acoustics

Standard guitars typically have a ball-head peg at the bridge section. This peg has a hollow shaft, with a groove that allows the string to come out from the peg.

Typically, the process is as follows:

Unwinding the string

1. Pick one of the strings, usually either the first or sixth string, and begin loosening it. If you have a string winder, put the rectangular box over the tuning peg and unwind the string.

1. Once the string is loose enough, pull the peg out of the bridge. If you have a string winder, it will have a notch that can fit underneath the head to pull it out.

Attaching the string

1. The guitar string should have a ball (or cylinder) end. Put that into the bridge hole.
2. Push the ball-head peg back in. as you do, pull on the string so that the peg can hold the string tightly on the bridge end.
3. Find the hole on the winder, and place the string through it, leaving about 5cm out on the other side. For the thicker strings, it is recommended to bend it a bit.
4. Use one hand to hold the string so that the section between this hand and the peg is tight. Wind one wound.
5. Check the tightness again, and try to divert the string so that it wind UNDERNEATH the winder hole. Then wind it until you have the string encircle the machine head two to three times.
6. Tune from here.

Twelve String Acoustic

It has the same principal to the sixth string. But every two strings were tuned with the same sound, one octave apart. *(RDT)

Classical Guitar

To unstring a classical guitar one method is:

1. Loosen the string by turning the tuning peg
2. Then at the bridge push the string back into the hole a little, this will loosen the "knot" enough to unknot and pull the string out of the hole.
3. Then feed the string around the peg loop by loop until the last hoop which is inserted through the hole in the peg is available, push the string out of the loop, then pull the loop out of the hole.

To string a classical guitar one method is reverse of the unstringing

1. Bend about an inch of string at one end to form an open loop, push that through the peg hole, wrap the other end of the string around the peg and through the loop, then pass it down the guitar body to the bridge and into the hole there.
2. Loop back to the neck (about two or three inches) and twist back around the string, then you can put two or three twists in which should end up on top of the bridge, pull the string from the middle of the guitar to draw the twists taut.
3. Then wind the peg to tighten the string. You should take it easy when tuning up for the first time to give the string time to "settle in", you may also find that the string may go out of tune easily for a day or two as it beds in.

Stringing Electrics

For the 6th string (the low E), take the string out of the package and insert the end through the bridge of the guitar. Pull it all the way through until the ball at the end of the string stops it from being pulled further. This is optional: Make a kink in the string to insure that it will not slip away from the turning of the peg, (usually about one or two inches from the peg). Wind the string around halfway and insert the end through the hole. Pull the string to add tension, so the string will stay around the peg during tuning. Turn the tuning peg to increase tension until the string is around the desired pitch, to make certain it will stay on properly. Check that the string is in the notch in the nut and the bridge, if it is not, decrease tension on the string until you can move it into the notch, tune it back up. Do this for the rest of your strings and you are done!

Another method:

String the low E and other strings as mentioned. Align the tuning peg's hole with the direction of the string and slip it through the peg in the direction of the headstock. Facing the guitar with the headstock to your right, pull the string taut with your left hand.

With your opposite thumb and forefinger, twist the string in an "s" at the twelfth fret so that it touches both sides of the twelfth fret. You will have to let some of the string out to do this. This method tells you the optimum length of the string to wind around the tuning peg.

Hold the string with your right hand below the tuning peg so that the pointy end is sticking out the other side. Slowly tighten the peg so that the string is winding on the INSIDE of the headstock -- inside right for E A D, and inside left for G B E. Allow the string to wind once underneath itself, and then wrap it over top of itself the rest of the way. Make sure you hold tight as you go so that there is little slippage later.

If possible, hold the string with your right thumb and middle finger while regulating the pressure on the string with your right index finger.

Tips

• Note that taking off all strings at once is not recommended if you have:

1. a floating tremolo system (e.g. Floyd Rose II), which can be difficult to get the tremolo angle back to the right level when restrung;
2. a bridge which is not fixed (one that will just fall off when the strings are removed)

• Try not to bend the string in the same place excessively otherwise the string will break at the bend

Twelve String Electric

Online Resources

• Cyberfret's tutorial - Perhaps the most common way to string the guitar. Covers acoustic and electric.
• Alan Horvath's tutorial - A different way to string the guitar. Covers acoustic, electric, and classical.
• Uncle Tim's How To String A Guitar - How to string a guitar so it never falls out of tune.
• Shredaholic's Tips For Stringing Guitars Other useful tips and observations on stringing electric guitars.
• [3] Detailed guide to stringing an electric bass guitar

Appendices

Dictionary

The purpose of this page is to provide a list of all relevant music, guitar and guitar related terms, arranged alphabetically. Ideally they should be kept brief, around two to three sentences.

List of Terms

• Archtop: A type of electric guitar that has a hollow body. Therefore making it part acoustic and part electric. This hybrid construction means the tone of these guitars differs from the solid-body electric guitar. They are used extensively by guitarists who play jazz.

• Blues Scale: a pentatonic scale with the addition of the "blue" note: diminished fifth.

• Chromatic scale: Western music organizes its twelve sounds into a scale known as the chromatic scale. The chromatic scale is available at different frequencies. This can best be seen on the layout of the keyboard with its five black keys and seven white keys representing successive registers of the chromatic scale.

• Cutaway: Applicable to acoustics since electric guitar can take virtually any shape. A place on the body of the guitar where part of the body front and back is "cut away", and then the sides wrapped around the removed area. The result looks like a regular acoustic guitar. The purpose of the cutaway is to allow the guitarist's hand to fret notes further down the neck.

• Feedback: A high pitched sound that comes through an amplification system when the output from the speakers or amplifiers are picked up by the microphones or pickups, creating an infinite loop.

• Fret: The fretboard of the guitar is divided into twelve squares known as frets. Fretwire is the name given to the thin metal strips that are hammered into the wood of the fretboard to delineate each fret. When you press a string down within a fret, you change the length of the string and therefore the frequency that it vibrates at.

• Fretboard: The thin piece of wood attached to the face of the neck on the front side of the guitar. It consists of the frets and provides a smooth surface for the guitarist's fingers to make contact with.

• Guitar: A stringed musical instrument (chordophone) that is plucked when played. A descendant of the spanish vihuela (16th century) and the earlier medieval four-course latin guitar.

• Headshell: The plastic or metal covering on the end of a piece of cabling use to connect to an amplifier.

• Headstock: The piece on the end of the neck that has the tuning pegs and nut attached to it.

• Humbucker: A type of pickup that uses two coils at opposite polarity, thereby eliminating some of the background hum on single coil pickups.

• Interval: A name used to describe the relationship between two notes. There are two types of intervals in music: harmonic or melodic. The numerical part of the interval name is found by counting the letters used in notation: C to E is an interval of a third, F to D is an interval of a sixth.

• Jazz: An American music genre that has its origins in the ragtime and blues music of the the early 1900s. Jazz music is characterized by collective improvisation, the use of syncopation and an extended harmonic approach to chords.

• Mode: A scale system that precedes the modern "major-minor" system. Used extensively by medieval composers (Gregorian chant being the most well-known example). Two of the "Church modes" went on to form the basis of our "major-minor" system: Ionian and Aeolian.

• Neck: The long piece of wood that extends from the body to headstock that the guitar strings are tensioned across and which has the fretboard. Thus allowing the guitarist to shorten (fret) the open strings to produce a higher pitch.

• Note: A standardized measurement of an increase in pitch. Notes are described as being sharp or flat in relation to how higher or lower they are in relation to the accepted method of tuning.

• Octave: It is the note that a scale starts and ends on. Octaves occur at double or half a given frequency. If you press down any string at the twelfth fret, you are halving the string, so the string will play an octave higher.

• Pentatonic scale: A scale that uses five notes that is found in most cultures world-wide and is considered to be of ancient origin. In the modern "major-minor" system is considered as either a natural minor scale or major scale with the second and sixth omitted.

• Pickup: A magnetic coil that detects the string vibration on an electric guitar. There are two main kinds, single-coil and humbuckers.

• Pick: A piece of plastic or metal used to hit the strings. Also referred to as a plectrum.

• Pitch: A measure of how high or low a sound is, which on the guitar is related to how fast or slow the string is vibrating. Shorter strings vibrate faster, and make higher notes.

• Root note: The term is usually used to describe the first note from which a chord is constructed. It is sometimes used to describe the first note of a scale.

• Scale: Derived from the Italian word "scala" meaning "ladder". A sequential ordering of notes using set intervals that represents a tonal centre (key) or quality.

• Semitone: The smallest interval in music. The chromatic scale that contains all the available notes in western music contains twelve semitones.

• Tonic: The name of the first note of a scale. It may also refer to the chord built on the first note of the scale.

• Tone: A general term to refer to the texture, colour or mood of a particular sound. In an instrument, it refers the the general qualities, and is comparable to the sound of your voice.

• Tone (alternate): A measurement between one note and another note, consisting of two semitones. On the guitar it is measured by two frets.

• Tremolo bar: An alternative name for a vibrato bar. This was popularized by Leo Fender, who misnamed it when it was invented.

• Tuner: An electronic tuning aid for guitarists. It shows the frequency in hertz of a struck string using a display especially designed for guitar string frequencies; thereby allowing the guitarist to lower or higher the pitch of the string until the correct frequency for each string is achieved.

• Whammy bar: Another name for a vibrato bar.
• Vibrato bar: A device on electric guitars that allows you to quickly lower and raise the pitch of your strings, thereby allowing you to move the tone up and down as you wish.

Alternate Tunings

Many guitar players use different tunings apart from the standard tuning. Use of nonstandard tunings is rare in classical guitar, but less rare in blues guitar. They are common enough, and their tonal effects interesting enough, that casual and serious guitarists alike may want to try them out.

Most alternate tunings involve downtuning ("dropping") strings. Uptuning the strings is less common, partly because it increases tension on the neck. Strings can even snap if tuned up too high!

A few bands, especially Sonic Youth, are noted for rarely or never using standard tuning.

Drop B (BFbBEGbCb)

Alternatively, you can tune to BGbBEAbDb. This tuning is mostly used by nu-metal bands like Slipknot and some death metal bands. I'm trying to find an Fb on my piano that I can tune to... Any ideas? (Idea: Fb=E)

• • • • • • ANSWER******

You should be tuning to F#, not Fb, for Drop B tuning. Fb is the same a E and E# is the same as F, so if you're tuning to E(Fb), that's actually the 5th of a Drop A tuning(Nile is a good example of this.) So remember, tune to F#, not Fb, that'll set you back a full step on all strings. Now if you tune the 5th string to F and tune other strings to it to the 4th interval, you'll get C Standard tuning(Black Dahlia Murder uses this tuning.) Got any questions about tuning, holla back at skogenburzum@yahoo.com

Dropped D (DADGBE)

The most common alternate tuning is the dropped D (or "drop D") tuning. The lower E string is tuned down to a D. This tuning allows one to play power chords on the fourth, fifth and sixth strings with only one finger, and of course allows for lower bass notes. Used commonly in heavy metal, but also in nearly every other form of guitar music.

Double Dropped D (DADGBD)

Similar to Dropped D above, for this tuning just drop both 'E' strings a full tone. Neil Young often tunes his guitars this way.

DADGAD

DADGAD (pronounced as a word: "DAD-gad"), one of the most versatile tunings, is named after the tuning of its strings. The sixth, second, and first strings are dropped two semitones to D, A, and D. Strumming all the strings open forms a Dsus4 chord; fretting the second fret of the third string (or muting the third string) produces a D5 chord, or D power chord. Most songs for DADGAD are in D major, or in G major with a capo at the fifth fret.

DADADD

This is essentially one huge power chord. Each sting neatly divides the scale in half, and it is easy to make simple patterns, then repeat them anywhere on the fretboard.

Standard E Flat (EbAbDbGbBbeb)

In this tuning, each string is tuned down a half step, or one fret. This is a popular tuning throughout the history of blues and rock, and many modern bands perform with it.

Drop C Tuning CGCFAD

This progressive tuning is primarily used in the metalcore scene. bands such as KSE and As I Lay Dying

New Standard Tuning (CGDAEG)

The tuning, invented and introduced by Robert Fripp of King Crimson, is: C(6th) - G(5th) - D(4th) - A(3rd) - E(2nd) - G(1st).

Basically this tuning is efficient because it utlizie the tuning that is common is a cello (CGDA) , violin, and mandolin (both GDAE), in which it is in fifth, from a low C. The second string is a fourth up from the B to an E, and the first string is a minor third up from the E to a G.

Since the lowest five strings are tuned in fifths, typical fingerings for chords and scales used on the violin, cello, and mandolin are applicable here. The minor third between the top strings allow denser chords in the high range of the scale, and easier access to some elementary chord tones (typically the thirteenth for chords with the root note on the sixth string, and the ninth and flat ninth for chords with the root note on the fifth string, see chord). NST has a greater range than the Old Standard Tuning, approximately a perfect fifth (a major third lower and a minor third higher).

Because NST is also pentatonic in nature (there are no thirds in the open strings if you consider C or G as the root), its natural harmonics also make it easier to tune than the OST which has a major third (which is technically 'out of tune' by definition in a non-equal-tempered instrument such as a guitar) stuck right in the middle of its open strings (G-B). In NST, tuning is possible via the first harmonic rather than the more-awkward second-harmonic tuning which many OST players use to tune their guitars.

Scales across two strings in NST also line up nicely into coherent tetrachords or four-note patterns that have a visually rational relationship (whole and half-tone relationships have a remarkable symmetry that can be easier to learn than the OST whose intervals from 6 to 1 have the (inconsistent) major third thrown in the middle of the scale.

Open Tunings

Open A (EAC#EAE)

Alternatively you could tune the guitar to EAC#EAC#

"Slide" Open A (EAEAC#E)

This tuning is identical to Open G tuning but with every string raised one step, or two frets

Open C (CGCGCE)

Used mostly by Devin Townsend and Strapping Young Lad.

Open D (DADF#AD)

Open D, like all open tunings, produces a major chord (in this case, D major) when all strings are strummed. Drop the sixth, first, and second strings down two semitones, and the third string one semitone. It is also called "DAD-fad" after its notes. Uses the same chord shapes as Open E but is easier on a guitar neck as the strings are detuned lessening the tension.

Chord shapes in Open D

Here are some handy chord shapes:

G/D: (020120) Em7/D: (022120)

Open E (EBEG#BE)

Used by Cat Stevens and a popular choice for slide guitarists. Strumming in the open position yields a Emajor chord. You can easily play any chord by barring across the neck at different fret positions. This does however have some disadvantages; mainly that it is slightly more difficult to play minor chords. Some artists overcome this by tuning to EBEGBE. This allows both minor and major chords to be played easily. Because tightening the strings more than is intended can break the strings or put unneeded stress on the neck, many players opt to tune in Open D and put a capo on the second fret; the result is the same.

Open F (FACFCF)

This tuning is rarely used. It has been used by Jimmy Page in Bron-Y-Aur Stomp.

Open G (DGDGBD)

This is sometimes referred to as "Spanish Tuning", popular with slide guitarists. Tune the 1st and 6th strings down to D, and the 5th string to G. Keith Richards uses this tuning extensively after 1968. (See Brown Sugar, Honky Tonk Women, Start Me Up) He also removes the bottom 1st string because the root of the chord is on the 2nd string in Open G.

External Links

• Wikipedia article: Guitar tuning - Extensive list of tunings
• Wikipedia article: Open Tuning - Soon the content on this page is likely going to be merged into Guitar Tuning, and it will be a disambiguation page. Until then this page features a variety of guitar tunings.
• Guitar Craft - Guitar education in New Standard Tuning, founded by Robert Fripp
• The FraKctured Zone - King Crimson fan resource with some notation and tabs to songs in NST
• http://www.museweb.com/ag/tunings/fm_tunings.html - Alternate Tuning Guide for Contemporary Folk Music

External Links

Guitar Resources

• WholeNote.com On-line guitar community, tabs, reviews, and interactive lessons.
• GuitarWiki.com Wiki based guitar resource with lessons, chord library, music theory, a gear section and tabs.
• Wiki Guitar Wiki Guitar site with tablature, lessons, resources, articles, and forums.

Guitar Lessons

• Free Online Guitar Lessons Free video guitar lessons for kids & adults
• IGDB.co.uk Guitar lessons, chord charts, useful links, and how to set-up your guitar.
• GuitarNationLive.com Learn, play and master your guitar with comprehensive guitar lessons. Topics range from complete beginners to advanced.
• Rhythm-Patterns.narod.ru Sight-reading rhythm patterns, offers rhythmic exercises for guitarists (notes+MIDI)
• Guitar Tuning Tips has information on basic tuning, along with alternative guitar tunings.

Guitar Software and Hardware

• www.power-tab.net Useful guitar tab editor named Powertab that lets you play back the song as MIDI.
• GuitarFX.net Guitar effects software for PC.
• TuxGuitar Open-source tablature editor for Linux, Windows and Mac.

Guitar Tablature & Chords

Tabs

• ClassicalGuitarTabs.com Tabs and guitar forum.
• Guitaretab.com Has a large guitar archive without too many ads.
• Ultimate-guitar.com Over 200,000 guitar tabs, bass tabs and chords. Also features lessons, columns, forums and news updates.
• 911tabs.com A tab database.
• Powertab Archive A collection of tab files for Powertab editor.

Chords

• HowToTuneAGuitar.org Chord Finger Over 1800 guitar chords, organized by type of key. As well 8 Chord Inversions for each chord
• ChordChart.ro Learn to play any song, by learning basic guitar chords
• All-Guitar-Chords.com Comprehensive scale, chord, progression database, with a very good interface. Also includes a jamming machine allowing you to practice with backing tracks.

Authors

This book has no authors other than the public: it is open for anyone and everybody to improve. Therefore, this is more properly a list of acknowledgements of contributors than a list of authors. Whoever we are, this is where we get to brag about our accomplishments in writing this book.

List of major contributors

• Kef Li Eric Marcus X-Schecter is the esoteric pen name of the former primary author of (er, contributor to) this book. He is, in his own words, not entirely qualified to write this book: he is learning as much as the readers are! He plays the electric guitar in the fingerpicking style exclusively, and has written a small number of songs. He currently enjoys writing and transcribing guitar tablature for the Power Tab Archive.

• Sluffs, added chord diagram images to the Chord Reference section

• Daniel made various minor contributions.

• GABaker, who has had a lot trouble tuning cheap guitars, contributed to the section on tuning.

• NickPenguin helped redesign many sections, helped translate content from the German guitar wikibook and created the Guitar template.

• Michael Hoffman explained classic techniques for shaping distortion tones and controlling distortion independently from listening volume, on the Tone and Volume page.

• Meemo created and added much content to the different types of guitars section and added the paragraph on stringing guitars, which seemed important until he read the list of external tutorials...

• Sameer Kale Did a good bit of the Chords section a while ago, started off the Rhythm section, along with adding a few bits to ther places. He doesn't know why such a page as this exists, but does not want to be left out.
• Others (add your name and description if you made a major contribution)

• Various anonymous persons.

License

GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002

Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002  Free Software Foundation, Inc.
51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA  02110-1301  USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

0. PREAMBLE

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10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

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